<span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51); font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 30px; line-height: 1em; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">1. Prefer returning Empty Collections instead of Null</span>If a program is returning a collection which does not have any value, make sure an Empty collection is returned rather than Null elements. This saves a lot of “if else” testing on Null Elements.
public class getLocationName {
return (null==cityName ? "": cityName);
}2. Use Strings carefully
If two Strings are concatenated using “+” operator in a “for” loop, then it creates a new String Object, every time. This causes wastage of memory and increases performance time. Also, while instantiating a String Object, constructors should be avoided and instantiation should happen directly. For example:
//Slower Instantiation
String bad = new String("Yet another string object");
//Faster Instantiation
String good = "Yet another string object"3. Avoid unnecessary Objects
One of the most expensive operations (in terms of Memory Utilization) in Java is Object Creation. Thus it is recommended that Objects should only be created or initialized if necessary. Following code gives an example:
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;
public class Employees {
private List Employees;
public List getEmployees() {
//initialize only when required
if(null == Employees) {
Employees = new ArrayList();
}
return Employees;
}
}4. Dilemma between Array and ArrayList
Developers often find it difficult to decide if they should go for Array type data structure of ArrayList type. They both have their strengths and weaknesses. The choice really depends on the requirements.
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class arrayVsArrayList {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] myArray = new int[6];
myArray[7]= 10; // ArraysOutOfBoundException
//Declaration of ArrayList. Add and Remove of elements is easy.
ArrayList<Integer> myArrayList = new ArrayList<>();
myArrayList.add(1);
myArrayList.add(2);
myArrayList.add(3);
myArrayList.add(4);
myArrayList.add(5);
myArrayList.remove(0);
for(int i = 0; i < myArrayList.size(); i++) {
System.out.println("Element: " + myArrayList.get(i));
}
//Multi-dimensional Array
int[][][] multiArray = new int [3][3][3];
}
}- Arrays have fixed size but ArrayLists have variable sizes. Since the size of Array is fixed, the memory gets allocated at the time of declaration of Array type variable. Hence, Arrays are very fast. On the other hand, if we are not aware of the size of the data, then ArrayList is More data will lead to ArrayOutOfBoundException and less data will cause wastage of storage space.
- It is much easier to Add or Remove elements from ArrayList than Array
- Array can be multi-dimensional but ArrayList can be only one dimension.
5. When Finally does not get executed with Try
Consider following code snippet:
public class shutDownHooksDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
{
try {
if(i==4) {
System.out.println("Inside Try Block.Exiting without executing Finally block.");
System.exit(0);
}
}
finally {
System.out.println("Inside Finally Block.");
}
}
}
}
From the program, it looks like “println” inside finally block will be executed 5 times. But if the program is executed, the user will find that finally block is called only 4 times. In the fifth iteration, exit function is called and finally never gets called the fifth time. The reason is- System.exit halts execution of all the running threads including the current one. Even finally block does not get executed after try when exit is executed.
When System.exit is called, JVM performs two cleanup tasks before shut down:
First, it executes all the shutdown hooks which have been registered with Runtime.addShutdownHook. This is very useful because it releases the resources external to JVM.
Second is related to Finalizers. Either System.runFinalizersOnExit or Runtime.runFinalizersOnExit. The use of finalizers has been deprecated from a long time. Finalizers can run on live objects while they are being manipulated by other threads.This results in undesirable results or even in a deadlock.
public class shutDownHooksDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
{
final int final_i = i;
try {
Runtime.getRuntime().addShutdownHook(
new Thread() {
public void run() {
if(final_i==4) {
System.out.println("Inside Try Block.Exiting without executing Finally block.");
System.exit(0);
}
}
});
}
finally {
System.out.println("Inside Finally Block.");
}
}
}
}6. Check Oddity
Have a look at the lines of code below and determine if they can be used to precisely identify if a given number is Odd?
public boolean oddOrNot(int num) {
return num % 2 == 1;
}These lines seem correct but they will return incorrect results one of every four times (Statistically speaking). Consider a negative Odd number, the remainder of division with 2 will not be 1. So, the returned result will be false which is incorrect!
This can be fixed as follows:
public boolean oddOrNot(int num) {
return (num & 1) != 0;
}
7. Difference between single quotes and double quotes
public class Haha { public static void main(String args[]) { System.out.print("H" + "a"); System.out.print('H' + 'a'); } }
From the code, it would seem return “HaHa” is returned, but it actually returns Ha169. The reason is that if double quotes are used, the characters are treated as a string but in case of single quotes, the char -valued operands ( ‘H’ and ‘a’ ) to int values through a process known as widening primitive conversion. After integer conversion, the numbers are added and return 169.
8. Avoiding Memory leaks by simple tricks
Memory leaks often cause performance degradation of software. Since, Java manages memory automatically, the developers do not have much control. But there are still some standard practices which can be used to protect from memory leakages.
- Always release database connections when querying is complete.
- Try to use Finally block as often possible.
- Release instances stored in Static Tables.
9. Avoiding Deadlocks in Java
Deadlocks can occur for many different reasons. There is no single recipe to avoid deadlocks. Normally deadlocks occur when one synchronized object is waiting for lock on resources locked by another synchronized object.
Try running the below program. This program demonstrates a Deadlock. This deadlock arises because both the threads are waiting for the resources which are grabbed by other thread. They both keep waiting and no one releases.
public class DeadlockDemo {
public static Object addLock = new Object();
public static Object subLock = new Object();
public static void main(String args[]) {
MyAdditionThread add = new MyAdditionThread();
MySubtractionThread sub = new MySubtractionThread();
add.start();
sub.start();
}
private static class MyAdditionThread extends Thread {
public void run() {
synchronized (addLock) {
int a = 10, b = 3;
int c = a + b;
System.out.println("Addition Thread: " + c);
System.out.println("Holding First Lock...");
try { Thread.sleep(10); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
System.out.println("Addition Thread: Waiting for AddLock...");
synchronized (subLock) {
System.out.println("Threads: Holding Add and Sub Locks...");
}
}
}
}
private static class MySubtractionThread extends Thread {
public void run() {
synchronized (subLock) {
int a = 10, b = 3;
int c = a - b;
System.out.println("Subtraction Thread: " + c);
System.out.println("Holding Second Lock...");
try { Thread.sleep(10); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
System.out.println("Subtraction Thread: Waiting for SubLock...");
synchronized (addLock) {
System.out.println("Threads: Holding Add and Sub Locks...");
}
}
}
}
}
Output:
=====
Addition Thread: 13
Subtraction Thread: 7
Holding First Lock...
Holding Second Lock...
Addition Thread: Waiting for AddLock...
Subtraction Thread: Waiting for SubLock...public class DeadlockSolutionDemo {
public static Object addLock = new Object();
public static Object subLock = new Object();
public static void main(String args[]) {
MyAdditionThread add = new MyAdditionThread();
MySubtractionThread sub = new MySubtractionThread();
add.start();
sub.start();
}
private static class MyAdditionThread extends Thread {
public void run() {
synchronized (addLock) {
int a = 10, b = 3;
int c = a + b;
System.out.println("Addition Thread: " + c);
System.out.println("Holding First Lock...");
try { Thread.sleep(10); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
System.out.println("Addition Thread: Waiting for AddLock...");
synchronized (subLock) {
System.out.println("Threads: Holding Add and Sub Locks...");
}
}
}
}
private static class MySubtractionThread extends Thread {
public void run() {
synchronized (addLock) {
int a = 10, b = 3;
int c = a - b;
System.out.println("Subtraction Thread: " + c);
System.out.println("Holding Second Lock...");
try { Thread.sleep(10); }
catch (InterruptedException e) {}
System.out.println("Subtraction Thread: Waiting for SubLock...");
synchronized (subLock) {
System.out.println("Threads: Holding Add and Sub Locks...");
}
}
}
}
}Output:
=====
Addition Thread: 13
Holding First Lock...
Addition Thread: Waiting for AddLock...
Threads: Holding Add and Sub Locks...
Subtraction Thread: 7
Holding Second Lock...
Subtraction Thread: Waiting for SubLock...
Threads: Holding Add and Sub Locks...<span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 30px; line-height: 1em; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">10. Reserve memory for Java</span>Some of the Java applications can be highly CPU intensive as well as they need a lot of RAM. Such applications generally run slow because of a high RAM requirement. In order to improve performance of such applications, RAM is reserved for Java. So, for example, if we have a Tomcat webserver and it has 10 GB of RAM. If we like, we can allocate RAM for Java on this machine using the following command:
export JAVA_OPTS="$JAVA_OPTS -Xms5000m -Xmx6000m -XX:PermSize=1024m -XX:MaxPermSize=2048m"- Xms = Minimum memory allocation pool
- Xmx = Maximum memory allocation pool
- XX:PermSize = Initial size that will be allocated during startup of the JVM
- XX:MaxPermSize = Maximum size that can be allocated during startup of the JVM
11. How to time operations in Java
There are two standard ways to time operations in Java: System.currentTimeMillis() and System.nanoTime() The question is, which of these to choose and under what circumstances. In principle, they both perform the same action but are different in the following ways:
- System.currentTimeMillis takes somewhere between 1/1000th of a second to 15/1000th of a second (depending on the system) but System.nanoTime() takes around 1/1000,000th of a second (1,000 nanos)
- System.currentTimeMillis takes a few clock cycles to perform Read Operation. On the other hand, System.nanoTime() takes 100+ clock cycles.
- System.currentTimeMillis reflects Absolute Time (Number of millis since 1 Jan 1970 00:00 (Epoch Time)) but System.nanoTime() does not necessarily represent any reference point.
12. Choice between Float and Double
| Data type | Bytes used | Significant figures (decimal) |
| Float | 4 | 7 |
| Double | 8 | 15 |
Double is often preferred over float in software where precision is important because of the following reasons:
Most processors take nearly the same amount of processing time to perform operations on Float and Double. Double offers far more precision in the same amount of computation time.
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