Walt Whitman at Pfaff 's Beer Cellar: America's Bohemian poet and the contexts of Calamus【翻译】

ABSTRACT
Focusing on the three-year period from 1859 to 1862 during which the poet Walt
Whitman frequented Pfaff’s Beer Cellar on Broadway in New York, this dissertation
examines how the barroom and its unique clientele shaped the poet’s life and writings.
This project demonstrates that Pfaff’s functioned as an American saloon and a popular
salon and argues that the communities of beer cellar regulars Whitman joined there made
Pfaff’s the most significant social and literary space of his career.
Whitman’s participation in two social and intellectual communities at Pfaff’s was
vital to his literary production before and during the Civil War. While Whitman prepared
the 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass for publication, he joined a group of writers and
artists at the beer cellar—a group now recognized as the first American Bohemians.
Later, he became a central figure in the “Fred Gray Association,” a little-known group of
young Pfaffians. This dissertation shows that Whitman’s membership in the Bohemian
coterie influenced his writing and revision of his homoerotic Calamus poems, first
published in Leaves of Grass (1860). It also reveals that Whitman’s time with the Fred
Gray members served as a foreground for his volunteer work in Washington’s wartime
hospitals, where he not only attempted to recreate the beer cellar environment as best he
could under terrible conditions, but he also continued to practice the theories of affection
he put forth in Calamus.
By studying Whitman’s years at Pfaff’s through an interdisciplinary approach that
draws on methodologies ranging from cultural studies and literary history to gender and
sexuality studies, this dissertation makes significant contributions to several fields of
literary study. In addition to offering a fuller understanding of Whitman’s literary
production at Pfaff’s, it contributes to biographical studies of the poet by drawing
connections between his personal and professional transitions from temperance writer to
bar-hopping Bohemian, and, finally, from a Pfaffian poet to a hospital volunteer. This
2
study also adds to the history of sexuality by places Whitman’s Calamus poems, which
are counted among his most sexually radical, in the context of nineteenth-century debates
concerning gender and sexuality. It also explores the counter-cultural communities that
formed at Pfaff’s and illuminates how Whitman’s writing is intertwined with the space of
the barroom and his relationships to its inhabitants. Finally, this dissertation illustrates
how underground networks respond to the larger social and cultural milieus that they
both exist within and position themselves against.
Abstract Approved: ____________________________________
Thesis Supervisor
____________________________________
Title and Department
____________________________________
Date
WALT WHITMAN AT PFAFF’S BEER CELLAR:
AMERICA’S BOHEMIAN POET AND THE CONTEXTS OF CALAMUS
by
Stephanie Michelle Blalock
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the Doctor of
Philosophy degree in English
in the Graduate College of
The University of Iowa
July 2011
Thesis Supervisor: Professor Ed Folsom
Copyright by
STEPHANIE MICHELLE BLALOCK
2011
All Rights Reserved
Graduate College
The University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
_______________________
PH.D. THESIS
_______________
This is to certify that the Ph.D. thesis of
Stephanie Michelle Blalock
has been approved by the Examining Committee
for the thesis requirement for the Doctor of Philosophy
degree in English at the July 2011 graduation.
Thesis Committee: ___________________________________
Ed Folsom, Thesis Supervisor
___________________________________
Kathleen Diffley
___________________________________
Harry Stecopoulos
___________________________________
Bluford Adams
___________________________________
Kimberley Marra
ii
To Mom, Dad, and Joseph
iii
“It will be a relief to the reading public when the last survivor of the Pfaff set of
Bohemians dies. The amount of nonsense written about that lot of graceless bummers
would fill volumes, and the pity is that there is a general idea that they were really
geniuses. Was there one who wrote a single line that has lasted until now in literature?”
Unsigned, “Our New York Letter,” The Galveston Daily News, May 5, 1885
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the generosity of The University of Iowa Graduate
College whose excellent support, in the form of a Presidential Fellowship as well as
thoughtful and encouraging administration and staff, laid the foundation for the
production of this work.
I would like to thank the administrators and staff of the University of Iowa
Library’s Interlibrary Loan and Special Collections Departments who helped me to locate
and/or allowed me access to many of the materials used in writing this project.
I would also like to acknowledge the support of a wonderful group of graduate
colleagues and friends, Adam Bradford, Eric Conrad, Blake Bronson-Bartlett, Jennifer
McGovern, and Eve Rosenbaum as well as an outstanding dissertation committee,
Kathleen Diffley, Bluford Adams, Harry Stecopoulos, and Kimberley Marra, who have
provided helpful advice and encouragement.
I would especially like to acknowledge the assistance of Ed Folsom, director of
this dissertation, whose encouragement, mentoring, suggestions for revision, and patience
have made this project possible.
I would like to thank my parents; they have worked hard and made innumerable
sacrifices for me and for my education. They have always supported and encouraged my
academic interests.
And, finally, I will be forever grateful for the love and generosity of my own
favorite comrade—my best friend forever—Joseph Rodriguez. We celebrated every
graduate school milestone, together. Through it all, he never stopped believing in me,
nor will I ever lose faith in him.
v
ABSTRACT
Focusing on the three-year period from 1859 to 1862 during which the poet Walt
Whitman frequented Pfaff’s Beer Cellar on Broadway in New York, this dissertation
examines how the barroom and its unique clientele shaped the poet’s life and writings.
This project demonstrates that Pfaff’s functioned as an American saloon and a popular
salon and argues that the communities of beer cellar regulars Whitman joined there made
Pfaff’s the most significant social and literary space of his career.
Whitman’s participation in two social and intellectual communities at Pfaff’s was
vital to his literary production before and during the Civil War. While Whitman prepared
the 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass for publication, he joined a group of writers and
artists at the beer cellar—a group now recognized as the first American Bohemians.
Later, he became a central figure in the “Fred Gray Association,” a little-known group of
young Pfaffians. This dissertation shows that Whitman’s membership in the Bohemian
coterie influenced his writing and revision of his homoerotic Calamus poems, first
published in Leaves of Grass (1860). It also reveals that Whitman’s time with the Fred
Gray members served as a foreground for his volunteer work in Washington’s wartime
hospitals, where he not only attempted to recreate the beer cellar environment as best he
could under terrible conditions, but he also continued to practice the theories of affection
he put forth in Calamus.
By studying Whitman’s years at Pfaff’s through an interdisciplinary approach that
draws on methodologies ranging from cultural studies and literary history to gender and
sexuality studies, this dissertation makes significant contributions to several fields of
literary study. In addition to offering a fuller understanding of Whitman’s literary
production at Pfaff’s, it contributes to biographical studies of the poet by drawing
connections between his personal and professional transitions from temperance writer to
bar-hopping Bohemian, and, finally, from a Pfaffian poet to a hospital volunteer. This
vi
study also adds to the history of sexuality by places Whitman’s Calamus poems, which
are counted among his most sexually radical, in the context of nineteenth-century debates
concerning gender and sexuality. It also explores the counter-cultural communities that
formed at Pfaff’s and illuminates how Whitman’s writing is intertwined with the space of
the barroom and his relationships to its inhabitants. Finally, this dissertation illustrates
how underground networks respond to the larger social and cultural milieus that they
both exist within and position themselves against.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ix
INTRODUCTION: “I AM NOT WHAT YOU SUPPOSED, BUT FAR
DIFFERENT”: A TALE OF MANY WALT WHITMANS 1
Whitman, Pfaff’s, and Leaves of Grass (1860) in the Twentieth and
Twenty-First Centuries 8
CHAPTER
I. EPISTEMOLOGY OF A NEW YORK BARROOM: WALT
WHITMAN FROM TEMPERANCE WRITER TO PFAFF’S
REGULAR 22
“The Drinkingness of Those Years:” Walter Whitman and the
Washingtonian Temperance Movement 24
“Oh fatal pleasure!”: Eroticism and (Un)Happy Marriages in Franklin
Evans 36
When a Cigar is Not Just a Cigar: Male-Male Love and the Alternative
Family in “The Child’s Champion” 42
Walt Whitman’s Taverns: Sanctuaries for Sexual Experimentation and
Non-Marital Relation(ship)s 48
Foreshadowing Pfaff’s: The Tavern and the Formation of a Male Social
Club in “The Boy Lover” 58
The Road to Pfaff’s: Walt Whitman Goes to the New York Saloons 65
II. PFAFF’S SALO(O)N: THE FIRST AMERICAN BOHEMIANS AND
WALT WHITMAN’S CALAMUS 71
Whitman and the Brooklyn Daily Times: The Poet Before Pfaff’s 75
“Could we ever exhaust the amusement of Broadway?”: Walt Whitman
Goes to Pfaff’s 81
Charles Pfaff’s Restaurant and Lager Bier Saloon: A History 86
Long Live the King of Bohemia: Henry Clapp, Jr. Discovers Pfaff’s 93
Creating Bohemia in New York 99
A Convention of “Odd-fishes”: Walt Whitman Among the American
Bohemians 108
Abandon Propriety All Ye Who Enter Here: Gender and Sexuality at
Pfaff’s 111
“Plainly on Exhibition”: Fashioning Whitman’s Bohemian Identity at
Pfaff’s 136
Walt Whitman and the King and Queen of Bohemia 152
“A gay, easy, free, loose, but not ungood life:” Walt Whitman and Ada
Clare 162
Whitman’s Sexually Radical Poetry: The Making of Enfans d’Adam
and Calamus at Pfaff’s 166
The Women of Bohemia and Whitman’s Enfans d’Adam 168
From “Live Oak, with Moss” to the Calamus Cluster 171
Walt Whitman and/in The New-York Saturday Press 177
viii
The Roots of Calamus: Walt Whitman’s Sexual Experiment and its
Pfaffian Contexts 185
Walt Whitman, Bohemian Poet?: The Reception of the 1860 Edition of
Leaves of Grass 194
The Dissolution of the First American Bohemia 198
III. REM’BER THE FRED GRAY ASSOCIATION: WALT WHITMAN
AND THE MAKING OF A CALAMUS COMMUNITY AT PFAFF’S 202
Whitman’s Pfaffian Memories 207
(Re)Collecting the Fred Gray Association 211
Reconsidering the Fred Gray Association 222
“What I meant by Calamus”: From Fred Vaughan to the Fred Gray
Association 228
The Fred Gray Association and the Practice of Calamus Affection 238
Walt Whitman and “the Vault at Pfaff’s” 251
IV. HEALING BY ASSOCIATION: WALT WHTIMAN AND THE
BEER CELLAR BROUGHT TO THE HOSPITAL 264
The Hospital at the Beer Cellar; The Beer Cellar at the Hospital 265
Walt Whitman and the Beer Cellar in the Washington Hospitals 278
Healing by Associaiton: Building a “City of Friends” at the Hospital 287
CONCLUSION: “AND THE LIVING PASS OVER THEM”: WALT WHITMAN
AND THE PFAFFIANS FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT 301
Beyond the Wards: Whitman’s Calamus Experiment Outside the Civil
War Hospitals 302
The End of America’s First Bohemians 305
Pfaff’s After the Bohemian Coterie 308
A Memory Book of the Fred Gray Association 312
APPENDIX A. APPENDIX OF IMAGES 317
APPENDIX B. ADVERTISEMENTS FOR PFAFF’S 354
APPENDIX C. A PFAFF’S CHRONOLOGY 366
WORKS CITED 369
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure A1. “An Image from Levi’s commercial ‘America’” 318
Figure A2. Walt Whitman Cigar Box “Blades O’ Grass” 319
Figure A3. Walt Whitman Cigars, “a poetic comfort” 320
Figure A4. Product Label for Bottles of “Old Walt
Smoked Wit Beer” 321
Figure A5. Label for the Philadelphia Brewing Company’s
“Walt Wit” Beer Bottles (2009) 322
Figure A6. Advertisement for Old Crow Whiskey, Featuring
Walt Whitman 323
Figure A7. Walt Whitman Antique Rum Bottle 324
Figure A8. “Broadway in 1840 Between Grand and Howard St.” 325
Figure A9. “Broadway, New York, By Gaslight (1856)” 326
Figure A10. Interior View of a Broadway, New York,
Refreshment Saloon 327
Figure A11. “Taylor’s Saloon (1859)” 328
Figure A12. “Thompson’s Saloon (1859)” 329
Figure A13. “The Drinking Saloon [in Broadway]” 330
Figure A14. No. 647 Broadway, New York 331
Figure A15. Pfaff’s Beer Cellar 332
Figure A16. Henry Clapp, Jr., King of Bohemia and the
editor of The New-York Saturday Press 333
Figure A17. Fitz-James O’Brien 334
Figure A18. Ada Clare “Queen of Bohemia” 335
Figure A19. “The Meeting With Whitman” 336
Figure A20. Pfaff’s as a Literary Salon 337
Figure A21. Pfaff’s as a Saloon 338
Figure A22. “At the Café,” a poem by Thomas Bailey Aldrich 339
x
Figure A23. A caricature of Walt Whitman and the opening lines of
Fitz-James O’Brien’s poem “Counter-Jumps. A
Poemettina—After Walt Whitman” 340
Figure A24. “Cartoon of La Menken [Adah Isaacs Menken]
in the Show Windows Forty Years Ago” 341
Figure A25. Walt Whitman: Frontispiece Portrait
Leaves of Grass (1860) 342
Figure A26. “George Arnold at Pfaff’s—Fac-simile of a Caricature
by Himself” 343
Figure A27. Ada Clare and her son, Aubrey 344
Figure A28. “Acorus Calamus. (Calamus—Sweet Flag)” 345
Figure A29. Walt Whitman in his upstairs bedroom in
Camden in 1891 346
Figure A30. Hugo Fritsch: Walt Whitman’s Friend and Fellow Fred Gray
Member 347
Figure A31. Broadway Hospital (New York Hospital) 348
Figure A32. Whitman’s notes on “Chester H. Lilly,” a sick
and wound Civil War soldier 349
Figure A33. Whitman’s reminder to bring “some brandy”
for wounded soldiers in Washington, D. C. 350
Figure A34. Whitman’s reminder to “come in & read” to wounded soldiers
and to bring the paper for a soldier “sick with fever” in
Washington D. C. 351
Figure A35. “Ward K, Armory Square Hospital,
Washington, D. C., [August 1865]” 352
Figure A36. “Henry Clapp from the Portrait by Marshall” 353
Figure B1. Advertisement for “Pfaff’s Restaurant and
Lager Bier Saloon” (No. 647 Broadway) 355
Figure B2. Advertisement for Food and Drink at “Pfaff’s
Restaurant and Lager Bier Saloon” at No. 647 Broadway 356
Figure B3. Obverse view of “Ches. Pfaff’s” Civil War Token 357
Figure B4. Reverse view of “Ches. Pfaff’s” Civil War Token 357
Figure B5. Advertisement for “Charles Pfaff’s Restaurant”
at No. 647 Broadway 358
Figure B6. Advertisement for “Pfaff’s!” at No. 653 Broadway 359
xi
Figure B7. Advertisement for “Chas. Pfaff’s Restaurant and
Dining Rooms” at No. 653 Broadway 360
Figure B8. Advertisement for “C. Pfaff’s Restaurant”
at 9 West 24th Street in German 361
Figure B9. Advertisement for “Charles Pfaff’s Great French
Restaurant” at 9 West 24th Street in French 362
Figure B10. Advertisement for “Chas. Pfaff’s Restaurant”
at 9 West 24th Street” 363
Figure B11. Advertisement for “C. Pfaff’s Restaurant and
Furnished Rooms to Let” at 9 W. 24th Street 364
Figure B12. Business Card for “Pfaff’s Hôtel, Restaurant, and Café”
at 9 West 24th Street 365

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