离散数学数理逻辑部分部分稿件loading

数理逻辑

chapter 2 Logic

2.1 Propositions(命题) and logical operations

part 1 propositions

• a statement or proposition is a declarative sentence（陈述句） that is either true or false, but not both.

• special example:

  the temperature on the surface of the planet venus is 900.F
  the sun will come out tomorrow.

  they are propositions.

part 2 logical connectives and compound(复合) statement.

• in logic , the letters p,q,r …denote propositional variables:that is , variable that can be replaced with statements,statements or propositional variables can be combined by logical connectives to obtain compound statements, .
• and :tthe truth value of a compound statements depends only on the truth values of the statements being combined and on the types of connectives being used.

negation:

• the negation of p is the statement not p , denoted by ~p .
• it follows that if p is true, then ~p is flase, if p is false , then ~p is true.
• truth table:table giving the truth values of a compound statement in terms of its compound parts , is called truth table.
• note:
  

  not is not a connective , sice it doesn’t join two statements.
  ~p is not a compound statement.
  however , ~ is a unary operation for the collection of statements and ~p is a statement if p is.

conjunction

• definition:if p and q are statements , the conjunction of p and q is the compound statement “p and q , denoted as the p $\land$ q”.
• and is a binary operation on the set of statements , the compound statement p $\land$ q is true when both p and q are true, otherwise it is false.
• we may join two totally unreleated statements by the connective and.

disjunction

• definition:if p and q are statements , the disjunction of p and q is the compound statement “p or q”, denoted by p $\vee$ q.
• the compound statement is true if p or q is true, it is false when both p and q are false.

truth table

constructed:
1. step1:the first n columns of the table are lableed by the component propositional variables , further columns are included for all intermediate combinations of the variables,culmuinating in a column for the full statement.
2. under each of the first headings , we list the 2ⁿ possible n-tuples of truth values for the n compound statements.
3.for each of the remaining columns, we compute , in sequence, the remaining truth values.

qualifiers

• an element of {x|P(x)} is an object t for which the statement P(t) is true,such a statement P(x) is called a predicate,P(x) is also called a propositional function , because each choice of x produce a proposition P(x) thatt is eitherr true or flase, another use of predicates is in programming, like if(P(x)) , the predicates P(x) are called the guards for the block of programming code, often the guard for a block is a conjunction or disjunction.
• the universal quantification of a predicate $\forall$,means that for all values of x P(x) is true.denoted by $\forall$ x P(x)
• the existial quantification:their exist a value of x for which P(x) is true,denoted by $\exists$.

2.2Conditional Statements

• if p and q are statements , the compound statement “if p then q”, denoted $p \Rightarrow q$, is called a conditional statement , or implication(蕴含)。
• the statement p is called the antecedent(前件) or hypothesis(前提)。and the statement q is called the consequent or conclusion.
• the connective if…then is denoted by the symbol $\Rightarrow$
• $p \Rightarrow q$ the converse $q \Rightarrow p$ and the contrapositive $~q \Rightarrow ~p$

equivalence or biconditional

• if p and q are statements , the compound statement p if and only if q , denoted by $p \Leftrightarrow q$