计算机专业,英文翻译论文

附件1：外文资料翻译译文
视觉皮层对图像结构的迅速适应
James R. Mller, 1* Andrew B. Metha, 1 John Krauskopf, 2 Peter Lennie 1
在短尾猿的纹状表皮上的复杂的细胞显示了一种特别式样的适应。这种适应使得细胞对周围方位的改变更加敏感。这样一来可以减少细胞群基于反应的相互关系，籍此来潜在地增加每次细胞反应所传输地信息量。这些变化由对固定物的短时间的暴露引起的，在时间角度上是有一个固定的时间限制的。因此，如果连续的限制使得神经元的敏感域面向相同的但不独立的图像结构，这种适应将去除细胞间的依赖性并提高视觉-的分辨能力。
1美国罗彻斯特大学视觉科学研究中心大脑与认知科学系
美国纽约州纽约大学神经科学研究中心，华盛顿4区809室
现地址：美国斯坦福大学医学院霍华德修医学研究中心神经生物系。
电邮请至：jim@monkeybiz.stanford.edu
现地址：澳州堪培拉澳大利亚国立大学心理学学院生物心理实验室
现地址：美国纽约州纽约大学神经科学研究中心，华盛顿4区809室
下图1显示了短尾猿的纹状表皮上的复杂的细胞对0.5秒显示的已调到最佳方位的固定光栅的光线刺激的反应，同时我们采取相同的方式用两个探头进行比照，将时间间隔调到1.75秒。这是种彰显脑皮层神经细胞的特征反应的迅速下降，并且我们可以看出这种下降比我们在起初记录到的反应要降的更快，因此它的大部分东西必须和表皮层一起被提出来考虑。由于我们可以从第一个探头（光敏较低）和第二个探头（光敏已恢复）的反应对比可以看出，起先的光栅使得神经细胞脱敏。脱敏并不是由对固定图像的轻微适应而做的变化来实现的。原因如下：首先，一个0.5秒显示的4赫兹光栅是一个作为静止物体的有效的触发机制；第二，如果这种轻微的变化是后来一系列变化的原因的话，我们可以据此推测一个对相反空间相位的探头光栅更加迅速的反应，因为这样可以适应光栅。但实际上是，在复杂生物的细胞内，对于相反的两极来说，调节几乎都是等量地减少。
在图一垂直方向显示了一个复杂的细胞对正弦固定光栅（100％对比度）的光线的反应，同时我们将光栅调至最佳大小，位置，方向和相位。实验细胞并没有做定向选择。图中实线轨迹显示了平均发射速度(以10毫秒为单位时间，40帧地速度来计算);点标记的轨迹显示了平均±1的误差。靠下的轨迹标记了光栅的开始和偏移量。在第一个0.5内光栅的出现使得细胞脱敏，降低了它对200毫秒后的探头的反应。在第二个探头到来时，也就是大约2秒后，细胞的光感能力恢复了。这种定时的光感恢复是用一系列的时域来探测的，这个常数大概是8秒。
  虽然很明显短暂的外在刺激可以带来显著的光感的下降，脑皮层光感的改变在延长适应刺激时间段后已经被大略地研究过了。与之相对应的已知源于表皮层的适应性，被认为是用来调整神经元细胞对当前图像主要对比度等级的敏感度。这样一来就降低了细胞对强光刺激的反应的程度同时也保持了一个神经元细胞在面对各种不同刺激的视觉选择能力。通过对比而获得的适应从而获得控制力被认为是源于细胞群对一系列的幅频和相频调整所产生信号的结果。因此这有别于基于刺激选择的适应，此时敏感度的降低与适应方式一样是损失最多的。在本文中，我们对图一所显示的迅速适应将着重讨论，因为如果敏感度的降低如果是外在刺激的话我们可以着重将重点放在基本的机制上面。
  迅速的，以刺激为重点的适应可能会给我们带来其他意想不到的东西。在给物体定向的大约几百毫秒期间图像时常以近乎不变的形式存在，对一个恒定的外界刺激持续的反应可以说是变相的浪费并且它传递很少的信息。这样一来，在不减少细胞对新刺激的反应力的情况下减少细胞对外界持续刺激的反应是有益的。因为这样可以节省能量并且同时提高细胞对相似的只有一点点差别的刺激区别能力。这样一来可能会对提高视觉分辨率有益。
因此我们在图一中研究了基于迅速适应的刺激选择并且发现在复杂细胞的这种适应是类型选择的这样就使得后续的类型更加容易被区分。
左图二A,B中显示了交错的在不同方向简单自适应的光栅是如何带来光感的方向选择性的损失，这种损失在自适应光栅的的周围是最大的。对方向的适应而不是对初始物的适应导致了在方向调节上的改变，从而远离了自适应的方向。这种改变对于那28个复杂细胞所做的完全的测量来说是十分重要的。（Wilcoxon等级标记测试，P<0.005）这种改变在自适应方向的附近将变得陡峭和更难分辨，从而在实质上提高了神经元细胞的区分方向的能力。我们通过测量神经元细胞是如何在适应前后区分两个在不同方位上的光栅的可靠性来得出的。我们通过在试验中光栅可以被正确识别的百分比来表示分辨率。
图二中（A和B）两个V1复杂细胞在对两个固定光栅适应前后（以实线表示）方位的调整,此时光栅的位置咱相对神经元细胞（开始的那个）适应方位－14° () 或者+14° ()的方向上，图中适应方位用箭头表示。图中偶尔的垂直线段表明了＋1的误差。由于适应减少了反应，它也减少了标准响应误差，在图A中大概减少了30％到50％，在图B中大概达到30％左右。两个光栅分辨率的改变的不同在于细胞对他们其中的一个适应后有14°的方位校正。通常自适应光栅置于适应方位14°的方向而另一个置于适应方位上；此时两个光栅都置于伸进员细胞能够较好接受反应的位置上。测量所用的28个复杂细胞在图上代表一个点，当适应使得分辨率提高时，黑点就掉落在对角线下（28个中的20个），此时适应显著地提高细胞地反应（Wilcoxon等级标记测试，P<0.01），平均可以校正64％到73％。在10个简单细胞中的适应减少了反应度但没有提高细胞的分辨率（10个只有4个提高了）。在描述图A和B时我们使用了度量的手段，在适应类型的偏移量和探头的开始之间的间隔范围在13至215毫秒内浮动。因为有四个细胞不同寻常地或宽或窄地调节，适应刺激的方位在14°上下或者多或者少地被分开了，()表示A中细胞; ()表示B中细胞。
图二C表明对这28个细胞的每一个，适应是如何改变这两个光栅的分辨率的。对那28个细胞中的20个（对角线以下的部分），适应提高了光栅的分辨率。改变从2点起源：第一，在对光栅适应方位的反应将下降而无论其他光栅反应下降与否；第二，反应的种类减少了。简单的细胞各有不同的表现：在我们所研究的10个细胞中，每个都无遗漏地因适应而减少反应力但对方位地选择并不依赖于适应刺激的方位。
  由于对分辨率的提高受到刺激适应周围（在刺激域）的限制，如果装置将相同结构的刺激成功地作用于神经元细胞地感受域，上述装置将变的很有价值。适应也带来其他的好处：通过抑制在神经元细胞刺激域的反应力，适应减少细胞群间对特定刺激反应的相互依赖性，这样一来就增加了每次信息携带的数量。让我们考虑神经元细胞群的敏感力是如何通过适应的改变而转向相似的方位的：左图三A显示了两个复杂细胞在对一个光栅以0°方位角适应前后是如何调节方位的。适应大幅度地降低了这两个神经元细胞对适应方位附近光栅的反应。当多个细胞同时对一个在可视域的特定方位的光栅反应的范围内，敏感度的减少将使得反应变得不那么冗余。
在图三中，适应减少了细胞群对同一适应式样反应之间的关联度，但是我们可以看到不同的最佳方位。图A调整两个复杂细胞在以0°角（以箭头表示）适应前（以实线表示）后(, )的调节曲线。图B中通过对这28个细胞对在适应方位周围不同方向的探头光栅的适应减少了冗余度，这种冗余在当探头靠近适应方位的时候减少的最厉害。测量细胞群中的响应率以此来获得成对细胞间的相互联系是一种度量冗余的理论上有效的手段，它是通过每个方位的外在刺激的可能性来衡量的。图三B显示了对28个复杂细胞来说平均冗余的降低源于不同的方向。这个很显然的表示了冗余在适应方位的周围降低的幅度最大。如果细胞群的反应在统计学上是独立的，它们之间的相关度可能会降低至零，且当外在刺激在适应方位附近的时候它的降低幅度是最大的。自然场景将相似的式样以相近的方位越多可能地展现在复杂细胞面前，适应将越多地减少细胞群反应的冗余度。迅速适应同时也减少简单细胞反应的冗余度，但由于适应并不改变细胞的方位校正，冗余度的减少并不具有方向选择性。快速适应有助于消除由成功辨识的有相似结构的图像所发出信号的相互作用，并且能够提高这些图像的分辨率。在自然图像中，相邻的区域往往有相似的结构。是否存在一种有助于消除相邻空间区域所引发信号的相互作用并能提高这些区域的可分辨率的机制呢？许多V1神经元细胞的感受域被关闭使得视觉刺激单独并不能引起反应，但与此同时却能够有力地缓和由同时作用于感受域而引起的刺激。这些周边区域可能用于使得细胞对于幅频和相频的选择性更加敏感。我们发现包围在感受域周围的光栅在方位选择上与简单设置的适应光栅在感受域的作用效果大致相同。
左图四显示了（对于图二A的神经元细胞）用调整好的对接受域光栅测量的两个方位调整曲线。每条曲线由一个不同方位的周边光栅获得，在与研究适应性相似的条件下进行。一个在与神经元细胞适应方位不同的光栅改变了曲线的形状，减少了对其周边区域的方位敏感度。位置校正曲线在周边光栅的位置附近变得更加陡峭，提高了细胞对方位上不同的区分能力。这个改善由细胞对两个光栅的反应的更大的不同和在绝对发射率提高下更低的变化引起的。
  图四中由图二A而来的方位校正是通过以100％对比度调整到最佳幅频，大小和位置的固定光栅测量的。（顶部）不同的曲线显示了对于单独放置的探头的校正（以实线表示）和对以14° ()或14° ()方向运动的关闭但并不作用于感受域的周边光栅（以箭头表示）的校正。一个单独放置的周边光栅并不能引发反应，但能不对称地抑制它对自己周边区域的敏感度和提高在其他方向的敏感度。（底部）在对探头光栅的改变的反应引起了周边光栅以14°（虚线）和＋14°（点线）方位角的变化。两个相差14°方位角的光栅的分辨率从91％的校正度提高到98％的校正度，在这里22次测量组成了每个点。每次实验持续了2秒钟测试和周边光栅被同时放置了1.25秒；我们测量了开始100毫秒的反应。在控制实验中，探头光栅或周边光栅或两个光栅都没有的情况下，每次实验都在唯一地空间平均照明亮度地条件下进行的。在成功的实验中，不同的式样和控制是随机交错进行的。
  神经元表皮细胞的适应性在以前曾经被讨论过，但是从没有被通过按将细胞暴露的正常的装置分类而产生的简单的固定的刺激物来讨论。我们在这里讨论的在分辨率方面的迅速提升，在装置成功地导致细胞地感受域被暴露在相似结构的图像下将变得尤其有用。目前我们得到的论据在这一点上是可以说明的，虽然是不完全的：相邻的图像域可能有相似的结构，并且其对于特殊大小的图像在自由角度上的分配使其向较小值上倾斜。我们对于后者由感受域周围刺激的相互作用的发现也可以用于提高对作用于细胞感受域上相似刺激的分辨力，这就促使我们想到后者的相互作用是一种对迅速适应的一种补充；两者都减少细胞信号之间的相互关联度，不过一个是在时间上另一个是在空间上。
  很少生理学是基于迅速适应机制的，对于表皮神经元细胞来说其细胞内的记录表明长期适应的主要部分是由超级化而引起的发射行为能力阈值的提高而引起的，但是这个表现的太慢了以至于不能解释我们所发现的敏感度的改变。刺激结合的迅速抑制给我们提供了两个选择。这种简单和复杂细胞不同的行为可以由适应带来的任何在简单细胞内的改变解释，并且一系列的简单细胞接着驱动了一个复杂细胞。
  我们在实验中使用的长期归纳法所研究的适应所带来的感性上的好处并不容易被发现。我们的结果显示了在心里生理学实验中探究对固定刺激的简单适应的后果所带来的更多的好处是值得的。

附件2：外文原文（复印件）
Rapid Adaptation in Visual Cortex to the Structure of Images
James R. Müller, 1* Andrew B. Metha, 1 John Krauskopf, 2 Peter Lennie 1§
Complex cells in striate cortex of macaque showed a rapid pattern-specific adaptation. Adaptation made cells more sensitive to orientation change near the adapting orientation. It reduced correlations among the responses of populations of cells, thereby increasing the information transmitted by each action potential. These changes were brought about by brief exposures to stationary patterns, on the time scale of a single fixation. Thus, if successive fixations expose neurons' receptive fields to images with similar but not identical structure, adaptation will remove correlations and improve discriminability.
1 Center for Visual Science and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA.
2 Center for Neural Science, New York University, 4 Washington Place, Room 809, New York, NY 10003, USA.
*   Present address: Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Neurobiology, Fairchild D209, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5125, USA.

   To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jim@monkeybiz.stanford.edu

   Present address: Psychobiology Laboratory, Division of Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.

§   Present address: Center for Neural Science, New York University, 4 Washington Place, Room 809, New York, NY 10003, USA.

Figure 1 shows the response of a complex cell in striate cortex (V1) to a 0.5-s presentation of a stationary grating of optimal orientation, spatial frequency, phase, and size, followed by the same pattern presented as that of two brief probes of equal contrast, separated by 1.75 s (1). The initial response declined quickly. This decline, which is characteristic of cortical neurons (2), was more rapid than is seen in responses recorded at earlier stages in the visual pathway (3), so a considerable part of it must arise within cortex. The initial grating presentation also left the neuron desensitized, as can be seen by comparing the responses to the first probe (sensitivity was low) and to the second (sensitivity had recovered) (4). Desensitization does not result from light adaptation to the stationary image: First, a 0.5-s presentation of a grating flickering at 4 Hz was as effective an adapter as a stationary one (5); second, were light adaptation the cause of the changes, we would expect an increased response to a probe grating of the opposite spatial phase to the adapting grating. In fact, in complex cells, adaptation almost equally reduced responses to probes of either polarity.

Fig. 1. Responses of a complex cell in V1 to presentations of a stationary sinusoidal grating (100% contrast) of optimal size, position, orientation, and spatial phase. The neuron was not directionally selective. The solid trace shows the mean discharge rate (computed from 40 stimulus presentations, in 10-ms bins), and the dotted traces show the mean ± 1 SEM. The lower trace identifies the times of onset and offset of the grating. The first (0.5 s) presentation of the grating desensitizes the cell, diminishing its response to the probe presented 200 ms later. By the time of the second probe, almost 2 s later, sensitivity has recovered. The time-constant of recovery of sensitivity measured by probing at a range of times (not all shown), was 8 s.
Sensitivity changes in cortical neurons have generally been studied after prolonged periods of adapting stimulation (6), although evidently brief stimuli can quickly bring about significant reductions (Fig. 1) (7). Contrast adaptation, known to originate in cortex (8), is thought to adjust the responsivity of a neuron to the prevailing levels of contrast in the image (9). This prevents saturation of responses to strong stimuli and maintains the visual selectivity of a neuron in the face of variations in stimulus contrast (10). Adaptation by contrast gain control is thought to originate in signals from a pool of neurons tuned to a wide range of orientations and spatial frequencies (11) and is therefore distinguished from stimulus-selective adaptation, in which losses of sensitivity are greatest for stimuli like the adapting one (12). In this context, rapid adaptation as in Fig. 1 is of special interest, for if the loss of sensitivity is stimulus-specific we can place constraints on the properties of the underlying mechanisms.
Rapid, stimulus-specific adaptation would have other important implications. During the course of a fixation lasting perhaps a few hundred milliseconds, the image often remains nearly constant. A persisting response to an unchanging stimulus is metabolically expensive and conveys little information. Reducing the response to the persisting stimulus without diminishing a neuron's capacity to respond to a new one would be beneficial. It would save energy and could also improve the capacity to signal small differences between stimuli. This in turn might support improved perceptual discriminations (13).
We therefore examined the stimulus selectivity of the rapid adaptation in Fig. 1. We found that adaptation in complex cells was pattern-selective and made subsequently presented patterns more discriminable.
Figure 2, A and B, show how interleaved brief presentations of adapting gratings in different orientations brought about orientation-selective losses of sensitivity that were greatest near the orientation of the adapting grating (14). Adaptation to orientations other than the one initially preferred brought about a shift in orientation tuning, away from the adapting orientation. This shift was significant for the 28 complex cells on which complete measurements were made (Wilcoxon signed-ranks test, P < 0.005) (15). The tuning tended to become steeper and less variable in the neighborhood of the adapting orientation, potentially improving the neuron's capacity to discriminate orientation. We explored this by measuring how reliably neurons could distinguish two gratings that differed in orientation before and after a brief period of adaptation. We express discriminability as the percentage of trials on which the gratings could be correctly identified (16).

Fig. 2. (A and B) Orientation tuning of two V1 complex cells, measured with stationary gratings, before (solid line) and after adaptation to each of two stationary gratings, at 14° () or +14° () relative to the neuron's (initial) preferred orientation; adapting orientations are indicated by arrows. Occasional vertical bars show +1 SEM. As adaptation reduced response, it also reduced standard error of response, in (A) by 30 to 50%, in (B) by up to 30%. (C) Change in the discriminability of two gratings differing in orientation by 14°, after adaptation to one of them. Usually the adapting grating lay 14° from, and the other grating at, the preferred orientation; both gratings were always at orientations to which the neuron responded well. Each of the 28 complex cells on which complete measurements were made is represented by a point. When adaptation improves discriminability, points fall below the diagonal (20 of 28 cells). Adaptation improved performance significantly (Wilcoxon signed-ranks test, P < 0.01), on average from 64 to 73% correct. Adaptation in 10 simple cells reduced responsivity without improving discrimination (improved in 4 of 10 cells). Measurements were made as described for (A) and (B); the interval between offset of the adapting pattern and the onset of the probe varied between 13 and 215 ms. For four cells that were unusually narrowly or broadly tuned, the orientations of the adapting stimuli were separated less, or more, than the standard 14°. () The neuron in (A); () the neuron in (B).
Figure 2C shows, for each of these 28 complex cells, how adaptation altered the discriminability of the two gratings. For 20 of 28 cells (those below the solid diagonal), adaptation improved the discriminability of gratings. Improvements arose from two sources: (i) the response to the grating at the adapting orientation fell substantially whereas the response to the other grating fell less or not at all; and (ii) the variability of responses was reduced. Simple cells behaved differently: Adaptation reduced responsivity in all 10 neurons that we studied exhaustively, but orientation selectivity did not depend on the orientation of the adapting stimulus.
Because the improvements in discriminability are confined to the neighborhood (in stimulus space) of the adapting stimulus, they will be valuable if successive fixations place similarly structured stimuli on a neuron's receptive field (17). Adaptation brings other potential benefits: By depressing the responsivity of a neuron locally in stimulus space, adaptation reduces the correlation among the responses of the population of neurons that will respond to a particular stimulus. This will increase the information transmitted by each spike (18). Consider how the responsiveness of a population of neurons tuned to similar orientations changes with adaptation. Figure 3A shows orientation tuning for two complex cells before and after adaptation to a grating with nominal orientation 0°. Adaptation sharply reduced both neurons' responses to gratings near the adapting orientation. Insofar as multiple neurons respond simultaneously to a grating at a particular location in the visual field, reduced responsiveness makes responses less redundant.

Fig. 3. Adaptation reduces the correlation among responses of a population of neurons that all respond to the adapting pattern, but have different preferred orientations. (A) Tuning curves for two complex cells before (solid line) and after (, ) adaptation at orientation 0° (arrow). (B) The reduction brought about by adaptation in the redundancy among responses of a group of 28 complex cells to probe gratings at different orientations around the adapting orientation. Redundancy is most reduced when the orientation of the probe is near the adapting orientation.
A useful information-theoretic measure of redundancy is the pairwise cross-correlation between the response rates of the population of neurons, weighted according to the probability of a stimulus of each orientation (19). Figure 3B shows, for 28 complex cells, the average reduction in redundancy due to each orientation. This makes clear that redundancy is most reduced locally around the adapting orientation. If the responses of the population of neurons were statistically independent, the correlation measure would be reduced to zero. It is most reduced when the orientation of the stimulus is near the adapting orientation. The greater the likelihood that successive fixations of a natural scene present complex cells with patterns of similar orientation, the more adaptation will reduce the redundancy among their responses. Rapid adaptation also reduced the redundancy among responses of simple cells, but because adaptation does not change simple cells' orientation tuning, the reduction in the redundancy is not orientation-selective.
Rapid adaptation helps to remove correlations among, and improves the discriminability of, signals arising from successively viewed images of similar structure. Adjacent regions of natural images tend to have similar structure (20). Do mechanisms also exist to remove correlations between, and improve discriminability of, signals arising from spatially adjacent regions? The receptive fields of many V1 neurons are enclosed by regions in which a visual stimulus alone evokes no response, but can powerfully modulate the response to a concurrently presented stimulus in the receptive field (21). These surrounding regions might act to sharpen the neuron's selectivity for orientation (22) or spatial frequency (23). We found that a grating surrounding the receptive field had much the same effect on orientation selectivity as a briefly presented adapting grating on the receptive field.
Figure 4 shows (for the neuron of Fig. 2A) two orientation tuning curves, measured with gratings well-matched to the receptive field. Each curve was obtained in the presence of a surrounding grating of a different orientation, under conditions formally analogous to those used for studying adaptation. A surrounding grating whose orientation differed from the neuron's preferred orientation changed the shape of the curve, decreasing the sensitivity for orientations near that of the surround and increasing sensitivity to other orientations. The orientation tuning curve became steeper near the orientation of the surrounding grating, improving the neuron's capacity to signal differences in orientation. This improvement resulted from both a greater difference between the responses to the two gratings and, despite increases in absolute discharge rate, lower variance.

Fig. 4. Orientation tuning of the complex cell of Fig. 2A, measured with a stationary grating of optimal spatial frequency, size, and position, at 100% contrast. (Top) Different curves show tuning for the probe grating presented alone (solid curve) and in the presence of a moving surrounding grating oriented at 14° () or 14° () (arrows) that enclosed but did not intrude upon the receptive field. A surround grating presented alone elicited no response, but depressed sensitivity disproportionately for orientations near its own and increased sensitivity at other orientations. (Bottom) The change in response to the probe grating brought about by surround gratings at 14° (dashed line) and +14° (dotted line). The discriminability (16) of two gratings differing in orientation by 14° is increased from 91% correct to 98% correct (28). Twenty-two measurements contributed to each point. In each trial lasting 2 s, test and surround gratings were displayed simultaneously for 1.25 s; we analyzed the initial 100 ms of response. In control trials, the probe grating or the surround grating or both were absent, in which case the appropriate region was uniformly lit at the space average luminance. In successive trials, presentations of the different patterns and controls were randomly interleaved.

Adaptation in cortical neurons has been described before (6-8, 12) but has not been induced with brief, stationary stimulation of the sort to which neurons will be exposed through normal fixations. Rapidly induced improvements in discrimination of the kind we have shown here will be particularly beneficial if successive fixations result in a receptive field being exposed to images of similar structure. Available evidence on this is suggestive, though incomplete: Adjacent regions of images tend to have similar structure (20), and the distribution of saccade sizes in free viewing is skewed toward small values (24). Our finding that lateral interactions arising from stimuli surrounding the receptive field (21-23) can also improve the discriminability of similar stimuli falling on the receptive field, encourages us to think of lateral interaction as a phenomenon that complements rapid adaptation; both remove local correlations from neuronal signals, one in time, the other in space.
Little existing physiology bears upon the mechanism of rapid adaptation. Intracellular recordings from cortical neurons show that a major component of long-term adaptation is a tonic hyperpolarization that raises a neuron's threshold for discharging action potentials (25), but this comes about too slowly to explain the changes in sensitivity that we have found (26). Rapid depression of excitatory synapses (27) provides an attractive alternative account. The different behaviors of simple and complex cells can be accommodated by supposing that whatever changes are brought about by adaptation occur in simple cells, and a group of simple cells in turn drives a complex cell.
Perceptual benefits of adaptation, explored in studies that use long induction times, have not been easy to find (13). Our results suggest that it might be worth looking for larger benefits in psychophysical experiments that probe the aftereffects of very brief adapting exposures to stationary stimuli.

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