From the highly regarded Elements of Java Style to the pages of JavaWorld (see Java Tip 67), many well-meaning Java gurus encourage the use of the double-checked locking (DCL) idiom. There's only one problem with it -- this clever-seeming idiom may not work.
Double-checked locking can be hazardous to your code!
This week JavaWorld focuses on the dangers of the double-checked locking idiom. Read more about how this seemingly harmless shortcut can wreak havoc on your code:What is DCL?
The DCL idiom was designed to support lazy initialization, which occurs when a class defers initialization of an owned object until it is actually needed:
class SomeClass { private Resource resource = null; public Resource getResource() { if (resource == null) resource = new Resource(); return resource; } }
Security issues have long bedeviled users of Oracle's Java SE, and on Monday the FTC's efforts to
Why would you want to defer initialization? Perhaps creating a Resource is an expensive operation, and users of SomeClass might not actually call getResource() in any given run. In that case, you can avoid creating the Resource entirely. Regardless, the SomeClass object can be created faster if it doesn't have to also create a Resourceat construction time. Delaying some initialization operations until a user actually needs their results can help programs start up faster.
What if you try to use SomeClass in a multithreaded application? Then a race condition results: two threads could simultaneously execute the test to see ifresource is null and, as a result, initialize resource twice. In a multithreaded environment, you should declare getResource() to be synchronized.
Unfortunately, synchronized methods run much slower -- as much as 100 times slower -- than ordinary unsynchronized methods. One of the motivations for lazy initialization is efficiency, but it appears that in order to achieve faster program startup, you have to accept slower execution time once the program starts. That doesn't sound like a great trade-off.
DCL purports to give us the best of both worlds. Using DCL, the getResource() method would look like this:
class SomeClass { private Resource resource = null; public Resource getResource() { if (resource == null) { synchronized { if (resource == null) resource = new Resource(); } } return resource; } }
After the first call to getResource(), resource is already initialized, which avoids the synchronization hit in the most common code path. DCL also averts the race condition by checking resource a second time inside the synchronized block; that ensures that only one thread will try to initialize resource. DCL seems like a clever optimization -- but it doesn't work.
Meet the Java Memory Model
More accurately, DCL is not guaranteed to work. To understand why, we need to look at the relationship between the JVM and the computer environment on which it runs. In particular, we need to look at the Java Memory Model (JMM), defined in Chapter 17 of the Java Language Specification, by Bill Joy, Guy Steele, James Gosling, and Gilad Bracha (Addison-Wesley, 2000), which details how Java handles the interaction between threads and memory.
Unlike most other languages, Java defines its relationship to the underlying hardware through a formal memory model that is expected to hold on all Java platforms, enabling Java's promise of "Write Once, Run Anywhere." By comparison, other languages like C and C++ lack a formal memory model; in such languages, programs inherit the memory model of the hardware platform on which the program runs.
When running in a synchronous (single-threaded) environment, a program's interaction with memory is quite simple, or at least it appears so. Programs store items into memory locations and expect that they will still be there the next time those memory locations are examined.
Actually, the truth is quite different, but a complicated illusion maintained by the compiler, the JVM, and the hardware hides it from us. Though we think of programs as executing sequentially -- in the order specified by the program code -- that doesn't always happen. Compilers, processors, and caches are free to take all sorts of liberties with our programs and data, as long as they don't affect the result of the computation. For example, compilers can generate instructions in a different order from the obvious interpretation the program suggests and store variables in registers instead of memory; processors may execute instructions in parallel or out of order; and caches may vary the order in which writes commit to main memory. The JMM says that all of these various reorderings and optimizations are acceptable, so long as the environment maintains as-if-serial semantics -- that is, so long as you achieve the same result as you would have if the instructions were executed in a strictly sequential environment.
Compilers, processors, and caches rearrange the sequence of program operations in order to achieve higher performance. In recent years, we've seen tremendous improvements in computing performance. While increased processor clock rates have contributed substantially to higher performance, increased parallelism (in the form of pipelined and superscalar execution units, dynamic instruction scheduling and speculative execution, and sophisticated multilevel memory caches) has also been a major contributor. At the same time, the task of writing compilers has grown much more complicated, as the compiler must shield the programmer from these complexities.
理解：编译器，处理器和缓存会将程序的操作进行重新排列，已达到更高效的表现。
When writing single-threaded programs, you cannot see the effects of these various instruction or memory operation reorderings. However, with multithreaded programs, the situation is quite different -- one thread can read memory locations that another thread has written. If thread A modifies some variables in a certain order, in the absence of synchronization, thread B may not see them in the same order -- or may not see them at all, for that matter. That could result because the compiler reordered the instructions or temporarily stored a variable in a register and wrote it out to memory later; or because the processor executed the instructions in parallel or in a different order than the compiler specified; or because the instructions were in different regions of memory, and the cache updated the corresponding main memory locations in a different order than the one in which they were written. Whatever the circumstances, multithreaded programs are inherently less predictable, unless you explicitly ensure that threads have a consistent view of memory by using synchronization.
What does synchronized really mean?
Java treats each thread as if it runs on its own processor with its own local memory, each talking to and synchronizing with a shared main memory. Even on a single-processor system, that model makes sense because of the effects of memory caches and the use of processor registers to store variables. When a thread modifies a location in its local memory, that modification should eventually show up in the main memory as well, and the JMM defines the rules for when the JVM must transfer data between local and main memory. The Java architects realized that an overly restrictive memory model would seriously undermine program performance. They attempted to craft a memory model that would allow programs to perform well on modern computer hardware while still providing guarantees that would allow threads to interact in predictable ways.
Java's primary tool for rendering interactions between threads predictably is the synchronized keyword. Many programmers think of synchronized strictly in terms of enforcing a mutual exclusion semaphore (mutex) to prevent execution of critical sections by more than one thread at a time. Unfortunately, that intuition does not fully describe what synchronized means.
The semantics of synchronized do indeed include mutual exclusion of execution based on the status of a semaphore, but they also include rules about the synchronizing thread's interaction with main memory. In particular, the acquisition or release of a lock triggers a memory barrier -- a forced synchronization between the thread's local memory and main memory. (Some processors -- like the Alpha -- have explicit machine instructions for performing memory barriers.) When a thread exits a synchronized block, it performs a write barrier -- it must flush out any variables modified in that block to main memory before releasing the lock. Similarly, when entering a synchronized block, it performs a read barrier -- it is as if the local memory has been invalidated, and it must fetch any variables that will be referenced in the block from main memory.
理解：synchronized的语义根据信号的不同状态会有互斥的执行动作，同时也包含了主存和线程同步交互的规则。获取和释放锁会触发内存屏障——线程内存和主存间强制性的同步。当一个线程离开同步块的时候，synchronized扮演着写锁的作用，也就是在释放锁之前，必须将修改的变量值刷新到主存中。同样，当线程进入同步块的时候，synchronized扮演着读锁的作用，他必须将需要引用的变量从主存中更新。
The proper use of synchronization guarantees that one thread will see the effects of another in a predictable manner. Only when threads A and B synchronize on the same object will the JMM guarantee that thread B sees the changes made by thread A, and that changes made by thread A inside the synchronized block appear atomically to thread B (either the whole block executes or none of it does.) Furthermore, the JMM ensures that synchronized blocks that synchronize on the same object will appear to execute in the same order as they do in the program.
理解：正确的运用同步块能够保证线程间操作的可预见性。只有当两个线程在同一个对象（监视器）下同步执行的时候，java的内存模型才能够保证操作的可见性，而且线程A在同步块中做出的改变将原子性的出现在线程B中。JMM甚至能够保证相同监视器下的同步块执行顺序和程序代码相同。
So what's broken about DCL?
DCL relies on an unsynchronized use of the resource field. That appears to be harmless, but it is not. To see why, imagine that thread A is inside the synchronized block, executing the statement resource = new Resource(); while thread B is just entering getResource(). Consider the effect on memory of this initialization. Memory for the new Resourceobject will be allocated; the constructor for Resource will be called, initializing the member fields of the new object; and the field resource of SomeClass will be assigned a reference to the newly created object.
However, since thread B is not executing inside a synchronized block, it may see these memory operations in a different order than the one thread A executes. It could be the case that B sees these events in the following order (and the compiler is also free to reorder the instructions like this): allocate memory, assign reference to resource, call constructor. Suppose thread B comes along after the memory has been allocated and the resource field is set, but before the constructor is called. It sees that resource is not null, skips the synchronized block, and returns a reference to a partially constructed Resource! Needless to say, the result is neither expected nor desired.
When presented with this example, many people are skeptical at first. Many highly intelligent programmers have tried to fix DCL so that it does work, but none of these supposedly fixed versions work either. It should be noted that DCL might, in fact, work on some versions of some JVMs -- as few JVMs actually implement the JMM properly. However, you don't want the correctness of your programs to rely on implementation details -- especially errors -- specific to the particular version of the particular JVM you use.
Other concurrency hazards are embedded in DCL -- and in any unsynchronized reference to memory written by another thread, even harmless-looking reads. Suppose thread A has completed initializing the Resource and exits the synchronizedblock as thread B enters getResource(). Now the Resource is fully initialized, and thread A flushes its local memory out to main memory. The resource's fields may reference other objects stored in memory through its member fields, which will also be flushed out. While thread B may see a valid reference to the newly createdResource, because it didn't perform a read barrier, it could still see stale values ofresource's member fields.
Volatile doesn't mean what you think, either
A commonly suggested nonfix is to declare the resource field of SomeClass as volatile. However, while the JMM prevents writes to volatile variables from being reordered with respect to one another and ensures that they are flushed to main memory immediately, it still permits reads and writes of volatile variables to be reordered with respect to nonvolatile reads and writes. That means -- unless allResource fields are volatile as well -- thread B can still perceive the constructor's effect as happening after resourceis set to reference the newly created Resource.
Alternatives to DCL
The most effective way to fix the DCL idiom is to avoid it. The simplest way to avoid it, of course, is to use synchronization. Whenever a variable written by one thread is being read by another, you should use synchronization to guarantee that modifications are visible to other threads in a predictable manner.
Another option for avoiding the problems with DCL is to drop lazy initialization and instead use eager initialization. Rather than delay initialization of resource until it is first used, initialize it at construction. The class loader, which synchronizes on the classes' Class object, executes static initializer blocks at class initialization time. That means that the effect of static initializers is automatically visible to all threads as soon as the class loads.
One special case of lazy initialization that does work as expected without synchronization is the static singleton. When the initialized object is a static field of a class with no other methods or fields, the JVM effectively performs lazy initialization automatically. In the following example, theResource will not be constructed until the field resource is first referenced by another class, and any memory writes that result from resource's initialization are automatically visible to all threads:
class MySingleton { public static Resource resource = new Resource(); }
The initialization will be performed when the JVM initializes the class. SinceMySingleton has no other fields or methods, class initialization occurs when theresource field is first referenced.
DCL also works with 32-bit primitive values. If the resource field in SomeClass were an integer (but not a long or a double), then SomeClass would behave as expected. However, you cannot use this behavior to fix the problems with DCL when you want to lazily initialize an object reference or more than one primitive value.
Will the JMM be fixed?
Bill Pugh of the University of Maryland is preparing a Java Specification Request (JSR) to fix some of the problems with the current JMM. These improvements include:
- Clarification of the JMM
- Relaxation of some requirements to allow for common compiler optimizations
- Reduction of synchronization's performance impact in the absence of real contention
- Modifications to
volatile's semantics in order to prevent reordering of writes to volatile variables with writes to other variables
At the time of this writing, this JSR has not yet entered the Java Community Process.
Conclusion
The JMM was the first attempt to define shared memory semantics in the context of the language specification for a general-purpose programming language. Unfortunately, it is quite complicated, poorly understood, and not consistently implemented across JVMs. Not surprisingly, the JMM's complexity resulted in JVM implementation errors and widespread misunderstandings among users -- such as the misperception of how synchronized works, which leads to unsafe idioms like DCL. While there are proposals on the table for a simpler memory model, it will be quite a while before we see such fundamental changes to the Java specification, if ever.
In the meantime, carefully examine your multithreaded programs to ensure that any reference to a variable written by another thread is properly synchronized.
Brian Goetz is a professional software developer with over 15 years of experience. He is a principal consultant at Quiotix, a software development and consulting firm located in Los Altos, Calif.
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