<p>1.用落球法测定液体的黏度<br />
一个在静止液体中下落的小球受到重力、浮力和黏滞阻力三个力的作用。如果小球的速度，很小，且液体可以看成在各方向上都是无限广阔的，则从流体力学的基本方程可以导出表示黏滞阻力的斯托克斯公式:</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="F=3\pi\eta vd"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="3">F</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="4">=</span><span mathquill-command-id="5">3</span><span class="mq-nonSymbola" mathquill-command-id="6">π</span><var mathquill-command-id="8">η</var><var mathquill-command-id="10">v</var><var mathquill-command-id="11">d</var></span></span><span> (式5.4-1）</span></p>
<p>式中，d为小球直径。由于黏滞阻力与小球速度v成正比，小球在下落很短一段距离后(参见附录推导)，所受的三个力达到平衡，小球将以v<sub>0</sub>匀速下落，此时有</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="\frac{1}{6}\pi\ d^3（\rho-\rho_0）\ g=3\pi\eta v_0\ d"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="16"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="17"><span mathquill-command-id="20">1</span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="18"><span mathquill-command-id="21">6</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-nonSymbola" mathquill-command-id="22">π</span><span mathquill-command-id="24"> </span><var mathquill-command-id="25">d</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf mq-sup-only" mathquill-command-id="28"><span class="mq-sup" mathquill-block-id="29"><span mathquill-command-id="31">3</span></span></span><span mathquill-command-id="32">（</span><var mathquill-command-id="33">ρ</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="35">−</span><var mathquill-command-id="36">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="40"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="41"><span mathquill-command-id="43">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span mathquill-command-id="44">）</span><span mathquill-command-id="45"> </span><var mathquill-command-id="46">g</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="47">=</span><span mathquill-command-id="48">3</span><span class="mq-nonSymbola" mathquill-command-id="49">π</span><var mathquill-command-id="51">η</var><var mathquill-command-id="54">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="57"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="58"><span mathquill-command-id="60">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span mathquill-command-id="61"> </span><var mathquill-command-id="62">d</var></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-2）</p>
<p>式中，<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; font-size: 18.4px; font-style: italic; text-wrap: nowrap;">ρ</span>为小球密度;<var mathquill-command-id="36" style="font-size: 18.4px; line-height: 0.9; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; text-wrap: nowrap;">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="40" style="font-size: 16.56px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; vertical-align: -0.5em; font-family: Symbola, "Times New Roman", serif; text-wrap: nowrap;"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="41" style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; float: left;"><span mathquill-command-id="43" style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box;">0</span></span><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; width: 0px;"></span></span>为液体密度。可解出黏度<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; font-size: 18.4px; font-style: italic; text-wrap: nowrap;">η：</span></p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="\eta=\frac{（\rho-\rho_0）\ gd^2}{18v_0}"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="65">η</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="67">=</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="69"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="70"><span mathquill-command-id="73">（</span><var mathquill-command-id="77">ρ</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="79">−</span><var mathquill-command-id="81">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="85"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="86"><span mathquill-command-id="88">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span mathquill-command-id="75">）</span><span mathquill-command-id="89"> </span><var mathquill-command-id="90">g</var><var mathquill-command-id="91">d</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf mq-sup-only" mathquill-command-id="94"><span class="mq-sup" mathquill-block-id="95"><span mathquill-command-id="98">2</span></span></span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="71"><span mathquill-command-id="99">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="100">8</span><var mathquill-command-id="101">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="104"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="105"><span mathquill-command-id="107">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-3）</p>
<p>在本实验中，小球在直径为D的玻璃管中下落，液体在各方向无限广阔的条件不满足，此时黏滞阻力的表达式可加修正系数(1+2.4d/D)，则式修正为</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="\eta=\frac{\left(\rho-\rho_0\right)gd^2}{18v_0\left(1+\frac{2.4d}{D}\right)}"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="108">η</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="110">=</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="111"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="112"><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="115"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.07778, 1.66667);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="116"><var mathquill-command-id="117">ρ</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="119">−</span><var mathquill-command-id="120">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="124"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="125"><span mathquill-command-id="127">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.07778, 1.66667);">)</span></span><var mathquill-command-id="128">g</var><var mathquill-command-id="129">d</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf mq-sup-only" mathquill-command-id="132"><span class="mq-sup" mathquill-block-id="133"><span mathquill-command-id="135">2</span></span></span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="113"><span mathquill-command-id="136">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="137">8</span><var mathquill-command-id="138">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="141"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="142"><span mathquill-command-id="144">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="145"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="146"><span mathquill-command-id="147">1</span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="148">+</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="153"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="154"><span mathquill-command-id="149">2</span><span mathquill-command-id="150">.</span><span mathquill-command-id="151">4</span><var mathquill-command-id="152">d</var></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="155"><var mathquill-command-id="156">D</var></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren mq-ghost" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">)</span></span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-4）</p>
<p>当小球的密度较大，直径不是太小，而液体的黏度值又较小时，小球在液体中的平衡速度v<sub>0</sub>会达到较大的值，奥西思-果尔斯公式反映出了液体运动状态对斯托克斯公式的影响:</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="F=3\pi\eta v_0d\left(1+\frac{3}{16}Re-\frac{19}{1080}Re^2+...\right)"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="157">F</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="158">=</span><span mathquill-command-id="159">3</span><span class="mq-nonSymbola" mathquill-command-id="160">π</span><var mathquill-command-id="162">η</var><var mathquill-command-id="164">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="167"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="168"><span mathquill-command-id="170">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="171">d</var><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="172"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="173"><span mathquill-command-id="174">1</span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="175">+</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="177"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="178"><span mathquill-command-id="176">3</span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="179"><span mathquill-command-id="180">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="181">6</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="182">R</var><var mathquill-command-id="183">e</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="184">−</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="187"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="188"><span mathquill-command-id="185">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="186">9</span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="189"><span mathquill-command-id="190">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="191">0</span><span mathquill-command-id="192">8</span><span mathquill-command-id="193">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="194">R</var><var mathquill-command-id="195">e</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf mq-sup-only" mathquill-command-id="198"><span class="mq-sup" mathquill-block-id="199"><span mathquill-command-id="201">2</span></span></span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="202">+</span><span mathquill-command-id="203">.</span><span mathquill-command-id="204">.</span><span mathquill-command-id="205">.</span></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">)</span></span></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-5）</p>
<p>式中，Re称为雷诺数，是表征液体运动状态的量纲为一的参数。</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="Re=\frac{v_0d\rho_0}{\eta}"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="206">R</var><var mathquill-command-id="207">e</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="208">=</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="231"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="232"><var mathquill-command-id="215">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="218"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="219"><span mathquill-command-id="221">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="222">d</var><var mathquill-command-id="223">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="227"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="228"><span mathquill-command-id="230">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="233"><var mathquill-command-id="234">η</var></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-6）</p>
<p>当Re小于0.1时，可认为式(5.4-1)、式(5.4-4)成立。当0.1<Re<1时，应考患式(5.4-5)中1级修正项的影响，当Re大于1时，还须考虑高次修正项。考虑式(5.4-5)中1级修正项的影响及玻璃管的影响后，黏度<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; font-size: 16.56px; font-style: italic; text-align: center; text-wrap: nowrap;">η<sub>1</sub></span>可表示为</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="\eta_1=\frac{（\rho-\rho_0）\ gd^2}{18v_0\left(1+\frac{2.4d}{D}\right)\left(1+\frac{3Re}{16}\right)}=\eta\frac{1}{1+\frac{3Re}{16}}"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="236">η</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="240"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="241"><span mathquill-command-id="243">1</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="244">=</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="271"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="272"><span mathquill-command-id="275">（</span><var mathquill-command-id="277">ρ</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="279">−</span><var mathquill-command-id="281">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="283"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="285"><span mathquill-command-id="284">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span mathquill-command-id="287">）</span><span mathquill-command-id="289"> </span><var mathquill-command-id="291">g</var><var mathquill-command-id="293">d</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf mq-sup-only" mathquill-command-id="295"><span class="mq-sup" mathquill-block-id="297"><span mathquill-command-id="296">2</span></span></span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="273"><span mathquill-command-id="299">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="300">8</span><var mathquill-command-id="301">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="304"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="305"><span mathquill-command-id="307">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="308"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="309"><span mathquill-command-id="310">1</span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="311">+</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="316"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="317"><span mathquill-command-id="312">2</span><span mathquill-command-id="313">.</span><span mathquill-command-id="314">4</span><var mathquill-command-id="315">d</var></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="318"><var mathquill-command-id="319">D</var></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">)</span></span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="320"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="321"><span mathquill-command-id="322">1</span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="323">+</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="327"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="328"><span mathquill-command-id="324">3</span><var mathquill-command-id="325">R</var><var mathquill-command-id="326">e</var></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="329"><span mathquill-command-id="330">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="331">6</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.4);">)</span></span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="332">=</span><var mathquill-command-id="334">η</var><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="336"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="337"><span mathquill-command-id="340">1</span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="338"><span mathquill-command-id="341">1</span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="342">+</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="346"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="347"><span mathquill-command-id="343">3</span><var mathquill-command-id="344">R</var><var mathquill-command-id="345">e</var></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="348"><span mathquill-command-id="349">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="350">6</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-7）</p>
<p>由于3Re/16是远小于1的数，将1/(1+3Re/16)按幂级数展开后近似为1-3Re/16，式(5.4-7)又可表示为</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="\eta_1=\eta-\frac{3}{16}v_0d\rho_0"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="351">η</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="356"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="357"><span mathquill-command-id="359">1</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="353">=</span><var mathquill-command-id="360">η</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="362">−</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="364"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="365"><span mathquill-command-id="363">3</span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="366"><span mathquill-command-id="367">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="368">6</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="369">v</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="375"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="376"><span mathquill-command-id="378">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="370">d</var><var mathquill-command-id="371">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="381"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="382"><span mathquill-command-id="384">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span></span><span> </span> (式5.4-8）</p>
<p>已知或测量得到<var mathquill-command-id="371" style="font-size: 18.4px; line-height: 0.9; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; text-wrap: nowrap;">ρ</var><br />
、<var mathquill-command-id="371" style="font-size: 18.4px; line-height: 0.9; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; text-wrap: nowrap;">ρ</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="381" style="font-size: 16.56px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; vertical-align: -0.5em; font-family: Symbola, "Times New Roman", serif; text-wrap: nowrap;"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="382" style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; float: left;"><span mathquill-command-id="384" style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box;">0</span></span></span>、D、d、v<sub>0</sub>等参数后，由式(5.4-4)计算黏度<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; font-size: 18.4px; font-style: italic; text-wrap: nowrap;">η</span>，再由式(5.4-6)计算 Re，若需计算 Re的1级修正，则由式(5.4-8)计算经修正的黏度 <var mathquill-command-id="351" style="font-size: 18.4px; line-height: 0.9; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; text-wrap: nowrap;">η</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="356" style="font-size: 16.56px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; vertical-align: -0.5em; font-family: Symbola, "Times New Roman", serif; text-wrap: nowrap;"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="357" style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; float: left;"><span mathquill-command-id="359" style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box;">1</span></span><span style="font-size: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-block; width: 0px;"></span></span>。在国际单位制中，<var mathquill-command-id="351" style="font-size: 18.4px; line-height: 0.9; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border-color: black; user-select: none; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; text-wrap: nowrap;">η</var>的单位是Pa·s(帕斯卡秒)，在厘米克秒制中，<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", Symbola, serif; font-size: 18.4px; font-style: italic; text-wrap: nowrap;">η</span>的单位是P(泊)或cP(厘泊)，它们之间的换算关系是</p>
<p><span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="1Pa·s=10P=1000cP"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><span mathquill-command-id="385">1</span><var mathquill-command-id="386">P</var><var mathquill-command-id="387">a</var><span mathquill-command-id="391">·</span><var mathquill-command-id="393">s</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="394">=</span><span mathquill-command-id="395">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="396">0</span><var mathquill-command-id="397">P</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="398">=</span><span mathquill-command-id="399">1</span><span mathquill-command-id="400">0</span><span mathquill-command-id="401">0</span><span mathquill-command-id="402">0</span><var mathquill-command-id="403">c</var><var mathquill-command-id="404">P</var></span></span><span> </span>(式5.4-9）</p>
<p>2.PID 调节原理</p>
<p>闭环自动控制技术是基于反馈来减少被控系统不确定性的。反馈理论的要素包括测量、比较和执行。先测出被控变量的实际值，然后将被控变量的实际值与期望值相比较，用这个偏差来纠正系统的响应，执行调节控制。自动控制系统的控制过程可用图5.4-1来说明。假如被控量与设定值之间有偏差e(1)=设定值-被控量，调节器依据e(t)及一定的调节规律输出调节信号u(t)，执行单元按u(t)输出操作量至被控对象，使被控量逼近直至最终等于设定值。这里，调节器是自动控制系统的指挥机构。在本实验的温控系统中，执行单元是由可控硅控制加热电流的加热器，操作量是加热功率，被控对象是水箱中的水，被控量是水的温度，调节器采用了比例-积分-微分控制器。<br />
比例(Proportion)-积分(Integration)-微分(Diferentiation)控制调节是自动控制系统中应用最为广泛的一种调节控制规律，简称PID控制，又称PID调节。PID 调节器是按偏差的比例(proportional)、积分(integral)、微分(differential)进行调节，其调节规律可表示为<br />
<span class="mq-math-mode" latex-data="u\left(t\right)=K_P\left[e\left(t\right)+\frac{1}{T_1}\right]\int_0^te\left(t\right)dt+T_D\frac{de\left(t\right)}{dt}"><span class="mq-textarea"><textarea autocapitalize="off" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" spellcheck="false" x-palm-disable-ste-all="true"></textarea></span><span class="mq-root-block" mathquill-block-id="1"><var mathquill-command-id="405">u</var><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="406"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="407"><var mathquill-command-id="408">t</var></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">)</span></span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="409">=</span><var mathquill-command-id="410">K</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="413"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="414"><var mathquill-command-id="416">P</var></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="417"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.88);">[</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="418"><var mathquill-command-id="419">e</var><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="420"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="421"><var mathquill-command-id="422">t</var></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">)</span></span><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="423">+</span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="425"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="426"><span mathquill-command-id="424">1</span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="427"><var mathquill-command-id="428">T</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="431"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="432"><span mathquill-command-id="434">1</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1.2, 2.88);">]</span></span><big mathquill-command-id="443">∫</big><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf mq-limit" mathquill-command-id="448"><span class="mq-sup" mathquill-block-id="449"><var mathquill-command-id="451">t</var></span><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="446"><span mathquill-command-id="452">0</span></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><var mathquill-command-id="453">e</var><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="454"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="455"><var mathquill-command-id="456">t</var></span><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">)</span></span><var mathquill-command-id="458">d</var><var mathquill-command-id="459">t</var><span class="mq-binary-operator" mathquill-command-id="460">+</span><var mathquill-command-id="461">T</var><span class="mq-supsub mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="464"><span class="mq-sub" mathquill-block-id="465"><var mathquill-command-id="467">D</var></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span><span class="mq-fraction mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="468"><span class="mq-numerator" mathquill-block-id="469"><var mathquill-command-id="472">d</var><var mathquill-command-id="473">e</var><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-command-id="474"><span class="mq-scaled mq-paren" style="transform: scale(1, 1.2);">(</span><span class="mq-non-leaf" mathquill-block-id="475"><var mathquill-command-id="476">t<font color="#c0c0c0">)</font></var></span></span></span><span class="mq-denominator" mathquill-block-id="470"><var mathquill-command-id="477">d</var><var mathquill-command-id="478">t</var></span><span style="display:inline-block;width:0"></span></span></span></span><span> </span>(5.4-10)</p>
<p>式中第一项为比例调节，K<sub>P</sub>为比例系数。第二项为积分调节，T<sub>1</sub>为积分时间常数。第三项为微分调节，T<sub>D</sub>为微分时间常数。<br />
图5.4-2给出了PID温度控制系统在调节过程中温度随时间的一般变化关系，控制效果可用稳定性、准确性和快速性来评价。<br />
系统重新设定(或受到扰动)后经过一定的过渡过程能够达到新的平衡状态，则为稳定的调节过程;若被控量反复振荡，甚至振幅越来越大，则为不稳定调节过程。不稳定调节过程是有害而不能采用的。准确性可用被调量的动态偏差和静态偏差来衡量，二者越小，准确性越高。快速性可用过渡时间表示，过渡时间越短越好。实际控制系统中，上述三方面指标常常是互相制约、互相矛盾的，需结合具体要求综合考虑。由图5.4-2可见，系统在达到设定值后一般并不能立即稳定在设定值，而是超过设定值后经一定的过渡过程才重新稳定，这种现象称为超调。产生超调的原因可从系统惯性传感器滞后和调节器特性等方面予以说明。</p>
<p>1)系统惯性:系统在升温过程中，加热器温度总是高于被控对象温度，在达到设定值后，即使减小或切断加热功率，加热器存储的热量在一定时间内仍然会使系统升温，降温有类似的反向过程，称之为系统的热惯性。<br />
2)传感器滞后:是指由于传感器本身热传导特性或是由于传感器安装位置的原因使传感器测量到的温度比系统实际的温度在时间上滞后，系统达到设定值后调节器无法立即做出反应，产生超调。<br />
3)调节器特性:由式(5.4-10)可见，比例调节项输出与偏差成正比，它能迅速对偏差作出反应，并减小偏差，但它不能消除静态偏差。这是因为任何高于室温的稳态都需要一定的输人功率维持，而比例调节项只有偏差存在时才输出调节量。增加比例调节系数K,可减小静态偏差，但在系统有热惯性和传感器滞后时，会使超调加大。<br />
积分调节项输出与偏差对时间的积分成正比，只要系统存在偏差，积分调节作用就不断积累，输出调节量以消除偏差。积分调节作用缓慢，在时间上总是滞后于偏差信号的变化。增加积分作用(减小T<sub>1</sub>)可加快消除静态偏差，但会使系统超调加大，增加动态偏<br />
差，积分作用太强甚至会使系统出现不稳定状态。微分调节项输出与偏差对时间的变化率成正比，它阻碍温度的变化，能减小超调量克服振荡。在系统受到扰动时，它能迅速做出反应，减小调整时间，提高系统的稳定性。对于实际的控制系统，必须依据系统特性设置合适的三个参数(K<sub>P</sub>，T<sub>1</sub>和T<sub>D</sub>)，即PID参数，才能取得好的控制效果。有多种方法可以获得特定系统、特定过程的PID参数。PID调节器的应用已有一百多年的历史，理论分析和实践都表明，应用这种调节规律对许多具体过程进行控制时，都能取得满意的结果。</p>
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