索引

Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, t indicate tables and b indicate boxes.

A

A* algorithm  199–201, 200f, 202–205b

Absolute sensors  207

Ackermann steering mechanism  24–26, 25f

Active markers  241, 251

Adaptive and Generic Accelerated Segment Test (AGAST)  277

Aerial mobile systems  4

Artificial markers  269–270, 276, 276f, 277f

Autonomous guided vehicles (AGVs) 

transportation vehicles 

control  392

decision making  392

localization and mapping  390–391

path planning  392

sensors  389–390

wheeled mobile system 

in agriculture  393–398

in domestic environments  403–410

in industry  399–403

in walking rehabilitation therapy  410–416

Autonomous mobile systems 

aerial mobile systems  4

applications  6–7

commands  5

future aspects  7

ground mobile systems  4

history of  7–9

mechanical and electronic parts  6

properties  6

water and underwater mobile systems  4

B

Ball motion  454, 455f

Bayesian filter 

environment sensing  320–325

localization 

in environment  332–337

principle  318–320

Markov chains  304, 304f, 305f

motion, in environment  326–332

state estimation  297–299b, 304–318, 306b

Bayesian theorem  312

Bayes’ rule  295–296b, 295–299

Behavior-based agent operation  458–459

Belief  313–314, 430, 432f

Bicycle drive kinematics  20–23, 21f

Binary images  268–269, 269f, 271–273

Breadth-first search algorithm  193–194, 193f

Bridge test  185–186, 186f

Brockett’s condition  91–92

Bug0 algorithm  187, 187f, 190–191b

Bug1 algorithm  188–189, 188f

Bug2 algorithm  189–192, 189f

C

Cascade control schemas  61–62

Cathetus  75

Chow’s theorem  44

Closed list  192–193

Closed-loop transfer function  63–65

Collision detection methods  180–181

Color sensor calibration  443–444

Conditional probability  291, 295–296b, 313–314

Configuration space  163–164

Continuous random variable  290–295, 292f, 293t

Control algorithm 

for differentially driven robot  85–87b, 87f

for differential type robot  73–74b, 74f, 76–78b, 77f, 78f

phases  72, 76

reference pose 

intermediate direction  75–78, 75f

intermediate point  72–74, 72f

to reference path control  83–87, 84f

on segmented continuous path, by line and circle arc  78–83, 79f

for tricycle robot  68–69b, 69f

Control error  63

Controllability  44–47

Controller gains  102–103

Coordinate frame transformations 

orientation and rotation  208–217

projective geometry  221–230

rotating frames  219–221

translation and rotation  217–218

Cost-to-goal  199

Covariance matrix  259–260, 347–348, 375

D

DCM  See Direction cosine matrix (DCM)

Dead reckoning  17–18, 231–239

inertial navigation system  232–239

odometry  231–232

Decomposing control 

feedback action  91–94

feedforward  91–94

Decomposition to cells 

accurate decomposition  167–168, 167f

approximate decomposition  168–172, 168f, 169f

Delaunay triangulation  176, 176b, 177f

Depth-first search algorithm  194, 195f

Differential drive kinematics  15–20, 16f

parallel parking maneuver  37–38b, 38f

reachable velocities and motion constraints  36b

Differentially driven wheeled mobile robot 

PDC control of  125

Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy error model of  122–124

Dijkstra’s algorithm  195–198, 198f

Directed graph  166, 166f

Direction cosine matrix (DCM)  208–209, 211–212, 220–221

Direct kinematics  14, 17–18

Discrete probability distribution  291, 292f

Discrete random variable  290–291, 292f, 293, 293t

Distribution 

definition  35

involutive  36

Dynamic constraints  32–33

Dynamic environment  161–162

Dynamic models  13, 56b

E

Environment sensing  320–325

Epipolar constraint  224–225

Essential matrix  224–225

Estimate convergence and bias  300–301

Euclidean distance  188, 188f, 189

Euler angles  209–210

Euler integration method  421–423

Extended Kalman filter (EKF)  351–374

External kinematic model  232

Exteroception (EC)  285t, 287

Exteroceptive sensors  286

F

Feedback action  91–94

Feedback control part  61

Feedback linearization  94–99, 97f

control law  94, 96

differentially driven vehicle  97–99b, 99f

flat outputs  94

for reference tracking  96, 97f

reference trajectory  95–96

state-space representation  95–96

translational velocity  95–96

Feedforward  91–94

Feedforward control part  61, 79

Flat outputs  92–93

Forward-motion control 

control algorithm  68–69b, 68

reference point  67

translational velocity  66–67

Four-state error model  117–122

Frequency spectrum  300

Frobenious theorem  39

Fundamental matrix  224–225

Future reference error  127–128

G

Gaussian function  293–294

Gaussian noise  351

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS)  389, 390f, 392, 396, 396f, 433

GNSS  See Global navigation satellite system (GNSS)

GNSS signal receiver  389, 390f, 391

Goalie motion control  457–458, 457f

Graph-based path planning methods 

A* algorithm  199–201, 200f

breadth-first search algorithm  193–194, 193f

depth-first search algorithm  194, 195f

Dijkstra’s algorithm  195–198, 198f

greedy best-first search algorithm  201–205, 202f

iterative deepening depth-first search  194–195, 196f

Greedy best-first search algorithm  201–205, 202f

Ground mobile systems  4

H

Heading measurement systems  239–240

Hidden Markov process  304, 304f, 305f

Histogram filter  375

Holonomic constraints  32–34

Hough transform  265–268, 267f

Hue-saturation-lightness (HSL)  270–271

Hue-saturation-value (HSV)  270–271, 271f

I

Image-based visual servoing (IBVS)  465–466

Image features, camera  268–282

Inertial navigation system (INS)  232–239

motion sensors  232–233

pose error  233

rotation sensors  232–233

self-contained technique  232–233

signal-to-noise ratio  233

unit angular rate  233–234

Information filter  375

Informed algorithms  193

Infrared light sensor  420–421

line-following and crossroad-detection  421, 422f

INS  See Inertial navigation system (INS)

Instantaneous center of rotation (ICR)  14

Internal camera model  222–223

Internal kinematic model  13–14, 231–232

Inverse kinematics  14, 17–20

Iterative deepening depth-first search  194–195, 196f

J

Jacobian matrix  352–353, 436–439

Joint probability  290

K

Kalman-Bucy filter  375

Kalman filter  234–235, 337–375, 339–340b

algorithm  343, 343b

continuous variable, probability distribution of  338f

correction covariance matrix  348

correction step  338, 343–344

derivatives  374–375

extended  351–374

Gaussian function  338

Gaussian noise  346

for linear system  346–347

in matrix form  345–351

prediction step of  342–344

state estimation  337

updated state variance  341–342

Kalman observability matrix  303

Kinematic constraints  32–33

Kinematic model  13

Ackermann steering principle  24–26, 25f

bicycle drive  20–23, 21f

differential drive  15–20, 16f

direct kinematics  14, 17–18

external kinematics  14

instantaneous center of rotation (ICR)  14

internal kinematics  13–14

inverse kinematics  14, 17–20

motion constraints  14

omnidirectional drive  27–31

synchronous drive  26–27, 26f

tracked drive  31–32

tricycle drive  23, 23f

tricycle with a trailer  23–24, 24f

Kinematic trajectory-tracking error model  100–101, 100f

L

Laser range finder (LRF)  254–255

Laser range scanner (LIDAR)  389–390, 390f

Least squares method  254

Lie brackets  36

Lie derivative operator  302–303

Linear controller  101–105, 103–105b, 104f

Linear formation, vehicle control 

laser range finder (LRF)  447–448

localization, using odometry  448–449

reference trajectory estimation  449–451, 450f

vehicle path  447–448, 448f

virtual train formation  447

Linear matrix inequality (LMI)  122

Line-extraction algorithms  254

Line following algorithm  420–421, 422f

Localization  332

algorithm  318–319

Bayesian filter 

line following  420–421, 422f

map building  423–426, 424f, 425f, 425t

odometry  421–423, 424f

in environment  332–337

extended Kalman filter (EKF) 

correction step  438–439

global navigation satellite system (GNSS)  433

prediction step  435–438

particle-filter-based 

colored tiles  440–447

color sensor calibration  443–444, 444f

evolution of  445, 445f

manual control  442

ultrasonic distance sensors  467–471, 467f

wheel odometry  442–443

Local weak observability  302–303

Locomotion  13

LRF  See Laser range finder (LRF)

Lyapunov-based control design  105–122

four-state error model  117–122

periodic control law design  112–117

stability 

control design in  106–112

Lyapunov functions  106, 113

Lyapunov stability  106

control design in  106–112

M

Machine vision algorithms  279–280

Manhattan distance  199–200

Manual control  442

Map building method  423–426, 424f, 425f, 425t

Maps  282–283

Markov chains  304, 304f, 305f

Maximally Stable Extremal Regions (MSER)  277–278

Memory usage  168–169

Mobile  2–3

Mobile robot 

color sensor, mounting of  440–441, 441f

image-based control of 

image-based visual servoing (IBVS)  465–466

natural image features  466

position-based visual servoing (PBVS)  463–465

path planning of 

A* path searching algorithm  472–475, 473f, 474f, 475f

distance transform, visualization of  479–480, 480f

optimum path, in map  475–481, 478f, 479f

Model-based predictive control (MPC)  125–132, 130–132b, 130f, 131f

Motion 

constraints 

controllability  44–47

dynamic constraints  32–33

holonomic constraints  32–34

integrability  35

kinematic constraints  32–33

lie bracket  35–44

nonholonomic constraints  32–35

vector fields and distribution  35–44

control 

attacker  453–455, 454f

straight accelerated kick  455–457, 456f

in environment  326–332

sensors  232–233

Motion models 

constraints 

controllability  44–47

dynamic constraints  32–33

holonomic constraints  32–34

integrability  35

kinematic constraints  32–33

Lie bracket  35–44

nonholonomic constraints  32–35

vector fields and distribution  35–44

dynamic models  13

dynamic motion model with constraints 

differential drive vehicle  51–58

Lagrange formulation  48

meaning of matrices  48, 49t

state-space representation  49–50

kinematic model 

Ackermann steering principle  24–26, 25f

bicycle drive  20–23, 21f

differential drive  15–20, 16f

direct kinematics  14, 17–18

external kinematics  14

instantaneous center of rotation (ICR)  14

internal kinematics  13–14

inverse kinematics  14, 17–20

motion constraints  14

omnidirectional drive  27–31

synchronous drive  26–27, 26f

tracked drive  31–32

tricycle drive  23, 23f

tricycle with a trailer  23–24, 24f

two-wheeled cart  13, 14f

MPC  See Model-based predictive control (MPC)

Multiagent game strategy  459–460, 461f, 462f

Multiagent soccer robots 

attacker motion control  453–455, 454f, 455f

behavior-based agent operation  458–459

goalie motion control  457–458, 457f

multiagent game strategy  459–460, 461f, 462f

obstacle avoidance  458

setup  452, 453f

straight accelerated kick motion control  455–457, 456f

Multiview geometry  224–228

N

Natural local image features  269–270

Nodes 

direct path shapes  425–426, 425f, 427f, 429f

ending  423–425, 425t

paths in  423–425, 425t

start  194, 197

Noise linearization  352

Noise modeling  439

Nondeterministic events, in mobile systems 

Bayesian filter 

environment sensing  320–325

localization, in environment  332–337

localization principle  318–320

Markov chains  304, 304f, 305f

motion, in environment  326–332

state estimation  304–318

Kalman filter 

derivatives  374–375

extended  351–374

in matrix form  345–351

particle filter  375–386, 378f

probability 

Bayes’ rule  295–299

continuous random variable  291–295, 292f, 293t

discrete random variable  290–291, 292f, 293t

state estimation 

disturbances and noise  299–300

estimate convergence and bias  300–301

observability  301–303

Nonholonomic constraints  32–35, 61, 63, 92–93

Noninformed algorithms  193

Nonlinear tracking error model  123–124

Normal distribution  293–294, 294f

O

Objective function  132–133

Observability  301–303

analysis  358, 359f, 368f

rank condition  302–303

Obstacle avoidance  458

Occupancy grid  168

Odometry  17–18, 231–232, 421–423, 424f

drifting  443

Omnidirectional drive 

four-wheel Mecanum drive  28–30

Mecanum wheel or Swedish wheel  27–28, 27f

three-wheel Mecanum drive  30–31, 31f

Open list  192

Optimal velocity profile estimation  148–157, 152–155b

friction force  148–149

radial acceleration  148–150

reference path  148

reference trajectory  151

tangential acceleration  148–150

velocity profile  148

Orientation and rotation 

Euler angles  209–210

quaternions  210–217

Orientation control  63–66

for Ackermann drive  65–66

for differential drive  63–65

Orientation error  65–66

P

Parallel distributed compensation (PDC)  122

Parallel projection  221

Parameterization  210

Particle filter  375–386, 379–382b, 383–384b, 444–447

algorithm  376–377b, 376

Bayesian filter  375

in correction part  377, 378f

evolution of  445, 445f

Gaussian probability distribution  377

in prediction part  377

probability distribution  376

Particle measurement prediction 

from known robot motion  468

sensor model for  468–470, 469f

Particle swarm optimization-based control (PSO)  132–141, 134–137b, 137f, 138–141b, 242–243, 244f

code  133–134b, 133

model predictive control (MPC)  138–141

Path planning 

cells, decomposition to  166–172, 166f, 168f, 169f

configuration and configuration space  163–164, 164f

graph-based path planning methods 

A* algorithm  199–201, 200f

breadth-first search algorithm  193–194, 193f

depth-first search algorithm  194, 195f

Dijkstra’s algorithm  195–198, 198f

greedy best-first search algorithm  201–205, 202f

iterative deepening depth-first search  194–195, 196f

graph representation  166, 166f

obstacle shape and pose, in environment  164–165, 165f

potential field method  177–180, 178f

roadmap 

triangulation  176–177, 177f

visibility graph  172–173, 173f

Voronoi graph  173–176, 173f, 174f

robot environment  161–162, 162f

sampling-based path-planning 

probabilistic roadmap (PRM)  184–186, 184f, 185f

rapidly exploring random tree (RRT)  182f, 182–184, 183f

simple path planning algorithms 

Bug0 algorithm  187, 187f

Bug1 algorithm  188–189, 188f

Bug2 algorithm  189–192, 189f

Periodic control law design  112–117

Pinhole camera model  222–223, 222f

Pole placement approach  102–103

Pose error  233

Pose measurement methods 

active markers measurement  240–252

dead reckoning  231–239

environmental features, navigation using  253–282

global position measurement  240–252

heading measurement systems  239–240

maps  282–283

Position-based visual servoing (PBVS)  463–465

Posterior state probability distributions  324, 325f

Posture error  100–101, 100f

Potential field method  177–180, 178f, 179b

Probabilistic roadmap (PRM)  184–186, 184f, 185f, 186b

learning phase  184–185, 184f

path searching phase  184f, 185

Probability 

Bayes’ rule  295–299

continuous random variable  291–295, 292f, 293t

discrete random variable  290–291, 292f, 293t

Probability density function  291–292, 292f

Probability distribution  326–328b, 305

Projective geometry  221–230

3D reconstruction  228–230

internal camera model  222–223

multiview geometry  224–228

parallel projection  221

perspective projection  221

pinhole camera model  222–223, 222f

singular cases  228

Proportional controller  85

Proprioception (PC)  285t, 287

Proprioceptive sensors  286

PSO  See Particle swarm optimization-based control (PSO)

Q

Quaternions  210–217, 219–220

R

Radio-controlled electrical boat  3, 3f

Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) method  280–282

Rapidly exploring random tree (RRT)  182–184, 182f, 183b, 183f

Reference orientation  84–85

Reference pose, control to 

forward-motion control  66–70

intermediate direction, using an  75–78, 75f

intermediate point, using an  72–74, 72f

orientation control 

for Ackermann drive  65–66

for differential drive  63–65

reference path control  83–87, 84f

reference position  70–71

segmented continuous path, by line and circle arc  78–83, 79f

Reference trajectory  126

estimation  449–451, 450f

Relative sensors  207

RGB color model  270–271, 271f

Roadmap 

triangulation  176–177, 177f

visibility graph  172–173, 173f

Voronoi graph  173–176, 173f, 174f

Robot(s)  1–2

Robot environment 

configuration  163–164, 164f

configuration space  163–164, 164f

free space  161–162

obstacles  161–162, 162f

border-based description of  165, 165f

intersecting half-planes  165, 165f

path planning purposes 

cells, decomposition to  166–172, 167f, 168f

graph representation  166, 166f

potential field  177–180, 178f

roadmap  172–177, 173f, 174f

sampling-based path-planning  180–186, 181f

start and goal configurations  161–163, 162f

Robot kidnapping  447

Robot soccer test bed  452, 453f

Robot-tracking prediction-error vector  128

Rossum’s Universal Robots (R.U.R.)  1

Rotation matrix 

Matlab implementations 

rotX function  226–228b, 237

rotY function  226–228b, 237

rotZ function  237

orientation and rotation  208–217

translation and rotation  217–218

Rotation sensors  232–233

RRT  See Rapidly exploring random tree (RRT)

S

Sampling-based path-planning 

probabilistic roadmap (PRM)  184–186, 184f, 185f

rapidly exploring random tree (RRT)  182–184, 182f, 183f

Scale invariant feature transform (SIFT)  277

Self-contained technique  232–233

Sensors  289

absolute sensors  207

characteristics  284–286

classifications  286–287

coordinate frame transformations 

orientation and rotation  208–217

projection  221–230

rotating frames  219–221

translation and rotation  217–218

pose measurement methods 

active markers and global position measurement  240–252

dead reckoning  231–239

features  253–282

heading measurement systems  239–240

maps  282–283

relative sensors  207

Signal distribution  300

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)  233

Simple path planning algorithms 

Bug0 algorithm  187, 187f

Bug1 algorithm  188–189, 188f

Bug2 algorithm  189–192, 189f

Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)  253

Smooth time-invariant feedback  91–92

Speeded-Up Robust Features (SURF)  277

Speedup algorithms  271–273

Split-and-merge algorithm  255–259, 256f

State error covariance matrix  437–438, 437f

State estimation 

Bayesian filter 

correction step  307, 313

general algorithm for  313–318, 314b

from observations and actions  311–318

prediction step  306–307, 313

disturbances and noise  299–300

estimate convergence and bias  300–301

observability  301–303

State probability  307–311b, 307

State transition graph  166

Static environment  161–162

Stochastic optimization  132–133

Straight accelerated kick motion control  455–457, 456f

Straight-line clustering algorithm  259–265, 262f

Straight-line features  254–268

Synchronous drive  26–27, 26f

T

Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy control design  122–125

3D reconstruction, stereo camera configuration  228–230

Total probability theorem  313

Tracked drive  31–32, 32f

Trajectory tracking control 

feedback action  91–94

feedback linearization  94–99, 97f

feedforward  91–94

kinematic trajectory-tracking error model  100–101

linear controller  101–105

Lyapunov-based control design  105–122

model-based predictive control (MPC)  125–132

particle swarm optimization-based control (PSO)  132–141

Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy control design  122–125

visual servoing (VS) approaches  142–147

Transfer function  63–65

Translational velocity, Cartesian components of  92–93

Translation and rotation  217–218

Trapezoidal numerical integration  232

Triangulation /trilateration approach 176–177, 177f, 241, 241f, 242

Tricycle drive kinematics  23, 23f

Tricycle robot 

control algorithm for  68–69b, 69f

wheels, rear-powered pair of  88–91b, 89f, 90f

Two-degree-of-freedom control  61, 91–92

2D Gaussian function  293–294

Two-line element set (TLE)  251

U

Unscented Kalman filter  374

V

Vector fields  35

Vehicle kinematic model  46–47

Velocity command  71

Visibility graph  172–173, 173f

Visual servoing (VS) approaches  142–147, 145–147b, 146f, 147f

camera retreat  142

control error  142

features  142

hybrid VS  142–143

image-based visual servoing (IBVS)  142–143

interaction matrix  143–144

Lyapunov function  144–145

position-based visual servoing (PBVS)  142–143

velocity controller  143–144

Voronoi graph  173–176, 173f, 174–176b, 174f, 175f

in Matlab  174–176b

roadmap  173, 173f

Voronoi curve  173, 174f

W

Water and underwater mobile systems  4

Weighted graph  166, 166f

Wheeled mobile system 

in agriculture 

control strategies  397–398

localization, mapping, and slam  397

planning routes and scheduling  398

service unit setup  394–397

in domestic environments 

control  408–409

decision making  409–410

localization and mapping  407

path planning  408

sensors  405–407

in industry 

control  402–403

decision making  403

localization and mapping  401–402

path planning  403

sensors  401

motion control of 

optimal velocity profile estimation  148–157

to reference pose  62–87

trajectory tracking control  88–147

in walking rehabilitation therapy 

control  414–415

localization and mapping  414

path planning  415–416

sensors  412–414

Wheel odometry  442–443

kinematic model of  436

Wheels  3–4, 4f

White noise  299–300

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转载于:https://www.cnblogs.com/gary-guo/p/10171798.html