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gnu linux

GNU Linux (GNU Linux)

GNU / Linux is a free Unix-type operating system (or Unix-like), incorporating elements of the Linux kernel with the GNU system and other software developed and distributed under GNU GPL or other free licenses. Linux is actually the name of the kernel developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991 that integrated with components already created by the GNU project (gcc, glibc and other utilities) and other software projects, has been used as basis for the implementation of open source operating systems and distributions that are usually identified with the same name.

GNU / Linux是一种免费的Unix类型的操作系统(或类似Unix的操作系统)，它将Linux内核的元素与GNU系统以及根据GNU GPL或其他免费许可开发和分发的其他软件结合在一起。 Linux实际上是Linus Torvalds在1991年开发的内核的名称，该内核与GNU项目已经创建的组件(gcc，glibc和其他实用程序)以及其他软件项目集成在一起，已被用作实现开源操作系统的基础。和通常使用相同名称标识的发行版。

According to Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project, and according to the Free Software Foundation, the term Linux (without the prefix “GNU /”) for the entire operating system is wrong, because the name is attributable to the Linux kernel and system only, structured components from the original GNU project, should more properly be called GNU / Linux. According to others, and second the use of most users and developers and companies involved in developing the operating system and software linked to the name Linux has now become synonymous with “Linux based” system that is based on Linux kernel.

根据GNU项目的创始人Richard Stallman和自由软件基金会的说法，整个操作系统的术语Linux(不带前缀“ GNU /”)是错误的，因为该名称可归因于Linux内核和系统。只是，原始GNU项目中的结构化组件应该更恰当地称为GNU / Linux。根据其他人的说法，其次，大多数参与开发与Linux链接的操作系统和软件的用户，开发人员和公司的使用现在已成为基于Linux内核的“基于Linux”系统的同义词。

Well known use servers, Linux is supported by companies like IBM, Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, Red Hat and Novell and is used as the operating system on a variety of hardware, from desktops to supercomputers, to embedded systems such as mobile phones or PDAs, and netbooks.

众所周知，使用服务器的Linux得到IBM，Sun Microsystems，Hewlett-Packard，Red Hat和Novell等公司的支持，并被用作各种硬件的操作系统，从台式机到超级计算机，再到嵌入式系统，例如手机或PDA和上网本。

Although it is not indispensable for this purpose, the operating system is also commonly used to run Apache, MySQL and PHP, the software behind the majority of web servers worldwide. The initials of these three projects, together with the initial of the word Linux, have given the acronym LAMP.

尽管对于此目的不是必不可少的，但该操作系统也通常用于运行Apache，MySQL和PHP，这是全球大多数Web服务器背后的软件。这三个项目的首字母加上Linux的首字母缩写LAMP。

With the evolution of desktop environments like KDE and GNOME, this system offers a graphical interface similar to Windows or Mac OS X closer to the needs of novice users, making the transition from one system to another less traumatic.

随着诸如KDE和GNOME之类的桌面环境的发展，该系统提供了类似于Windows或Mac OS X的图形界面，更接近新手用户的需求，从而使从一个系统过渡到另一个系统所需的时间更少。

Linux历史 (Linux History )

Start

开始

Linux kernel comes to life in 1991 as the young Finnish student Linus Torvalds, who, fond of programming, was unhappy with the Minix operating system (Unix-like operating system for the teaching, written by Andrew Tanenbaum, professor of systems to network ‘ University of Amsterdam), bad because it supports the new i386 architecture to 32 bits, then both economic and popular. So Linus decided to create a Unix kernel in order to enjoy and study the operation of its new computer, which was just one 80386.

Linux内核于1991年问世，当时年轻的芬兰学生Linus Torvalds对编程非常满意，他对Minix操作系统(用于教学的类Unix操作系统，由网络系统大学的教授Andrew Tanenbaum撰写的内容感到不满意)的缺点)，因为它支持新的i386架构至32位，因此既经济又受欢迎。因此，Linus决定创建一个Unix内核，以便欣赏和研究其新计算机的运行，该计算机只是一台80386。

Initially, Linux (an operating system kernel-based programmed by Linus) used to run in addition to the kernel Linus, Minix userspace. Later, Linus decided to make the system independent of Minix, partly because it enjoyed the license that made him freely used for educational purposes only, and decided then to replace that part of the operating system software with the GNU project. To do this, Linus had to change and adopt the GPL license, which also considered good for its operating system regardless of the GNU software itself. And so the license changed to GPL.

最初，除了内核Linus Minix用户空间之外，还运行Linux(Linus基于内核的操作系统)。后来，Linus决定使该系统独立于Minix，部分原因是它获得了使他只能自由用于教育目的的许可，并决定随后用GNU项目替换该操作系统软件的这一部分。为此，Linus必须更改并采用GPL许可证，无论GNU软件本身如何，该许可证也被认为对其操作系统有利。因此，许可证更改为GPL。

Linux initially was a simple terminal emulator in C and assembly, and did not need to rely on an operating system. The terminal emulator up and run two threads: one to send signals to the serial port, one to receive them, then when Ben needed to read and write files to disk, this emulator was extended so that it could handle a file system. Slowly, this program became a full kernel can handle an operating system and Linus started to read up on the POSIX specification, asking for assistance on the newsgroup. The first version of the Linux kernel, 0.01, was published on the Internet September 17, 1991 and the second in October of that year.

Linux最初是使用C和汇编语言编写的简单终端仿真器，不需要依赖操作系统。终端仿真器启动并运行两个线程：一个将信号发送到串行端口，一个接收信号，然后Ben需要在磁盘上读写文件时，对该仿真器进行了扩展，以便可以处理文件系统。慢慢地，该程序成为可以处理操作系统的完整内核，Linus开始阅读POSIX规范，要求新闻组提供帮助。 Linux内核的第一个版本0.01发布于1991年9月17日，第二年是10月。

Torvalds Freax preferred to call the kernel that was working but Ari Lemke, assistant to the Helsinki University of Technology who had offered FTP space for the project (ftp.funet.fi) preferred to assign the alternative name subdirectory dedicated processing Linux.

Torvalds Freax更喜欢调用正在运行的内核，但赫尔辛基工业大学的助手Ari Lemke则为该项目分配了FTP空间(ftp.funet.fi)，他更愿意分配专用于处理Linux的替代名称子目录。

12:01 Since version could compile and run the GNU Bash shell. Up to version 0.10 was required to configure a computer running Minix, compile and install Linux because it used the filesystem of the system on which he leaned; 0:11 version could be filled by Linux itself. Soon Linux systems surpassed Minix in terms of functionality: Torvalds and other developers in the first hour of their adapted Linux kernel because it works with GNU components and user-space programs to create a complete operating system, fully functional and free.

12:01因为该版本可以编译并运行GNU Bash shell。配置运行Minix的计算机，编译和安装Linux所需的版本最高为0.10，因为它使用了他依赖的系统文件系统。 Linux本身可以填充0:11版本。很快，Linux系统就功能而言超过了Minix：在适应Linux内核的第一个小时，Torvalds和其他开发人员就因为它与GNU组件和用户空间程序协同工作，以创建功能齐全且免费的完整操作系统。

Linux和网络 (Linux and network)

In the spring of 1992, the hackers managed to make it executable Orest Zborowski X Server version 0.12 on Linux. To do this, Orest had to implement the whole structure of the Unix domain socket essential to X Window, and then a first level socket on which was later built across the network infrastructure to Linux.

在1992年Spring，黑客设法使其在Linux上可以执行Orest Zborowski X Server版本0.12。为此，Orest必须实现X Window必不可少的Unix域套接字的整个结构，然后实现一个第一级套接字，随后在整个网络基础结构上将其构建到Linux。

In fact, everything was basted in a somewhat ‘chaotic and it was not well integrated into the kernel, but Linus accepted the patch anyway because it could be used with X, and use this infrastructure to provide the Linux network stack. Enthusiastic about the news, Linus released after the release 0.13, the 0.95 version, thinking of all the security problems that the network would entail. To overcome the lightness in the two years that elapsed from 0.95 to 1.0, Linus had to use either an additional number to indicate the patch level is the alphabet (up to version 0.99.15Z, 0.99 patchlevel 15 º, Z review).

实际上，所有内容都处于某种“混乱”状态，并且没有很好地集成到内核中，但是Linus仍然接受了该补丁程序，因为它可以与X一起使用，并使用此基础结构来提供Linux网络堆栈。热衷于此消息的是，Linus在发布0.13(0.95版)之后发布了版本，考虑了网络将带来的所有安全问题。为了克服从0.95到1.0的两年中的亮度问题，Linus必须使用其他数字来表示色标级别是字母(最高版本0.99.15Z，0.99色标级别15º，Z复审)。

Version 1.0

版本1.0

On 14 March 1994, the 16th level was 0.99 Linux kernel patch 1.0. Linus Torvalds was the same for the first stable version at the University of Helsinki.

1994年3月14日，第16级是0.99 Linux内核补丁1.0。赫尔辛基大学的第一个稳定版的Linus Torvalds是相同的。

Today

今天

Today, Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel, while other parts of the system such as GNU components are developed separately. The task of providing an integrated system that combines all the basic components with graphical user interfaces (such as GNOME or KDE, which in turn are based on the presence of the X Window System) and application software is now carried out distributions. In 1996 he was chosen as the official Linux penguin logo designed by Larry Ewing and it was named TUX as an abbreviation for Unix Torvalds, other sources say the case of combining a Tuxedo, a term that indicates the U.S. smoking, referring to black and white livery of the Penguins (which is indeed most commonly compared to its appearance in evening dress, the term tuxedo, though with different meanings in different countries, never refers).

今天，Torvalds继续指导内核的开发，而系统的其他部分(例如GNU组件)则是单独开发的。现在，分发提供了将所有基本组件与图形用户界面(例如GNOME或KDE，它们又基于X Window系统的存在)相结合的集成系统的任务。 1996年，他被拉里·尤因(Larry Ewing)设计为官方的Linux企鹅徽标，并被命名为TUX，是Unix Torvalds的缩写。其他消息人士称，结合使用燕尾服(Tuxedo)(一种表示美国吸烟的术语)是指黑色和白色。企鹅的制服(实际上，与晚礼服的外观相比，燕尾服这个术语虽然在不同的国家具有不同的含义，但从未提及)。

Linux is mostly used as a server in production environments, or in embedded devices (PVR, mobile etc.). And has a discrete distribution in desktop environment (about ‘1% of PCs). Even the initial widespread on netbooks has given way to Windows XP, although mantenenedo share penetration significantly higher than those of desktops / notebooks.

Linux通常在生产环境或嵌入式设备(PVR，移动设备等)中用作服务器。并且在台式机环境中具有离散分布(约占PC的'1％)。尽管mantenenedo的普及率明显高于台式机/笔记本电脑，但即使最初在上网本上广泛使用，也已被Windows XP取代。

As for the actual kernel, Torvalds said in September 2009 that it has become too “fat” rather than fast and sharp than when he had planned. Recognizes, however, felt that this “fat” can not be seen as a bad thing because it means that Linux has much more compatibility than ever before.

至于实际的内核，Torvalds在2009年9月说过，它变得“胖”，而不是比他计划时要快而尖锐。然而，认识到这一“胖”并不算是一件坏事，因为这意味着Linux具有比以往更大的兼容性。

Linux的名字 (The name Linux)

The name Linux, despite axon between the name of policy and that the system (Linus Unix), is explained by Ari Lemke, the director who first made Linux available on the Internet via FTP. In particular, Linux was the directory name in which files reside the new operating system. The name was chosen by Freax Torvalds, a combination of “free”, “freak” and “x” to indicate the characteristic of a Unix-like system.

尽管策略名称与系统名称(Linus Unix)之间存在轴突，但Linux的名称由导演Ari Lemke解释，他首先通过FTP在Internet上提供了Linux。特别是，Linux是新操作系统所在文件的目录名称。名称由Freax Torvalds选择，它是“ free”，“ freak”和“ x”的组合，以表示类Unix系统的特性。

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