Overview of memory
management
Traditional Unix tools like 'top' often report a surprisingly small
amount of free memory after a system has been running for a while.
For instance, after about 3 hours of uptime, the machine I'm
writing this on reports under 60 MB of free memory, even though I
have 512 MB of RAM on the system. Where does it all go?
The biggest place it's being used is in the disk cache, which is
currently over 290 MB. This is reported by top as "cached". Cached
memory is essentially free, in that it can be replaced quickly if a
running (or newly starting) program needs the memory.
The reason Linux uses so much memory for disk cache is because the
RAM is wasted if it isn't used. Keeping the cache means that if
something needs the same data again, there's a good chance it will
still be in the cache in memory. Fetching the information from
there is around 1,000 times quicker than getting it from the hard
disk. If it's not found in the cache, the hard disk needs to be
read anyway, but in that case nothing has been lost in time.
To see a better estimation of how much memory is really free for
applications to use, run the command free -m:
Code: free
-m
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 503 451 52 0 14 293
-/+ buffers/cache: 143 360
Swap: 1027 0 1027
The -/+
buffers/cache line shows how much memory
is used and free from the perspective of the applications.
Generally speaking, if little swap is being used, memory usage
isn't impacting performance at all.
Notice that I have 512 MB of memory in my machine, but only 52 is
listed as available by free. This is mainly because the kernel
can't be swapped out, so the memory it occupies could never be
freed. There may also be regions of memory reserved for/by the
hardware for other purposes as well, depending on the system
architecture. However, 360M are free for application
consumption.
Virtual Memory Area
Virtual
memory allows non-contiguous memory to be
addressed as if it is contiguous. Each process has a memory map
made up of (at least):
Program's executable code (called text)
Areas for data, that could be initialized (assigned value at the
beginning of execution), uninitialized data (BSS), and the program
stack.
One area for each active memory mapping
Let's see how we can see the memory area of a process. We first
have to identify the process we want to look at. We can
use ps
-A for that:
# ps -A
PID TTY TIME CMD
1 ? 00:00:00 init
2 ? 00:00:00 ksoftirqd/0
We are going to look at init that has
the pid 1. Looking at at
/proc//maps we can see
the memory area of a process. In this case:
# cat /proc/1/maps
08048000-08050000 r-xp 00000000 16:46 493923 /sbin/init (executable code)
08050000-08051000 rw-p 00007000 16:46 493923 /sbin/init (data)
08051000-08072000 rw-p 08051000 00:00 0 [heap]
b7e2b000-b7e2c000 rw-p b7e2b000 00:00 0
b7e2c000-b7f4c000 r-xp 00000000 16:46 3770390 /lib/libc-2.5.so
b7f4c000-b7f4d000 r--p 00120000 16:46 3770390 /lib/libc-2.5.so
b7f4d000-b7f4f000 rw-p 00121000 16:46 3770390 /lib/libc-2.5.so
b7f4f000-b7f53000 rw-p b7f4f000 00:00 0
b7f6f000-b7f70000 r-xp b7f6f000 00:00 0 [vdso]
b7f70000-b7f8a000 r-xp 00000000 16:46 3770498 /lib/ld-2.5.so
b7f8a000-b7f8b000 r--p 00019000 16:46 3770498 /lib/ld-2.5.so
b7f8b000-b7f8c000 rw-p 0001a000 16:46 3770498 /lib/ld-2.5.so
bf8fc000-bf911000 rw-p bf8fc000 00:00 0 [stack]
The columns correspond to:
start-end perm offset major:minor inode image
Meaning:
Start and end of virtual address.
Permissions (read, write, execute, private/shared).
Offset
Major and minor numbers holding the mapped file.
Inode number
Name of the mapped file.
We can look at the different memory regions by looking at
/proc/iomem. In my AMD XP:
File: # cat
/proc/iomem
00000000-0009fbff : System RAM
0009fc00-0009ffff : reserved
000a0000-000bffff : Video RAM area
000c0000-000ccfff : Video ROM
000f0000-000fffff : System ROM
00100000-5ffeffff : System RAM
00100000-00405770 : Kernel code
00405771-0054148b : Kernel data
5fff0000-5fff7fff : ACPI Tables
5fff8000-5fffffff : ACPI Non-volatile Storage
70000000-7001ffff : 0000:00:04.0
afa00000-cfbfffff : PCI Bus #01
b8000000-bfffffff : 0000:01:00.1
c0000000-c7ffffff : 0000:01:00.0
cfd00000-cfefffff : PCI Bus #01
cfec0000-cfedffff : 0000:01:00.0
cfee0000-cfeeffff : 0000:01:00.1
cfef0000-cfefffff : 0000:01:00.0
cfffb800-cfffbfff : 0000:00:0c.0
cfffb800-cfffbfff : ohci1394
cfffc000-cfffcfff : 0000:00:04.0
cfffc000-cfffcfff : sis900
cfffd000-cfffdfff : 0000:00:03.0
cfffd000-cfffdfff : ohci_hcd
cfffe000-cfffefff : 0000:00:03.1
cfffe000-cfffefff : ohci_hcd
cffff000-cfffffff : 0000:00:03.2
cffff000-cfffffff : ehci_hcd
d0000000-d3ffffff : 0000:00:00.0
fec00000-fec00fff : reserved
fee00000-fee00fff : reserved
ffee0000-ffefffff : reserved
fffc0000-ffffffff : reserved
We can look at how different devices are mapped into the memory. If
we have a look at my video card:
# lspci -vvv
01:00.0 VGA compatible controller: ATI Technologies Inc RV280 [Radeon 9200] (rev 01) (prog-if 00 [VGA])
Region 0: Memory at c0000000 (32-bit, prefetchable) [size=128M]
Region 1: I/O ports at a800 [size=256]
Region 2: Memory at cfef0000 (32-bit, non-prefetchable) [size=64K]
We can see that /proc/iomem shows the card memory allocation.
The mysterious 880 MB limit on
x86
By default, the Linux kernel runs in and manages only low memory.
This makes managing the page tables slightly easier, which in turn
makes memory accesses slightly faster. The downside is that it
can't use all of the memory once the amount of total RAM reaches
the neighborhood of 880 MB. This has historically not been a
problem, especially for desktop machines.
To be able to use all the RAM on a 1GB machine or better, the
kernel needs to be recompiled. Go into 'make menuconfig' (or
whichever config is preferred) and set the following option:
Linux Kernel Configuration: Large amounts of
memory
Processor Type and Features ---->
High Memory Support ---->
(*) 4GB
This applies both to 2.4 and 2.6 kernels. Turning on high memory
support theoretically slows down accesses slightly, but according
to Joseph_sys and log, there is no practical difference.
Also, the ck-sources kernel
has a patch for 1gb high memory support.
The difference among VIRT, RES, and SHR
in top output
VIRT stands for the virtual size of a process, which is the sum of
memory it is actually using, memory it has mapped into itself (for
instance the video card's RAM for the X server), files on disk that
have been mapped into it (most notably shared libraries), and
memory shared with other processes. VIRT represents how much memory
the program is able to access at the present moment.
RES stands for the resident size, which is an accurate
representation of how much actual physical memory a process is
consuming. (This also corresponds directly to the %MEM column.)
This will virtually always be less than the VIRT size, since most
programs depend on the C library.
SHR indicates how much of the VIRT size is actually sharable
(memory or libraries). In the case of libraries, it does not
necessarily mean that the entire library is resident. For example,
if a program only uses a few functions in a library, the whole
library is mapped and will be counted in VIRT and SHR, but only the
parts of the library file containing the functions being used will
actually be loaded in and be counted under RES.
The difference between buffers and
cache
Buffers are allocated by various processes to use as input queues,
etc. Most of the time, buffers are some processes' output, and they
are file buffers. A simplistic explanation of buffers is that they
allow processes to temporarily store input in memory until the
process can deal with it.
Cache is typically frequently requested disk I/O. If multiple
processes are accessing the same files, much of those files will be
cached to improve performance (RAM being so much faster than hard
drives), it's disk cache.
Swappiness (2.6 kernels)
Since 2.6, there has been a way to tune how much Linux favors
swapping out to disk compared to shrinking the caches when memory
gets full.
When an application needs memory and all the RAM is fully occupied,
the kernel has two ways to free some memory at its disposal: it can
either reduce the disk cache in the RAM by eliminating the oldest
data or it may swap some less used memory (anonymous pages) of
processess out to the swap partition on disk. It is not easy to
predict which method would be more efficient. The kernel makes a
choice by roughly guessing the effectiveness of the two methods at
a given instant, based on the recent history of activity.
Before the 2.6 kernels, the user had no possible means to influence
the calculations and there could happen situations where the kernel
often made the wrong choice, leading to thrashing and slow
performance. The addition of swappiness in 2.6 changes this.
Thanks, ghoti!
Swappiness takes a value between 0 and 100 to change the balance
between swapping processess anonymous pages and freeing cache. At
100, the kernel will always prefer to find inactive pages and swap
them out; in other cases, whether a swapout occurs depends on how
much application memory is in use and how poorly the cache is doing
at finding and releasing inactive items.
The default swappiness is 60. A value of 0 gives something close to
the old behavior where applications that wanted memory could shrink
the cache to a tiny fraction of RAM. For laptops which would prefer
to let their disk spin down, a value of 20 or less is
recommended.
As a sysctl, the swappiness can be set at runtime with either of
the following commands:
sysctl -w vm.swappiness=30
echo 30 >/proc/sys/vm/swappiness
The default when Gentoo boots can also be set
in /etc/sysctl.conf:
File: /etc/sysctl.conf
# Control how much the kernel should favor swapping out applications (0-100)
vm.swappiness = 30
Some patchsets (e.g. Con Kolivas' ck-sources patchset) allow the
kernel to auto-tune the swappiness level as it sees fit; they may
not keep a user-set value.
Autoregulation
gentoo-sources (and
probably other gentoo 2.6 kernels) prior to 2.6.7-gentoo contains
the Con Kolivas autoregulated swappiness patch. This means that the
kernel automatically adjusts the /proc/sys/vm/swappiness value as
needed during runtime, so any changes you make will be clobbered
next time it updates. A good explanation of this patch and how it
works is on
I repeat: With gentoo-sources (prior to
2.6.7-gentoo) it is neither necessary nor possible to permanently
adjust the swappiness value. It's taken
care of automatically, no need to worry.
gentoo-sources no longer contains this patch as of 2.6.7-gentoo.
The maintainer of gentoo-sources, Greg, pulled the autoregulation
patch from the ebuild.
Credits
Original Forum
Post by sapphirecat
Original Forum
Post about
autoregulation by bk0
Linux Device
Drivers by Jonathan Corbet, Alessandro Rubini,
and Greg Kroah-Hartman. Published by O’Reilly Media.