Contents
- Introduction
- The
autoKeyword: The Basics - The
autoKeyword: The Rest of the Story - When
autoIs Not a Luxury - The
decltypekeyword: The Basics - How
decltypeDeduces the Type of an Expression: Case 1 - How
decltypeDeduces the Type of an Expression: Case 2 - An Example to Put You on Guard
- Miscellaneous Properties of
decltype - Summary and Epilogue
- Acknowledgments
Introduction
| Most of the language features that were introduced with the C++11 Standard are easy to learn, and the benefit that they provide is quite obvious. Looking at them doesn't make you think, "Oh no, now I'm going to have to learn this." Instead, your immediate reaction is, "Oh great, I've always wanted that." In some cases, like lambdas, the syntax is a bit hairy, but that's of course not much of a problem. For me, the one big exception to all this were rvalue references. I had a really hard time wrapping my head around those. Therefore, I did what I always do when I need to understand something: I scraped up all the information I could get my hands on, then wrote an article on the subject. It turned out that a lot of people were having the same problem, and the article helped quite a few of them. Great, everybody's happy. A while later, sometime in 2012, I noticed that there was another feature, or rather, a pair of features, in C++11 that I had not fully understood, namely, the auto keyword.The
|
Consider the following code snippet: std::vector<int> vect;
// ...
for(
std::vector<int>::const_iterator cit = vect.begin();
cit != vect.end();
++cit
)
{
std::cout << *cit;
}
Perfectly fine, we all write code like this or similar all the time. Now let us consider this instead: std::vector<int> vect;
// ...
for(
std::vector<int>::iterator it = vect.begin();
it != vect.end();
++it
)
{
std::cin >> *it;
}
When writing this code, you should be getting slightly annoyed. The variable it is of the exact same type as the expression vect.begin() with which it is being initialized, and the compiler knows what that type is. Therefore, for us to have to write std::vector<int>::iterator is redundant. The compiler should use this as the default for the type of the variable it. And that is exactly the issue that the auto keyword addresses. In C++11, we can write: std::vector<int> vect;
// ...
for(auto it = vect.begin(); it != vect.end(); ++it)
{
std::cin >> *it;
}
The compiler will use the type of the initializing expression vect.begin(), which isstd::vector<int>::iterator, as the type of the variable it. This sounds easy enough, but it's not quite the full story on |
The auto Keyword: The Rest of the Story
Consider this example of using auto: int x = int(); // x is an int, initialized to 0 assert(x == 0); const int& crx = x; // crx is a const int& that refers to x x = 42; assert(crx == 42 && x == 42); auto something = crx;The crucial question is, what is the type of something? Since the declared type of crx is const int&, and the initializing expression for something is crx, you might think that the type of something is const int&. Not so. It turns out that the type of something is int: assert(something == 42 && crx == 42 && x == 42); // something is not const: something = 43; // something is not a reference to x: assert(something == 43 && crx == 42 && x == 42);Before we discuss the rationale behind this behavior, let us state the exact rules by which autoinfers the type from an initializing expression: |
When auto sets the type of a declared variable from its initializing expression, it proceeds as follows:
|
As you have probably noticed, the rules above look like the ones that function templates use to deduce the type of a template argument from the corresponding function argument. There is actually a small difference: auto can deduce the type std::initializer_list from a C++11-style braced list of values, whereas function template argument deduction cannot. Therefore, you may use the rule "auto works like function template argument deduction" as a first intuition and a mnemonic device, but you need to remember that it is not quite accurate. Continuing with the example above, suppose we pass the template<class T> void foo(T arg); foo(crx);Then the template argument T resolves to int, not to const int&. So for this instantiation of foo, the argument arg is of type int, not const int&. If you want the argument arg of foo to be a const int&, you can achieve that either by specifying the template argument at the call site, like this: foo<const int&>(crx);
or by declaring the function like this: template<class T>
void foo(const T& arg);
The latter option works analogously with auto: const auto& some_other_thing = crx;Now some_other_thing is a const int&, and that is of course true regardless of whether the initializing expression is an int, an int&, a const int, or a const int&. assert(some_other_thing == 42 && crx == 42 && x == 42); some_other_thing = 43; // error, some_other_thing is const x = 43; assert(some_other_thing == 43 && crx == 43 && x == 43);The possibility of adding a reference to the auto keyword as shown in the example above requires a small amendment to auto's const-stripping behavior. Consider this example: const int c = 0;
auto& rc = c;
rc = 44; // error: const qualifier was not removed
If you went strictly by the rules stated earlier, auto drops const and volatile qualifiers only if they're at the top or right below an outermost reference: int x = 42; const int* p1 = &x; auto p2 = p1; *p2 = 43; // error: p2 is const int*Now that we know how auto works, let's discuss the rationale behind the design. There is probably more than one way to argue.Here's my way to see why the behavior is plausible: being a reference is not so much a type characteristic as it is a behavioral characteristic of a variable. The fact that the expression from which I initialize a new variable behaves like a reference does not imply that I want my new variable to behave like a reference as well. Similar reasoning can be applied to constness and volatility1. Therefore, auto does not automatically transfer these characteristics from the initializing expression to my new variable. I have the option to give these characteristics to my new variable, by using syntax like const auto&, but it does not happen by default.
1
It is perhaps worth noting that C++11 does not apply this reasoning to constness and volatility when it comes to closures: when a lambda captures a const local, the copy in the closure is again const. The same is true for volatile.
|
When auto Is Not a Luxury
In the examples that we have seen so far, the use of the auto keyword is a convenience that saves us some unnecessary thinking and typing and makes the code look less cluttered. auto also allows us to do things that aren't possible without it1. This happens whenever you want to declare a variable whose type is the same as the type of some expression that involves templated variables. For example, suppose you're writing a function template with two arguments whose precondition is that the product of the two arguments is defined. Inside the function, you want to declare a variable to hold the product of the two arguments: template<typename T, typename S>
void foo(T lhs, S rhs) {
auto prod = lhs * rhs;
//...
}
In standard C++ prior to C++11, this could not be done at all, because the type of the product is something that the compiler must infer every time the function template is instantiated. For example, if both lhs and rhs are ints, then the type of the product is int. If one of the two is an int and the other is a double, then the int gets promoted to a double, and the type of the product is double. Infinitely many more examples are possible using user-defined types and multiplication operators.
1Strictly speaking,
auto is never really necessary: in theory, it can always be replaced with the more powerful
decltype. For example, the line
auto prod = lhs * rhs;in the code example above could be replaced with decltype(lhs * rhs) prod = lhs * rhs;The latter is clearly less elegant than the former. Moreover, we'll see in the next few sections that the way decltype deduces the type of an expression is different from the way
auto does. If you really wanted to shun
auto altogether and use
decltype instead, you'd have to account for these differences using things like
remove_reference in all the right places. That would become tedious and error-prone.
|
The decltype Keyword: The Basics
Let's take another look at the example of the previous section, where we wrote a function template with two arguments whose precondition was that the product of the two arguments was defined. Inside the function, we declared a variable that could hold the product of the two arguments: template<typename T, typename S>
void foo(T lhs, S rhs) {
auto prod = lhs * rhs;
//...
}
Now suppose that instead of declaring a variable whose type is that of the product of the arguments, we want to make a typedef for that type. Since the compiler knows what the type is, we should be able to do that. Before C++11, there was no official way of doing it. But some compilers had an extension keyword typeof for that purpose: template<typename T, typename S>
void foo(T lhs, S rhs) {
// Pre-C++11 compiler extension, now obsolete
typedef typeof(lhs * rhs) product_type;
//...
}
The purpose of decltype is to provide a standardized version of typeof. Since the result is not identical to the existing compiler extension typeof (and there were probably conflicting versions out there, I'm not sure), the term typeof could not be used. Instead, the previously unused term decltype was chosen. So in C++11, we can now write template<typename T, typename S>
void foo(T lhs, S rhs) {
typedef decltype(lhs * rhs) product_type;
//...
}
Another situation where decltype comes in handy is when we want the return type of a function to be something that needs to be deduced from an expression. For example, let us try and modify the example above in such a way that it returns the product of its arguments. Naively, you would perhaps try this: template<typename T, typename S> // Does not compile: lhs and rhs are not in scope decltype(lhs * rhs) multiply(T lhs, S rhs) { return lhs * rhs; }This won't compile because lhs and rhs are not in scope preceding the function name. To fix this, C++11 introduces what's called the trailing return type syntax: template<typename T, typename S>
auto multiply(T lhs, S rhs) -> decltype(lhs * rhs) {
return lhs * rhs;
}
This will compile and make the type of the product the function's return type. This is nothing to be intimidated by. It's just a bit of syntactic trickery to allow the compiler to grab the type of the expression Note that the keyword When I had gotten this far in my studies of C++11, I was convinced that the following was a true statement, which it is not: <wrong> |
How decltype Deduces the Type of an Expression: Case 1
The way decltype goes about determining the type of an expression is different from what auto does. It is based on a case distinction. There are two cases. The first case is when the expression whose type is to be determined is such that its type can be looked up in the source code. Examples are plain variable names and function calls. In that case, decltype lives up to its name: it determines the type of the expression to be the declared type, that is, the type that we find in the source code at the point of declaration. When I say "find in the source code," that may of course involve going through some levels of indirection, like resolving typedefs or performing template instantiations. But apart from that, we are talking about the situation where the type of the epxression is lexically present in the source code. |
If expr is a is a plain, unparenthesized variable, function parameter, or class member access, then decltype(expr) is the type of that variable, function parameter, or class member as declared in the source code. |
Here are some concrete examples. For each example, we also indicate what auto would do (decltype is blue, auto is green). struct S {
S(){m_x = 42;}
int m_x;
};
int x;
const int cx = 42;
const int& crx = x;
const S foo();
const int& foobar();
const S* p = new S();
std::vector<int> vect = {42, 43, 44};
// x is declared as an int: x_type is int.
//
typedef decltype(x) x_type;
// auto also deduces the type as int: a is an int.
//
auto a = x;
// cx is declared as const int: cx_type is const int.
//
typedef decltype(cx) cx_type;
// auto drops the const qualifier: b is int.
//
auto b = cx;
// crx is declared as const int&: crx_type is const int&.
//
typedef decltype(crx) crx_type;
// auto drops the reference and the const qualifier: c is an int.
//
auto c = crx;
// foo() is declared as returning const S: foo_type is const S.
//
// Note: we had to use the user-defined type S here instead of int,
// because C++ does not allow us to return a basic type as const.
// (Ok, it does allow it, but the const would be ignored.)
//
typedef decltype(foo()) foo_type;
// auto drops the const qualifier: d is an S.
//
auto d = foo();
// foobar() is declared as returning const int&: foobar_type
// is const int&.
//
typedef decltype(foobar()) foobar_type;
// auto drops the reference and the const qualifier: e is an int.
//
auto e = foobar();
// S::m_x is declared as int: m_x_type is int
//
// Note that p->m_x cannot be assigned to. It is effectively
// constant because p is a pointer to const. But decltype goes
// by the declared type, which is int.
//
typedef decltype(p->m_x) m_x_type;
// auto sees that p->m_x is const, but it drops the const
// qualifier. Therefore, f is an int.
//
auto f = p->m_x;
// iterator_type is std::vector<int>::iterator, because
// the begin() method of std::vector<int> is declared to
// have return type std::vector<int>::iterator.
//
typedef decltype(vect.begin()) iterator_type;
// auto also deduces the type as std::vector<int>::iterator,
// so iter has type std::vector<int>::iterator.
//
auto iter = vect.begin();
// first_element has type int&, because std::vector<int>'s
// operator[] is declared to have return type int&.
//
decltype(vect[0]) first_element = vect[0];
// second_element has type int, because auto drops the reference.
//
auto second_element = vect[1];
// The first element of the vector can be modified through the
// reference first_element. The second element cannot be modified
// through second_element, because the latter is not a reference.
//
first_element = 0;
second_element = 0;
assert(vect[0] == 0 && vect[1] == 43);
The last example above is of particular importance, because it shows how an incomplete understanding of the workings of auto and decltype could lead to coding errors that do not show up until runtime. |
How decltype Deduces the Type of an Expression: Case 2
Since decltype's case distinction has only two cases, the second case is "everything else," meaning every expression whose type cannot be looked up in code. This applies to all complex expressions such as x * y. The simplest way to produce such a complex expression is to take something that falls under Case 1 and throw parentheses around it, as in (x), or(vect.begin())1. So what does decltype do with these complex expressions? The exact formulation of the rule uses the terms lvalue, xvalue, and prvalue, so we must make sure we understand those first.The terms xvalue and prvalue define a partitioning of the set of all rvalues into two subsets. Therefore, the first step is to understand the terms lvalue and rvalue. That's actually much more difficult in C++ than it used to be in C. You can find a reasonable working definition in the introduction to my article about rvalue references. So now that we know what lvalues and rvalues are, how is the set of rvalues partitioned into xvalues and prvalues? Here's the definition:
decltype deduces the type of a complex expression. |
Let expr be a complex expression, that is, an expression whose type cannot be looked up in the source code. Let T be the type of expr. If expr is an lvalue, then decltype(expr) is T&. If expr is an xvalue, then decltype(expr) is T&&. Otherwise, expr is a prvalue, and decltype(expr) is T. |
As you can see, this differs significantly from the way auto works, and it also differs from the way decltype works for simple expressions. The examples below illustrate these differences. Let us begin by going through the list of simple expressions that we used in the previous section for Case 1 of struct S {
S(){m_x = 42;}
int m_x;
};
int x;
const int cx = 42;
const int& crx = x;
const S foo();
const int& foobar();
const S* p = new S();
std::vector<int> vect = {42, 43, 44};
// (x) has type int, and decltype adds references to lvalues.
// Therefore, x_with_parens_type is int&.
//
typedef decltype((x)) x_with_parens_type;
// x is declared as an int: x_type is int.
//
typedef decltype(x) x_type;
// auto also deduces the type as int: a_p and a are ints.
//
auto a_p = (x);
auto a = x;
// The type of (cx) is const int. Since (cx) is an lvalue,
// decltype adds a reference to that: cx_with_parens_type
// is const int&.
//
typedef decltype((cx)) cx_with_parens_type;
// cx is declared as const int: cx_type is const int.
//
typedef decltype(cx) cx_type;
// auto drops the const qualifier: b_p and b are ints.
//
auto b_p = (cx);
auto b = cx;
// The type of (crx) is const int&, and it is an lvalue.
// decltype adds a reference, but that makes no difference
// in this case. Hence, crx_with_parens_type is const int&.
//
typedef decltype((crx)) crx_with_parens_type;
// crx is declared as const int&: crx_type is const int&.
//
typedef decltype(crx) crx_type;
// auto drops the reference and the const qualifier: c_p and c
// are ints.
//
auto c_p = (crx);
auto c = crx;
// foo() is declared as returning const S. The type of (foo())
// is const S. Since (foo()) is a prvalue, decltype does not
// add a reference. Therefore, foo_with_parens_type is const S.
//
// Note: we had to use the user-defined type S here instead of int,
// because C++ does not allow us to return a basic type as const.
// (Ok, it does allow it, but the const would be ignored).
//
typedef decltype((foo())) foo_with_parens_type;
// foo() is declared as returning const S: foo_type is const S.
typedef decltype(foo()) foo_type;
// auto drops the const qualifier: d_p and d are S's.
//
auto d_p = (foo());
auto d = foo();
// The type of (foobar()) is const int&. Since (foobar()) is
// an lvalue, decltype adds a reference, but that makes no
// difference. Therefore, foobar_with_parens_type is const
// int&.
//
typedef decltype((foobar())) foobar_with_parens_type;
// foobar() is declared as returning const int&: foobar_type
// is const int&.
//
typedef decltype(foobar()) foobar_type;
// auto drops the reference and the const qualifier: e_p and e
// are ints.
//
auto e_p = (foobar());
auto e = foobar();
// S::m_x is declared as int. Since p is a pointer to const,
// the type of (p->m_x) is const int. Since (p->m_x) is an
// lvalue, decltype adds a reference to that. Therefore,
// m_x_with_parens_type is const int&.
//
typedef decltype((p->m_x)) m_x_with_parens_type;
// S::m_x is declared as int: m_x_type is int.
//
typedef decltype(p->m_x) m_x_type;
// auto sees that p->m_x is const, but it drops the const
// qualifier. Therefore, f_p and f are ints.
//
auto f_p = (p->m_x);
auto f = p->m_x;
// The type of (vect.begin()) is std::vector<int>::iterator.
// Since (vect.begin()) is a prvalue, no reference
// is added. Therefore, iterator_with_parens_type is
// std::vector<int>::iterator.
//
typedef decltype((vect.begin())) iterator_with_parens_type;
// iterator_type is std::vector<int>::iterator, because
// the the begin() method of std::vector<int> is declared
// to have return type std::vector<int>::iterator.
//
typedef decltype(vect.begin()) iterator_type;
// auto also deduces the type as std::vector<int>::iterator,
// so iter_p and iter have type std::vector<int>::iterator.
//
auto iter_p = (vect.begin());
auto iter = vect.begin();
// std::vector<int>'s operator[] is declared to have return
// type int&. Therefore, the type of the expression (vect[0])
// is int&. Since (vect[0]) is an lvalue, decltype adds a
// reference, but that makes no difference. Therefore,
// first_element has type int&.
//
decltype((vect[0])) first_element = vect[0];
// second_element has type int&, because std::vector<int>'s
// operator[] is declared to have return type int&.
//
decltype(vect[0]) second_element = vect[1];
// third_element_p and third_element have type int, because
// auto drops the reference.
//
auto third_element_p = (vect[2]);
auto third_element = vect[2];
Now let's do some examples of expressions that really are complex, in the sense that they involve operators. int x = 0; int y = 0; const int cx = 42; const int cy = 43; double d1 = 3.14; double d2 = 2.72; // The type of the product is int, and the product // is a prvalue. Therefore, prod_xy_type is an int. // typedef decltype(x * y) prod_xy_type; // auto also deduces the type as int: a is an int. // auto a = x * y; // The type of the product is int (not const int!), // and the product is a prvalue. Therefore, prod_cxcy_type // is an int. // typedef decltype(cx * cy) prod_cxcy_type; // same for auto: b is an int. // auto b = cx * cy; // The type of the expresson is double, and the expression // is an lvalue. Therefore, a reference is added, and // cond_type is double&. // typedef decltype(d1 < d2 ? d1 : d2) cond_type; // The type of the expression is double, so c is a double. // auto c = d1 < d2 ? d1 : d2; // The type of the expresson is double. The expression // is a prvalue, because in order to accomodate the // promotion of x to a double, a temporary has to be // created. Therefore, no reference is added, and // cond_type_mixed is double. // typedef decltype(x < d2 ? x : d2) cond_type_mixed; // The type of the expression is double, so d is a double. // auto d = x < d2 ? x : d2;Note that in the last example, you couldn't have just written auto c = std:min(x, dbl); // error: ambiguous template parameterbecause std::min requires its arguments to be of the same type. More on that in the next section.
1If it puzzles you that there is a difference between
x and
(x) in this context, remember that the case distinction that
decltype makes is strictly about syntax and grammar. When the compiler parses
x and
(x), it falls into two different branches of execution:
x is an identifier, and
(x) is an expression in parentheses. Alternatively, apply this simple test: can you look up the type of
x in your source code by locating its declaration? Yes. Can you look up the type of
(x) in your source code by locating its declaration? No.
|
An Example to Put You on Guard
Taking our cue from one of the examples of the previous section, let us assume that we're working on some numerical computations using floating point arithmetic, and we frequently need the min and max of two numbers that may come in as different types, such as int and double. This precludes the direct use of std::min, since the latter requires its arguments to be of the same type: int i = 42; double d = 42.1; auto a = std::min(i, d); // error: ambiguous template parameterIf we wanted to use std::min, we would have to write auto a = std::min(static_cast<double>(i), d); This gets old pretty quickly, especially in a day and age where we want even our C++ code to look like Python. So rather naturally, we would want a version of min and max functions is not a good idea. Instead, we should aim for something that is meant to be used for our specific purpose only. We probably already have a bunch of utilities in a namespace called something like floating_point_utilities. Now we want to put functions fpmin and fpmax in there that allow us to write using namespace floating_point_utilities; auto a = fpmin(i, d); Since the new functions are in our own namespace, we could of course call them The generic functions decltype, you may end up writing the following, and you would not be the first one to do so: <horrible> template<typename T, typename S> auto fpmin(T x, S y) -> decltype(x < y ? x : y) { return x < y ? x : y; } </horrible>According to our discussion in the previous section, the type decltype(x < y ? x : y)
may or may not be a reference. If the types of T and S are the same, then it is a reference. If they are a mixture like int and double, it is not. In the former case, our fpmin function as defined above returns a reference to a local variable (a parameter in this case). You will probably agree that returning a reference to a local variable or a temporary ranks high among the worst and most embarrassing things a C++ programmer can do. Depending on the circumstances, it may or may not be caught via a compiler warning. Here's the correct version of fpmin: // Min function intended for basic numeric types. The arguments
// may be of different type, in which case the one with lower
// precision gets promoted.
//
template<typename T, typename S>
auto fpmin(T x, S y) ->
typename std::remove_reference<decltype(x < y ? x : y)>::type {
return x < y ? x : y;
}
Now is a good time to tell you, as I promised earlier, why I am not a big fan of the use of the lexical token auto in the trailing return type syntax, as seen above on our fpmin function. As we know by now, the way that the other auto, the one that is used when declaring and initializing a variable, deduces the type of an expression is substantially different from the way decltype works. In the context of trailing return type syntax, only decltype matters. Perhaps I'm overly sensitive, but the use of the lexical token auto in this context leads my mind astray, towards the reference-dropping semantics of the other auto. That mental association is dangerous, as evidenced by the fpmin example. |
Miscellaneous Properties of decltype
An important property of decltype is that its operand never gets evaluated. For example, you can use an out-of-bounds element access to a vector as the operand of decltype with impunity: std::vector<int> vect; assert(vect.empty()); typedef decltype(vect[0]) integer;Another property of decltype that is worth pointing out is that when decltype(expr) is the name of a plain user defined type (not a reference or pointer, not a basic or function type), then decltype(expr) is also a class name. This means that you can access nested types directly: template<typename R>
class SomeFunctor {
public:
typedef R result_type;
result_type operator()() {
return R();
}
SomeFunctor(){}
};
SomeFunctor<int> func;
typedef decltype(func)::result_type integer; // access nested type
You can even use decltype(expr) to specify a base class: auto foo = [](){return 42;};
class DerivedFunctor : public decltype(foo)
{
public:
MyFunctor(): decltype(foo)(foo) {}
// ...
}; |
Summary and Epilogue
We have learned that C++11 has three different ways of making the type of an expression available to the programmer:
If you focus on the the way references are treated in the above, you see that At the end of Section 3, I gave you what I think is a plausible explanation of the rationale behind the semantics of The above way of looking at auto foo([...]) -> decltype(expr) {
[...]
return expr;
}
where expr could be any expression. Moreover, if expr is an lvalue and is not local to the function, they want to return a reference, so the returned expression can be assigned to. This is particularly important if the function foo is some kind of forwarding function. For that to always work properly, there is really no choice but to give decltype that reference-adding semantics.The following example, which was provided by Stephan Lavavej, demonstrates that: template <typename T>
auto array_access(T& array, size_t pos) -> decltype(array[pos]) {
return array[pos];
}
std::vector<int> vect = {42, 43, 44};
int* p = &vect[0];
array_access(vect, 2) = 45;
array_access(p, 2) = 46;
The last line, where the pointer p is used to access the element, could not be made to work without having decltype add a reference: the type of p[2] is int, any way you turn it. There is no reference in sight here. But p[2] is an lvalue, and by letting decltype add references to lvalues, we can get the desired effect. All this comes with a caveat: the reference that decltype adds is not always what you want. It happens frequently that you need to remove it with remove_reference. We saw an example of that in Section 8.Here are some links to articles on auto and decltype that you may find helpful:
|
Acknowledgments
| I wish to thank Scott Meyers for taking the time to read the first draft of this article and helping me with many valuable suggestions and corrections. Dilip Ranganathan, with his curiosity, enthusiasm, and attention to detail, has been a great help in more ways than I can remember. All remaining deficiencies are mine. |
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