Foundamental

Syllabus

Definition of computer network

node

Communication link

Basic characteristics of computer network

Fault tolerance

1.contiue working despite failure

2.ensure no loss of service

Voice-over IP Phone---VoIP Phone

1.is different from traditional land-line phone

2.voice-over IP Phone send voice data through internet

traditional land-line phone send voice data through the dedicated(zhuanyong) telephone network

WhatsApp Call（WhatsApp 语音通话）是 WhatsApp 应用程序提供的一项功能，允许用户通过互联网进行语音通话。WhatsApp 是一款流行的即时通讯应用，除了文本消息和多媒体共享外，还提供语音通话和视频通话功能。

通过 WhatsApp Call，用户可以拨打其他 WhatsApp 用户的电话号码，进行实时的语音通话。这项功能使用互联网连接，可以通过Wi-Fi或蜂窝数据网络进行通话，而不需要传统电话网络。这使得用户可以以更经济的方式进行国际通话，尤其是在有 Wi-Fi 连接的情况下。

WhatsApp Call 也提供了一些额外的功能，如允许用户切换到视频通话，以及在通话期间发送文字消息和多媒体文件。这使得用户可以在通话过程中更全面地进行交流和分享信息。WhatsApp Call 的使用是免费的，但请注意，使用数据网络可能会导致相应的数据费用，尤其是在没有 Wi-Fi 连接的情况下。

Scalability

1.grow based on the needs

2.have good performance after growth

Quality of Service(QoS)

1.set priorities

2.manage data traffic to reduce data loss,delay etc

ex:

Real-time commmuniciation is prior to e-mail comunication.

The delay of e-mail communication is acceptable.

The delay of real-time commmuniciation is unacceptable.

Security

confidentiality--data is convert to a different form

which is understandable only by the sender and the receiver

by which the receiver can check integrity of data send by sender

security is important because the attacker always try to deface this web servers

Network protocol and communicaiton

Data communication

Data flow

simplex

half duplex

full duplex

Protocol

All communication schemes will have the following things in common:

1.source or sender

2.destination or receiver

3.channel or media

Protocols are rules that govern all method/scheme of data communication

Human communication

Network communication

Element of a protocol of network communication:

1.Message must be encoded 、formatted and encapsulated

in such way that the destination can understand

2.

3.size ---- if link is low capacity link,the link can not carry big data

4.delivery options ----mean the destinations where the message is for

Message encoding

Message formatting and encapsulation

1.Both sender and receiver must mutually agree upon certain format which called agreed format.

2.Encapsulate the information to identify the sender and the receiver rightly.

When the data is going to be send ,the data will be added with IP addresss of beginning and destination

Message size

1.long message must be broken into smaller piece to travel across a network

2.put numbers on every small piece,so the destination can reassemble it in the right way

in this way,the number system will help to identify if any pieces are missing

Message timing

deal with flow control and response timeout

1.if the sender is fast and the receiver is slow,the sender can send data at high speed,but the receiver can not handle that speed--the entire communication become useless

so it is responsible for the protocol to provide flow control mechannism

2.the receiver has to acknowledge/response the data

and the acknowledgement /response is sent back to the sender

if the sender don't receive the ackonwledgement/response for a certain period of time.the sender will re-transmit the same data

so it is responsible for the protocol to tell much time the sender should wait for acknowledge/response

ex:

the information that in what speed the sender have to send,this information is provided to the sender by the receiver

after sending the data,the sender will wait for a certain period of time in order to receive an acknowledge or the sender will send the data again

流量控制 (Flow Control):

流量控制是指在数据通信中通过调整发送方的速率或接收方的处理速度，以防止数据传输过程中发生丢失或拥塞的一种机制。主要目的是确保在通信双方之间的数据传输过程中，接收方能够有效地处理所接收到的数据，而不至于导致数据溢出或丢失。

在网络通信中，流量控制是网络管理的一部分，可以通过各种协议和算法来实现。以下是一些流量控制的常见方式：

1. 滑动窗口协议 (Sliding Window Protocols): 这是一种基于窗口大小的流量控制方法。发送方和接收方都有一个窗口，通过调整窗口的大小来控制数据的流动。接收方可以通知发送方适当的窗口大小，以确保合适的数据流量。
2. 自适应速率控制 (Adaptive Rate Control): 根据网络的拥塞程度和带宽情况，动态调整数据传输的速率。这可以通过使用拥塞探测算法、动态调整窗口大小等方式实现。
3. 缓冲区管理 (Buffer Management): 在接收端使用缓冲区来存储暂时性的数据，以便在处理速度不足时缓解压力。当缓冲区满时，可以通知发送方减缓传输速率。
4. 流量标记 (Traffic Marking): 在网络中使用标记来表示不同数据流的优先级，以确保重要数据的传输不受阻碍。这也可以帮助调整流量以适应网络条件。

Massage delivery option

delivery options ----mean the destinations where the message is for

unicast

one sender and one receiver

multicast

a sender send the data to set of receivers but not all receivers

broadcast

a sender send the data to all the receivers in the network

peer-to-peer network

every node is called as a peer,and they are in equal level

nobody is superior or nobody is inferior

client server network/request-response model

this server is going to do the centralized adminstration

all the data will be in one place called master/server

other place is called slaves

disadvantage:

everyone is too dependant to the server

Components of a computer network

Nodes

a node can send or receive or both send and receive the data

end node

end node is the starting point in the communication

device which initiate this communication is an end device

device which accept the communication is also an end device

ex:

intermediary node

are nodes that just forward the data from one node to anoter

ex:

Media/link

wired medium(guided medium)

main used for audio or video communication

carry the data in the form of electrical signal

universal serial bus

wireless medium(unguided medium)

1. 波长：

• • 红外线： 波长范围大致在700纳米到1毫米之间，处于可见光谱的下方。
  • 无线电波： 无线电波的波长范围广泛，从数厘米到几百千米不等，常用来进行广播和通信。
  • 微波： 微波的波长范围通常在毫米到米的范围内，介于红外线和无线电波之间。

1. 能量：

• • 红外线： 红外线携带的能量相对较低，主要与物体的温度有关。
  • 无线电波： 无线电波的能量通常较低，用于无线通信。
  • 微波： 微波的能量较高，可用于烹饪（微波炉）和雷达等应用。

1. 应用：

• • 红外线： 应用于红外线感应器、红外线摄影、夜视设备等，也在某些加热应用中使用。
  • 无线电波： 用于广播、电视、手机通信等各种通信应用。
  • 微波： 用于雷达、通信、微波炉等。

1. 传播特性：

• • 红外线： 在大气中的传播受到一些限制，例如水蒸气和其他气体对红外线的吸收。
  • 无线电波： 在大气中传播较远，穿透力较好。
  • 微波： 微波对大气中的水分和气体的吸收相对较小，能够在大气中传播较远

Services

Classification of computer network

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Local area network(LAN)

Ethernet Hub（以太网集线器）和 Ethernet Switch（以太网交换机）是两种网络设备，它们在局域网（LAN）中用于连接多台计算机和其他网络设备。以下是它们的中文解释：

1. 以太网集线器（Ethernet Hub）：

• • 功能： 以太网集线器是一种简单的网络设备，用于在局域网中连接多个计算机。它的主要作用是将网络上的数据广播到所有连接的端口，无论数据包是否是发给特定设备的。
  • 工作方式： 当其中一个端口接收到数据时，它将数据包传输到所有其他端口，因此所有连接到集线器的设备都能看到该数据包。
  • 局限性： 由于广播特性，以太网集线器容易导致网络拥塞和碰撞，因此在现代网络中很少使用。它不具备智能化的数据转发能力。

1. 以太网交换机（Ethernet Switch）：

• • 功能： 以太网交换机是一种更智能和高效的网络设备。它可以根据目标设备的 MAC 地址来有选择地转发数据包，而不是简单地广播到所有端口。
  • 工作方式： 当交换机学习网络上各设备的 MAC 地址时，它可以构建一个地址表，然后根据目标地址将数据包直接转发到相应的端口，从而减少网络拥塞并提高效率。
  • 性能优势： 与集线器不同，交换机能够提供更高的带宽，并支持全双工通信，有效避免碰撞。它是现代局域网中主流的网络设备。

Metropolitan area network(MAN)

Wide area network(WAN)

Network topology

Topology : arrangement of nodes of a computer network

Topology = layout

physical topology : where to place these all nodes

logical topology: mean how the data is going to flow from this node to another node

although two nodes may be in different places

bus topology

1.There is a common transmission medium

all node are connnected to this transmission medium

2.The problem is if A want to send some data to B,everyone will receive a copy of the data signal including B,but all other will reject or deny this packet

3.unidirectional

If the link/transmission medium fails,the entire Network go down

No security---everyone can receive data from one node

ring topology

1.the communication in cable is unidirectional

but two node can communicate directionally via other computer

2.whoever hold the token have the trun to send data

after sometime,the token will be passed to next node

a link or node failure will definitely affect the entire network

no security ---data transmission across multiple nodes

each node need two port

so TNOP is 2*N

star topology

the center node is hub or switch

a failure in this central node will affect the entire network

the overload to the hub/switch will affact the performance of network----called bottleneck

each node/device need one port

but the center need port whose nuber equal to the number of nodes

so TNOP is related to N which is 2*N

extended star topology

connect two star topology with the help of repeater

mesh topology

hybrid topology

IP addressing

IP--Internet Protocol

IP Address

logical address---IP address of the device can be changed based on the location of the device

each IP address has four part

how to get IP address of device in windows

MAC addressing

MAC address will not change wherever the device is.

communication happens with the help of both IP address and MAC address

in detail:

Router need IP address to identify which LAN the data is to send to

and switch need MAC address to identify which the end device the data is to send to

so IP address is router friendly address

MAC address is switch friendly address

Port addressin

port address/port nubmer:

see port address/number

resourse monitor

Attach source lP address and destination IP address ----requirment for router

Attach source MAC address and destination MAC address---requirment for local area network/switch

Attach source port number and destination port number---requirment for operating system/computer

Switching technique

switching

finding the best route for transferring the data from the sender to the receiver

Switching technique

circuit switching

message switching

message is transferred as a complete/single unit

messsage is forwarded using (store and forward) mechanism

in detail:

store mechanism:

if sender want to send a big data,it is broken into individual entities or pieces

each piece is transmitted to the intermediary node

the intermediary node receive all the small pieces and construct the full message

forward mechanism:

after the intermediary node getting that full message(complete unit).then the intermediaty node only forward the full message

packet switching

any packet may be received at the destination in any order

two approcah:

datagram approach

virtual circut approach

during the transmission,the route is fixed

in diffrerent transmission times,the route can be estabilshed different

Layering in computer network

Layering

if there is one problem in one layer,we don't need to check other layers

protocol in layering

data is added with IP,MAC and port address

in each layer,each of these address is taken care of by different protocol

OSI Reference model

OSI ---Open system interconnection

OSI is a model for designing a network architecture that is flexible,robust and interoprable

Interoprable ---Irrespect of hardware and software,the communication should be happen in different systems

The OSI is never implemented and is not a protocol ,it is just guidelines

OSI Model" 和 "OSI Reference Model" 在语境中可以互换使用，指的都是这个分层网络模型。这个模型将计算机网络通信分为七个层次，每个层次执行特定的功能，并通过接口定义了不同层次之间的通信协议。这七个层次分别是物理层、数据链路层、网络层、传输层、会话层、表示层和应用层

layers in the OSI reference model

the order of layers are important

How each layer interact with each other

if data move from A to B:

1.Before data generated by the application from A is on the cable,the data has to go through all the seven layers,finally,the physical layer will place the data on the cable

2.the intermediate node(router/switch,,,) will only process the data from A upom threes layers(physical , data link , netork)

beacuse we don't want application data to be accessed by the routers--which is insecurity

3.the data will finally be given to the physical layer of B,then data linke layer,,,,,,application layer

Each layer's functionalities/services

add the transport layer information

add the network layer information

add the data link layer information

convert the entire dato to zero/one

if the medium is wireless,the entire group of one/zero is converted into waves

Application layers:

1.it enable the user to access the network resources --the one that directlu interact with the user

2.it provide file transfer and access management(FTAM), mail service and directory service

1. 启用用户访问网络资源：

• • 应用层允许软件应用程序与网络进行通信，使用户能够与网络资源（如数据库、文件和服务）交互和访问。
  • 在这一层操作的协议包括用于网页浏览的HTTP（超文本传输协议）以及用于文件传输的FTP（文件传输协议）等。

1. 提供文件传输和访问管理（FTAM）、邮件服务和目录服务：

• • 文件传输和访问管理（FTAM）： 这可能指的是传输文件和管理对文件的访问权限。在这一层操作的协议包括FTP以及其安全变种SFTP（SSH文件传输协议），用于安全文件传输和访问管理。
  • 邮件服务： 这很可能是指电子邮件服务。在应用层，用于发送电子邮件的协议有SMTP（简单邮件传输协议），而用于接收电子邮件的协议有POP3/IMAP。
  • 目录服务： 包括帮助组织和定位网络资源的服务。LDAP（轻量级目录访问协议）是一种在应用层用于目录服务的协议。

Presentation layer

1.it is concerned with syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two system

syntax--the structure or the format of data that is being sent

semantics --the meaning of each sections of bits

2.it provide three services

translation

encryption

compression

1. 语法（Syntax）：

• • 表示层负责定义和管理数据的结构或格式，也就是语法。这包括确定如何编码和格式化数据，以便在发送和接收系统之间进行正确的解释和处理。
  • 举例来说，如果两个系统之间正在交换图像文件，表示层将规定图像文件的格式，确保发送系统以正确的方式编码图像，而接收系统能够正确地解码并显示图像。

1. 语义（Semantics）：

• • 表示层负责定义数据的含义，以确保在不同系统之间的信息交换是有意义的。这包括确定数据中各个部分的含义，以便接收系统能够正确地理解发送系统的意图。
  • 例如，如果在两个系统之间传输的是文本数据，表示层将规定字符的含义和单词的组合方式，以确保接收系统能够正确地解释文本的含义。

3.提供三种服务：

• 翻译（Translation）： 表示层可以提供翻译服务，将一个系统特定的数据格式转换为另一个系统可以理解的格式。这有助于不同系统之间的互操作性。
• 加密（Encryption）： 表示层可以提供加密服务，以确保通过网络传输的数据在传输过程中得到保护。加密可以防止未经授权的访问和信息泄露。
• 压缩（Compression）： 表示层可以提供压缩服务，以减小数据传输的大小。这有助于提高网络效率，减少传输时间，并降低网络负担。

Session layer

1.it established,maintains and synchronizes the interaction among communicating devices

2.it provide dialog control and syschronization

dialog control --a communcation between two process to take place either in a half duplex way or full duplex

syschroniztion -allow a process to add checkpoint ot synchronization points

1. 建立、维护和同步通信设备之间的交互：

• • 会话层负责在通信设备之间建立、维护和同步会话（session）。会话是指两个设备之间的持久性通信连接，可以是简单的一次性交互，也可以是长时间的数据交换。
  • 举例来说，如果两台计算机正在进行文件传输，会话层将负责建立并维护这个文件传输的通信会话，确保数据在传输过程中的一致性。

1. 提供对话控制和同步：

• • 会话层为通信设备提供对话控制，确保数据的有序传输。这包括定义和管理对话的开始、中断、恢复和结束等操作，以保证数据的完整性和正确性。
  • 例如，如果两个设备正在进行数据交换，会话层将确保数据的传输是有序的，而不会发生混淆或错误。

Transport layer

1.It is responsible for (process to process) delivery of the entire message

the communication is actually between a process of application in A and another process of application in B

2.it provide

port addressing

segmentation adn reassembly

connection control ----is explained in switch technique section

network support both connection oriented and connectionless sevice because of connection control

end to end flow control

if sender is faster than receiver, flow control means speed matching mechanism

error control

1. 负责整个消息的进程到进程的交付：

• • 传输层主要负责将整个消息从一个应用程序中的进程传递到另一个应用程序中的进程。这意味着通信实际上是在计算机A的应用程序进程和计算机B的应用程序进程之间进行的。
  • 举例来说，如果计算机A上的应用程序需要向计算机B上的应用程序发送一段文本消息，传输层将负责确保这段消息从一个进程传递到另一个进程。

1. 提供以下功能：

• • 端口寻址（Port Addressing）： 传输层使用端口号来标识不同的应用程序进程。这样，数据可以正确地传递到接收方应用程序的特定进程。
  • 分段和重组（Segmentation and Reassembly）： 数据在传输前可能需要被分割成较小的片段，然后在接收端重新组装。传输层负责这个分段和重组的过程。
  • 连接控制（Connection Control）： 传输层可以提供连接控制，确保通信的可靠性和顺序性。这包括建立、维护和终止连接。
  • 端到端流量控制（End-to-End Flow Control）： 传输层可以调整数据的传输速率，以防止接收方被过多的数据淹没。这有助于保持整个通信链路的平衡。
  • 错误控制（Error Control）： 传输层可以检测并纠正在数据传输中可能发生的错误，确保数据的准确性。

Network layer

1.it is responsible for delivery of data from original source to the destination network

2.it provides

logical/IP addresssing

routing ---help router to take decision using IP address

1. 负责将数据从原始源头传递到目标网络：

• • 网络层在计算机网络中扮演着重要的角色，负责处理数据包的传递，确保数据能够从源头正确地传递到目标网络。这涉及到在整个网络中进行适当的路由和转发，以确保数据能够有效地到达目的地。

1. 提供以下功能：

• • 逻辑/IP地址分配（Logical/IP Addressing）： 网络层使用逻辑或IP地址来标识连接到网络的各个设备。这样，数据包就能够被正确路由到目标设备，确保通信的准确性。
  • 路由（Routing）： 网络层负责确定数据在网络中的最佳路径，以确保数据包从源头到达目的地的过程中能够经过适当的网络节点。这涉及到智能地选择路径，以便在网络上高效地传递数据。

data link layer

1.it is responsible for moving data(frames) from one node(router,,,) to another node(router,,,)

2.it provide

framing(creating the frames)---group the bits of ones/zeros as frames

physical(MAC) addressing ----devices can take decision with the help of mac address

flow control

error control

access control

1. 负责将数据从一个节点传输到另一个节点：

• • 数据链路层是计算机网络体系结构中的一层，主要负责在相邻节点之间移动数据。这可能涉及到直接连接的两个设备，或通过一个共享的物理媒体进行通信。

1. 提供以下功能：

• • 帧封装（Framing）： 数据链路层将网络层的数据包封装成帧，以便在物理媒体上传输。这包括在数据包前后添加标识符，以便接收方能够正确地识别和提取数据。
  • 物理地址分配（Physical Addressing）： 数据链路层使用物理地址（通常是MAC地址）来标识连接到共享媒体上的设备。这确保数据被准确地传递给目标设备。
  • 流量控制（Flow Control）： 数据链路层负责调整数据的传输速率，以防止发送方发送过多的数据，导致接收方无法处理。这有助E于维持整个通信链路的平衡。
  • 错误控制（Error Control）： 数据链路层通过使用校验和等技术来检测和纠正传输中的错误，确保数据在传输过程中的准确性。
  • 访问控制（Access Control）： 数据链路层通过协议和算法来控制当多个设备共享同一物理媒体时，哪个设备有权利发送数据。这有助于防止冲突和碰撞，提高网络效率。

physical layer

1.it is responsible for transmitting bits over a medium

it also proide electrical and mechanical specifications

2.it provide

physical characteristics of media

representation of bits

data rate

syncronization of bits

line configuration

phusical topology

1. 负责在介质上传输比特：

• • 物理层是计算机网络体系结构中的最底层，主要负责将比特从一个设备传输到另一个设备，通过物理媒体（如电缆、光纤、空气等）进行传输。

1. 提供以下功能：

• • 介质的物理特性（Physical Characteristics of Media）： 物理层定义了传输介质的物理特性，例如电缆的类型、信号的传播方式以及光纤的特性。这确保了在特定的物理媒体上能够有效地传输数据。
  • 比特的表示（Representation of Bits）： 物理层定义了比特在物理媒体上传输时的表示方式，例如电压的高低、光信号的有无等。这确保了发送方和接收方能够正确地解释和理解比特。
  • 数据速率（Data Rate）： 物理层规定了在网络中传输数据的速率，通常以比特每秒（bps）为单位。这决定了在特定时间内传输的比特数量。
  • 比特的同步（Synchronization of Bits）： 物理层确保发送方和接收方的时钟同步，以确保在传输过程中能够准确地识别比特的开始和结束。这有助于确保数据的正确接收。
  • 线路配置（Line Configuration）： 物理层定义了数据传输线路的配置方式，例如是点对点连接还是多点连接。这有助于决定数据是如何在网络中流动的。
  • 物理拓扑（Physical Topology）： 物理层规定了网络中设备的布局方式，例如总线、星形、环形等拓扑结构。这决定了设备之间的物理连接方式。

TCP/IP model

Each layer will take care of each of these addressing(IP,MAC,port address)

TCP/IP model is the actual implemented model

TCP/IP模型是另一种网络架构模型，与OSI模型类似，但它包含四个主要层次：网络接口层（对应OSI的物理层和数据链路层）、网络层、传输层和应用层。这个模型是因为它的两个主要协议：传输控制协议（TCP）和互联网协议（IP）而得名。TCP负责可靠的端到端通信，而IP负责在网络中路由数据包。

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

PPP---point-to-point protocol

Ethernet protocol

NAT---Network address translation

TCP ---Transmission Control protocol

UDP --- User datagram protocol

DNS --- Domain name server

BOOTP---Bootstrap protocol

DHCP ---Dynamic host configutation protocol

SMTP -Simple mail transfer protocol

POP--Post office protocol

IMAP ---Internet message access protocol

FTP ---File Transfer protocol

TFTP --- Trivial File Transfer protocol

HTTP---HyperText Transfer Protocol

Protocol data unit(PDU)

the name of data after the layer finish process

OSI vs TCP/IP model

Addressing in Network

Port addressing and IP addressing

a--port number(16bits) of source process a ,j--port number of destination process j

A -IP address(32bits--IPV4,128bits--IPV6) of source ,P -- IP address of destination

H2 is mac address(48bits) of the next router and source,T2 deals with the errot control related part

there is no mac address of the destination,it is difficult to find the mac address of the destination

the computer A put the mac address of the first immediate router in H2

IP addressing and MAC addressing

1.left of "/" is IP address

right of "/" is mac address

2.in this picture,the router has two interface(enter interface,outing interface)

1).the router will swap the mac address with mac address of( the outing interface of the router and enter interface of the next router/destination)

2).when the router receive the data,it will further go to the network layer

check the IP address of data and compare with IP address of outing interface of router,

if they are not consistant,the router will forward the data to the destination/next node

3).so the router only process data over the three level layer

let computer networking itself to take care of mac address

Networking command

ipconfig

1.every IP address is accompanied by the subnet mask

the subnet mask only determine who are the neighbors in our network

if this computer want to contact other computer in our network,it can be done easily with subne mask

2.default gateway ----IP address of the first router the computer is hitting

the computer will send the data or the request to the default gateway(the first router)

it is responsible for the router to forward the data to other routr

ipconfig/all

physical address=MAC address

nslookup

DNS---domain network service, whenever any name is given,the DNS server respond the corresponding IP address from the name that is given

ex. if give "www.google.com" to DNS server, the DNS server replies with the IP address of "www.google.com"

tracert

trace the route how the packet from my computer is reching the destination computer

tracert "the IP address of the destination computer that we want to trace"

Cisco packet tracer

Cisio Packet Tracer

cisio is a person who is leader in networking

Cisio Packet Tracer is a network simulation tool used for practice ,discovery and troubleshooting

Download : Resource Hub: Get Packet Tracer, Virtual Machines, and More

HUB

also known as network hub

hub works at the physical layer of the OSI model

used to set up a local area network(LAN) which is a stat tppology

has multiple ports to connect devices --one port would be the interface of LAN

working of hub

When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

Switch

working of switch

switch send the data to the exact destination

muti-layer switch

layer 3 switch

Router

router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks

used to connect two devices in two different local area networks

or two different metropolitan area networks

or two different wide area networks

or a local area network and its Internet Service Provider(ISP)'s network

(if two area networks connect,it means all device between two network can commmunicate further with switch)

it is 3 network layer device

it has memmory storing routing table

"Router" 一词通常用于描述一种网络设备，它用于在不同网络之间传递数据包。Router 的 "interface"（接口）指的是设备上连接到不同网络的端口或插槽。

Router 的接口可以有多个，每个接口通常与一个网络相连。这些接口可以是物理接口，例如以太网端口或光纤端口，也可以是逻辑接口，例如虚拟局域网（VLAN）接口。每个接口都有一个唯一的标识符，通常称为接口名称或接口编号。

对于一台路由器来说，它可以有多个接口，这取决于设备的型号和设计。一些路由器专为小型家庭网络设计，可能只有几个接口，而企业级或服务提供商级别的路由器可能有数十个或数百个接口，用于连接不同的网络和设备

working of router

switch vs router

Repeater

whatever the repeater receive,it has to regenerate and send

Bridge

bridge can interconnect two different LAN that running the same protocol

type of bridge

transparent bridge

the station/nodes are unware of the existence of bridge

source routing bridge

透明桥接（Transparent Bridge）和源路由桥（Source Routing Bridges）是两种不同类型的网络桥接设备，它们在桥接操作和网络通信方面有一些显著的区别。

1. 透明桥接（Transparent Bridge）：

• • 特点：透明桥接器工作在数据链路层，通过学习目标地址来建立和维护一个桥接表（MAC地址表），从而实现数据帧的有效转发。
  • 工作方式：透明桥接器在网络中运行，但连接到它的站点不知道桥接器的存在，因此对站点而言是透明的，无感知的。
  • 配置变化：即使在网络中添加或移除透明桥接器，连接到网络的站点无需重新配置，网络拓扑的变化对站点是透明的。

1. 源路由桥（Source Routing Bridges）：

• • 特点：源路由桥的路由操作由源站点执行，数据帧中包含指定路由的信息，桥接器根据这些信息进行转发。
  • 工作方式：与透明桥接器不同，源路由桥要求源站点指定数据帧的传输路径，从而控制路由的选择。
  • 配置变化：同样，即使添加或移除源路由桥，连接到网络的站点也无需重新配置。不过，源站点需要能够指定路由信息以实现源路由的功能。

总体而言，透明桥接器更常见，因为它们提供了更简单、自动化的桥接操作，而且对连接的站点更为透明。源路由桥在一些特定场景下可能会被使用，但相对较少见。

router vs bridge

both can interconnect two different LAN

router:

--layer 3 device--deal with IP and MAC address

can interconnect two different LAN with different protocol

bridge

--layer 2 device ---deal only with MAC address

can interconnect two different LAN with different protocol

Brouter

combiantion of a bridge and a router

it can be layer 3 or 2 device

Modem

act as modulator and demodulator

modulator : carry digital information on an analog carrier signal

demodulator: retrieve the digital signal from analog signal

Firewall

security device

it filter the packets based on the IP address/port number/application data

Network interface card

a component of PC that connect PC to the networking device

即电脑上网线的接口

Q&A