Chapter 2-3 Operating-System Structure

1. View an OS from several vantage points
   • Services it provides
   • Interface available to users and programmers
   • Components and their interconnections
2. OS services for users
   • User interface
   • Program execution（essential）
   • I/O operation
   • File-system manipulation
   • Communications
   • • Shared memory
     • Message passing

3. • Error detection
   • • Ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user programs
4. OS ensures efficient system operations:
   • Resource allocation
   • Accounting
   • Protection
   • • ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled
5. User operating-system interface
   • Command Interpreter(shells): The main function of the command interpreter is to get and execute the next user-specified command
   • Graphical user interfaces
6. System calls
   • Interface between a running program and the OS
   • 通过陷入（trap）或异处理机构进行系统调用（通过子程序的入口地址表）

• • Methods used to pass parameters betwwn a running program and the OS
  • • In registers
    • Store the parameters in a table in memory, and the table address is passed as a parameter in a register

• • • Stack: push the parameters onto the stack by the program, and pop off the stack by OS

6. System programs: system programs provide a convenient environment for program development and execution
   • File management
   • Status information
   • File modification 
   • Programming language support
   • Program loading and execution
   • Communications
   • Application programs
7. Common system components
   • Process management
   • • A process is a program in execution
     • The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management
     • • Process creation and deletion
       • Process suspension and resumption
       • Provision of mechanisms for
       • • Process synchronization
         • Process communication
       • Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
   • Main memory management
   • • The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with memory management
     • • Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
       • Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available
       • Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed
       • Protection
   • Secondary-storage management
   • • The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with disk management
     • • Free space management
       • Storage allocation
       • Disk scheduling
   • I/O system management
   • File management
   • • The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with file management
     • • File creation and deletion
       • Directory creation and deletion
       • Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
       • Mapping files onto secondary storage
       • File backup on stable(nonvolatile) storage media
   • Protection system
   • • Must:
     • • Distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage
       • Specify the controls to be imposed
       • Provide a means of enforcement
   • Networking
   • • Access to a shared resource allows
     • • Computation speed-up
       • Increased data availability
       • Enhanced reliability
   • Command-Interpreter system
   • • Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements which deal with:
     • • process creation and management
       • I/O handling
       • secondary-storage management
       • main-memory management
       • file-system access
       • protection
       • networking
8. System structure
   • Simple approach
   • • MS-DOS
     • • Not divided into modules
       • Interfaces and levels of functionality are not well separated
     • UNIX
     • • System programs
       • The kernel
     • Layered approach: the bottom layer is the hardware, the highest layer is the user interface. Layers are selected such that each uses functions and services of only lower0level layers
     • • 分层的基本原则：
       • • 每一层都使用其底层所提供的功能和服务，以便于系统调试和验证。
       • 困难
       • • 层次的划分和安排，要保证不出现双向依赖关系
       • The first design used in the OS
       • 优点
       • • 低层和高层可分别实现（便于扩充）；
         • 高层错误不会影响到低层，便于调试、利于功能的增删改；
         • 调用关系清晰（高层对低层单向依赖），避免递归调用，有利于保证设计和实现的正确性
       • 缺点
       • • 系统中所有进程的控制转移、通讯等任务全部交给系统的核心去管理，要花费一定的代价
9. Microkernel
   • 基于微内核结构的OS和传统OS相比的特点
   • • 内核精巧
     • 面向多处理机和分布式系统
     • • 引入线程
     • 基于客户/服务器体系结构
   • 优点：
   • • 易于扩充，易于移植
     • 提高系统的可靠性：
     • 提供多种操作环境
     • 便于实现分布计算：以同样的调用形式，在下层可通过核心中的网络传送到远方服务器上  (RPC, Remote Procedure Call)
   • 缺点：
   • • 消息传递方式增加开销，使响应变慢
10. Virtual machines
    • The operating system creates the illusion of multiple processes, each executing on its own processor with its own (virtual) memory.
    • 实现方式： 分时，共享
    • The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the vitual machines
    • • CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have their own processor
      • Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card reader and virtual line printers
      • A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual machine operator's console
11. System design goals
    • User goals
    • •  Operating system should be convenient to use, easy to learn, reliable, safe and fast
    • System goals
    • • Operating system should be easy to design, implement and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free and efficient
12. Mechanisms and policies
    • The separation of policy from mechanism is a vital principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be changed later
13. System implementation
    • Traditionally written in assembly language, now HLL
    • OS written in HLL
    • • Can be written faster
      • More compact
      • Easier to understand and debug
      • Easier to port(move to some other hardware)