Roles and Subroles | Other Common Names | Definition |
CAUSAL-AGENT |
| the object that caused the event |
AGENT |
| intentional causation |
INSTR |
| force/tool used in causing the event |
THEME | PATIENT | the thing affected by the event |
EXPERIENCER |
| the person involved in perception or a physical/psychological state |
BENEFICIARY |
| the person for whom an act is done |
AT |
| the state/value on some dimension |
AT-LOC | LOCATION | current location |
AT-POSS | POSSESSOR | current possessor |
AT-VALUE |
| current value |
AT-TIME |
| current time |
TO |
| final value in a state change |
TO-LOC | DESTINATION | final location |
TO-POSS | RECIPIENT | final possessor |
TO-VALUE |
| final value |
FROM |
| original value in a state change |
FROM-LOC | SOURCE | original location |
FROM-POSS |
| original possessor |
FROM-VALUE |
| original value |
PATH |
| path over which something travels |
CO-AGENT |
| secondary agent in an action |
CO-THEME |
| secondary theme in an exchange |
Figure 8.5 Some possible semantic roles
This possibility will not be pursued further, however, since it leads into many issues not relevant to the remainder of this chapter.
Figure 8.5 provides a summary of most of the roles distinguished thus far and the hierarchical relationships between them.
As you've seen, verbs can be classified by the thematic roles that they require. To classify them precisely, however, you must make a distinction between roles that are "intimately" related to the verb and those that are not. For example, almost any past tense verb allows an AT-TIME role realized by the adverb "yesterday". Thus this role is apparently more a property of verb phrases in general than a property of any individual verb. However, other roles – namely, those realized by constituents for which the verb subcategorizes - seem to be properties of the verb. For example, the verb "put" subcategorizes for a PP, and furthermore, this PP must realize the TO-LOC role. In verb classification this latter type of role is important, and these roles are called the inner roles of the verb.
The preceding examples suggest one test for determining whether a given role is an inner role for a given verb: if the role is obligatory, it is an inner role. Other inner roles, however, appear to be optional, so other tests are also needed. Another test is based on the observation that all verbs may take at most one NP in
[Allen 1995: Chapter 8 – Semantics and Logical Form / 249]
any given inner role. If multiple NPs are needed, they must be related by a conjunction. Thus you can say
John and I ran to the store.
but not
* John I ran to the store.
Similarly, you can say
I ran to the store and to the bank.
but not
* I ran to the store to the bank.
Thus the AGENT and TO-LOC roles for the verb run are inner roles.
Verbs typically specify up to three inner roles, at least one of which must always be realized in any sentence using the verb. Sometimes a particular role must always be present (for example, TO-LOC with put). Typically, the THEME role is also obligatory, whereas the AGENT role is always optional for any verb that allows the passive form.
There are also syntactic restrictions on how various roles can be realized. Figure 8.6 shows a sample of ways that roles can be realized in different sentences.
The following are some sample sentences with each verb in italics and its argument, whether NP, PP. or embedded 5, classified by its role in order of occurrence:
| Jack ran. | AGENT only |
| Jack ran with a crutch. | AGENT + INSTR |
| Jack ran with a crutch for Susan. | AGENT + INSTR + BENEFICIARY |
| Jack destroyed the car. | AGENT + THEME |
| Jack put the car through the wall. | AGENT + THEME + PATH |
| Jack sold Henry the car. | AGENT + TO-POSS + THEME |
| Henry pushed the car from Jack's house to the junkyard. | AGENT + THEME + FROM-LOC + TO-LOC |
| Jack is tall. | THEME |
| Henry believes that Jack is tall. | EXPERIENCER + THEME |
| Susan owns a car. | AT-POSS + THEME |
| I am in the closet. | THEME + AT-LOC |
| The ice melted. | THEME |
| Jack enjoyed the play. | EXPERIENCER + THEME |
| The ball rolled down the hill to the water. | THEME + PATH + TO-LOC |
[Allen 1995: Chapter 8 – Semantics and Logical Form / 250]
Role | Realization |
AGENT | as subject in active sentences |
| preposition by in passive sentences |
THEME | as object of transitive verbs |
| s subject of nonaction verbs |
INSTR | as subject in active sentences with no agent preposition with |
EXPERIENCER | as animate subject in active sentences with no agent |
BENEFICIARY | as indirect object with transitive verbs preposition for |
AT-LOC | prepositions in, on, beyond, etc.
|
AT-POSS | possessive NP |
| as subject of sentence if no agent |
TO-LOC | prepositions to, into |
TO-POSS | preposition to, indirect object with certain verbs |
FROM-LOC | prepositions from, out of, etc. |
FROM-POSS | preposition from |