计算机专业英语-2

 

第7讲

Ch8.3 SOFTWARE DESIGN

Software design is a creative process. It requires a certain amount of flair on the part of the designer and the final design is normally an iteration from a number of preliminary designs. Design cannot be learned from a book – it must be practiced and learnt by experience and study of existing systems. Good design Is the key to effective software engineering. A well-designed software system Is straightforward to Implement and maintain, easily understood and reliable. Badly designed systems, although they may work, are likely to be expensive to maintain, difficult to test and unreliable. The design stage is therefore the most critical part of the software development process.

Until fairly recently, software design was largely an ad hoc process. Given a set of requirements, usually in natural language, an informal design was prepared, often in the form of a flowchart. Coding then commenced and the design was modified as the system was implemented. When the implementation stage was complete, the design had usually changed so much from its initial specification that the original design document was a totally inadequate description of the system.

This approach to software design was responsible for many dramatic and very expensive project failures. Now it is realized that completely informal notations such as flowcharts, which are close to the programming language, are inadequate vehicles for formulating and expressing system design. It is recognized that precise (although not necessarily formal) specification is an essential part of the design process and that software design is an iterative, multi-stage activity which cannot be represented in any single notation. Accordingly, a number of design notations such as data flow diagrams. HIPO charts, structure diagrams and design description languages have been developed which are superior to flowcharts for expressing software designs.

Given a requirements definition, the software engineer must use this to derive the design of a programming system which satisfies these requirements. This derivation is accomplished in a number of stages:

(1) The subsystems making up the programming system must be established.

(2) Each subsystem must be decomposed into separate components and the subsystem specification established by defining the operation of these components.

(3) Each program may then be designed in terms of interacting subcomponents.

(4) Each component must then be refined. This normally entails specifying each component as hierarchy of subcomponents.

(5) At some stage of this refinement process, the algorithms used in each component must be specified in detail.

As well as these various stages of programming system design, the software engineer may also be required to design communication mechanisms allowing processes in the system to communicate. He or she may have to design file structures, and will almost certainly have do design the data structures used in his programs. He or she will have to design test cases to validate his programs.

There is no definitive way of establishing what is meant by a “good” design. Depending on the application and the particular project requirements, a good design might be a design which allows very efficient code to be produced, it might be a minimal design where the implementation is as compact as possible, or it might be the most maintainable design. This latter criterion is the criterion of “goodness” adopted here. A maintainable design implies that the cost of system changes is minimized and this means that the design should be understandable and that changes should be local in effect. Both of these are achieved if the software design is highly cohesive and loosely coupled.

Effective software design is best accomplished by using a consistent design methodology. There have been a vast number of design methodologies developed and used in different applications. Some of these are described by Peters (1980) and by Blank and Krijger (1983). In essence, most of these methodologies can be classified into one of three areas:

(1) Top-down functional design. The system is designed from a functional viewpoint, starting with a high-level view and progressively refining this into a more detailed design. This methodology is exemplified by Structured Design and stepwise refinement.

(2) Object-oriented design. The system is viewed as a collection of objects rather than as functions with messages passed from object to object. Each object has its own set of associated operations. Object-oriented design is based on the idea of information hiding which was first put forward by Parnas (1972) and which has been described more recently by Robson (1981) and Booch (1983).

(3) Data-driven design. This methodology, suggested by Jackson (1975) and Warnier (1977) suggests that the structure of a software system should reflect the structure of the data processed by that system. Therefore, the software design is derived from an analysis of the input and output system data.

 

 

EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into Chinese.(P147)

1) Software: The programs that make a computer system function. Software consists of the operating system, all sorts of specialized programs, procedures, routines, and subroutines such as translators and utility programs.

2) Software Driver: Software designed to support the interface between a computer and its associated peripheral devices. A software driver handles any protocol difference between the equipments by changing the format of data as necessary.

3) Software-Compatible: The ability of a computer or other programmable devices to use specific software products.

4) CASE: An acronym with two interpretations. Computer-aided software engineering and computer-aided systems engineering.

5) Dataflow diagram: A graphical chart that depicts the flow of data among internal processes, external entities, and data stores.

6) Procedure specification: A statement of the logic within a process in a dataflow diagram. A procedure specification explains how an input to a process is transformed into an output.

7) Requirements planning: Considering and estimating the inputs, outputs, filing, storage, processing, constraints, costs and benefits of a system.

 

 

 

 

 

 

第8讲

Ch9.2 SOFTWARE OF OFFICE AUTOMATION

1. Microsoft Office 2000

Microsoft Office 2000, the latest edition of the world’s best-selling office suite, is a collection of the more popular Microsoft application software products. Microsoft Office 2000 is available in Standard, Small Business, Professional, Premium, and Developer editions. The Microsoft Office 2000 Premium Edition includes Microsoft Word 2000, Microsoft Excel 2000, Microsoft Access 2000, Microsoft PowerPoint 2000, Microsoft Publisher 2000, Microsoft FrontPage 2000, Microsoft PhotoDraw 2000, Microsoft Outlook 2000, and Internet Explorer. Microsoft Office 2000 allows you to work more efficiently, communicate better, and improve the appearance of the documents you create.

One of the CD-ROMs that accompanies Microsoft office 2000 contains a clip art gallery that you can use in any of the applications to enhance the appearance of a document. The gallery contains over 16 000 clip art images, sounds, photographs, animations, themes, and backgrounds. In addition, thousands of additional images are available from the Microsoft Clipart Gallery Live found on the Microsoft Web site. Hundreds of new images are added each month to this collection.

Menus and toolbars adjust to the way in which you work. As Microsoft Office detects which commands you use more frequently, these commands display at the top of the menu, and the infrequently used commands are placed in reserve. A button at the bottom of the menu allows you to expand the menu in order to view all its commands. More frequently used buttons on a toolbar display on the toolbar, while less frequently used buttons are not displayed.

Microsoft Office applications are self-repairing. If you accidentally delete a file that is needed to run an Office application, the Self-Repairing Application feature automatically finds the deleted file and reinstalls the file. This feature reduces the number of calls to technical support and increases user productivity.

In addition, Microsoft Office 2000 integrates its applications with the power of the Internet so you can share information, collaborate on projects, and conduct online meetings.

Each of the Microsoft Office 2000 applications makes publishing documents on a Web server as simple as saving a file on a hard disk. Once the file is placed on the Web server, users can view and edit the documents, and conduct Web discussions and live online meetings.

2. Microsoft Word 2000

Microsoft Word 2000 is a full-featured word processing program that allows you to create many types of personal and business communications, including announcements, letters, memos, business documents, and academic reports, as well as other forms of written documents.

The Microsoft Word AutoCorrect, Spelling, and Grammar features allow you to proofread documents for errors in spelling and grammar by identifying the errors and offering corrections as you type. As you create a specific document, such as a business letter or resume, Word provides wizards, which ask questions and then use your answers to format the document before you type the text of the document.

The Collect and Paste feature allows you to cut or copy as many as 12 objects (text, pictures, E-mail messages, and so on) and collect them on the Office Clipboard. Then you can paste them into the same document or different documents. Collect and Paste can be used within a single Office 2000 application or among multiple Office 2000 applications.

Microsoft Word makes it possible to access Web pages and search for information, design and publish Web pages on an intranet or the Internet, insert a hyperlink to a Web page in a word processing document, and retrieve pictures from other Web pages. Fig. 9-2 illustrates the top portion of a cover letter that contains a hyperlink (E-mail address) that allows you to send an E-mail message to the sender.

3. Microsoft Excel 2000

Microsoft Excel 2000 is a spreadsheet program that allows you to organize data, complete calculations, make decisions, graph data, develop professional looking reports, publish organized data on the Web, and access real-time data from Web sites. Fig. 9-3 illustrates the Microsoft Excel windows that contains the worksheet and 3-D column chart.

Using Microsoft Excel, you can create hyperlinks within a worksheet to access other Office 2000 documents on the network, an organization’s intranet, or the internet. You also can save worksheets as static and dynamic Web pages that can be viewed using your browser. Static Web pages cannot be changed by the person viewing them. Dynamic Web pages give the person viewing them many Excel capabilities in their browser. In addition, you can create and run queries to retrieve information from a Web page directly into a worksheet.

Fig. 9-4 illustrates a worksheet created by running a Web query to retrieve stock market information for two stocks (CMGI, Inc. And America Online, Inc.). The two hyperlinks were created using the Insert HyperLink button on the Standard toolbar, and the information in the worksheet was obtained from the Microsoft Investor Web site. The Refresh All button on the External Data toolbar allows you to update the last price of the stocks (Last).

Clicking the Refresh All button locates the Microsoft Investor Web site, retrieves current information for the stocks in the worksheet, and displays the updated information in the worksheet (Fig. 9-5). Notice that the stock prices and information in this worksheet differ from what was displayed in the worksheet in Fig. 9-4.

 

4. Microsoft PowerPoint 2000

Microsoft PowerPoint 2000 is a complete presentation graphics program that allows you to produce professional-looking presentations. PowerPoint gives you the flexibility to make informal presentations using overhead transparencies, make electronic presentations using a projection device attached to a personal computer, make formal presentations using 35mm slides, or run virtual presentations on the Internet.

In PowerPoint 2000, you create a presentation in Normal view, Normal view allows you to view the outline pane, slide pane, and notes pane at the same time. The first slide in the presentation created in Project 1 of the Microsoft PowerPoint section of this book displays in the Microsoft PowerPoint-[Studying] window illustrated in Fig. 9-6. The windows contains the outline pane with the presentation outline, the slide pane displaying the first slide in the presentation, and the note pane showing a note about the presentation.

 

Microsoft PowerPoint allows you to create dynamic presentations easily that include multimedia features such as sounds, movies, and pictures. PowerPoint comes with templates assist you in designing a presentation that can be used to create a slide show. PowerPoint also contains formatting for tables, so that you do not have to create the tables using Excel or Word. The Table Draw tool used in Word to draw tables also is available in PowerPoint.

PowerPoint allows you to publish presentations on the Internet or an intranet. Fig. 9-7 illustrates the first slide in a presentation to be published on the Internet. The slide displays in Slide view and contains a title (Microsoft Office 2000), subtitle (Guide to Office Applications), and creation date (Created: October 2001).

 

EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into Chinese.(P159(4)+2)

1) EDI – Electronic Data Interchange: the electronic transmission of business information, invoices, orders, etc. between trading partners – by Tradanet, for example.

2) Expert systems: Special types of program that attempt to embody human expertise in decision-making in a specific area of knowledge.

3) Desktop publishing: The use of microcomputer-based programs to integrate text, art, graphics, and other design elements into typeset-quality documents.

4) Videoconferencing: The use of sound and vision links to connect up two distant locations.

5) Superscalar Processor: A processor design that includes multiple-instruction pipelines, so that more than one instruction can be executed in the same pipeline stage simultaneously.

6) Microsoft PowerPoint 2000 is a complete presentation graphics program that allows you to produce professional-looking presentations. PowerPoint gives you the flexibility to make informal presentations using overhead transparencies, make electronic presentations using a projection device attached to a personal computer, make formal presentations using 35mm slides, or run virtual presentations on the Internet.

 

第9讲

Ch11.2  GRAPHICS SOFTWARE(1)

1. Desktop Publishing

Desktop publishing (DTP) grew naturally out of word processing though for a long time it was a separate activity. Recently the two have shown all the signs of growing back together again. The difference between basic word processing (WP) and DTP can be seen by considering the traditional function of the author of a printed document, as compared with the function of the printer. Before the advent of the desktop computer the author was responsible for producing a typescript – the process of assembling words in the right order. The printer then took those words and (perhaps with the aid of a designer or typographer) laid out the text in a particular manner, with or without appropriate illustrations, and printed them. The modern author does exactly what his predecessor did, but using a word processor, so that the words do not have to be retyped by the printer. What DTP does is to automate most of the functions of the printer, using a desktop computer. Four developments made this possible: the desktop computer with a GUI, DTP software, the laser printer and the page – description language – the PDL.

The importance of the laser printer was that a high-quality final product could be produced without the need for traditional typesetting processes (particularly the use of moveable type). The early laser printers, operating at 300 – 400 dots per inch (dpi) could not rival traditional printing processes but could produce results that were acceptable for many everyday purposes, and at a much lower price. The development of higher resolution laser printers and the digital type-setter(now called an image-setter) have since made it possible for work of almost any quality to be produced this way, though the term DTP, in some people’s minds, is still associated with a poorer quality, amateur product.

The importance of the GUI lays in the fact that the function of DTP software is to lay out pre-prepared text and graphics and a GUI allows the user to see immediately an accurate representation of the final product. This “what you see is what you get” (WYSIWYG) feature is vital to DTP though the slogan should be taken with a pinch of salt(意为有些保留). “what you see” on a 72 dpi screen can never be a wholly accurate representation of “what you get” on a 300 – 1200 dpi (or better) printer. The slogan should, perhaps, be changed to WYSIANATTCMTWYG—“what you see is as near as the technology can manage to what you get”. A necessary feature of a DTP package, therefore, is a zoom facility which displays a portion of the document at a larger size than normal so as to display it at something much closer to the resolution of the final printed product. Unfortunately only a small part of the document can be seen at any one time in this magnified mode.

This idea that the software enables the user to lay out, electronically, the various items of text and graphics was an important aspect of the first DTP program – Aldus PageMaker (now Adobe PageMaker). The screen is used to represent a ‘paste-board’, items can then be dragged onto the paper and rearranged until a pleasing result is obtained. Each of the text and graphic items is contained in its own “frame” – a rectangular boundary – as if it were on its own separate piece of paper, and these are then moved and pasted into position to form the final design.

2. Electronic Publishing (CD-ROMs and the Internet)

In recent years more and more material has been published electronically rather than on paper. The two most important new media have been CD-ROM and the Internet. As a result modern versions of many DTP packages and word processors provide the facility to output files in the formats which have been developed specifically for these two media — particularly HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and PDF (Portable Document Format).

The hyper-text principle has also been extended to link to photographs, drawings, sounds, video, animations, tables of figures, maps etc, and the benefit to the user is that vast amounts of information can be made available – in such a way that the user can decide how much to access and in what order. Print publishing on the other hand is still, essentially, a linear process. The reader reads the material in the order dictated by the writer, starting at the beginning and going on to the end. Hyperlinked material has no unique beginning and no unique end.

All this means that electronic publishing, though having many obvious overlaps with paper publishing, is very different medium needing different skills and different software.

New types of graphic-oriented software have been designed to produce electronic publications: web-publishing software; web-graphic design software; multimedia “authoring” software; PDF publishing software. One of the potential problems in establishing new software products of this kind is that of the proliferation of standards. Two standards, already referred to, are the PDF format – established by Adobe through its “Acrobat” suite of software. The other is the HTML format, now in the process of being extended to XML (Extensible ML), DHTML (Dynamic HTML) and VRML (Virtual Reality ML).

The PDF file format is used mainly for producing CD-ROM editions of existing printed products like computer manuals and magazines. To help establish the PDF format, Adobe created viewer software (called Acrobat “Viewer”), versions of which are available for all the major operating system free of charge. PDF is, in fact, an extension of PostScript – Adobe’s Page Description Language (PDL). For simple documents, all that is needed to produce a PDF document is a special “printer driver” that doesn’t print – or at least, doesn’t print on paper as one might expect but “prints” to a file. The beauty of this approach is that, in principle, any software designed to produce text output – like a word processor – can be used to produce a PDF document. Once the special printer driver software (Acrobat “PDF Writer”) has been installed as part of the operating system the user selects that driver at the output stage and “prints” to a PDF file any document created in that software.

The HTML format was designed as a way of describing the appearance of a Web page. Web viewers like “Netscape” and Microsoft’s “Internet Explorer” are widely available either free or at a small charge and for exactly the same reason that PDF viewers are free – an attempt by software houses to establish their software as the dominant standard. HTML can also be thought of as a PDL (Page Description Language) which enables the user to specify what a Web page should look like and how it should link to other pages.               

 

EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into Chinese.(P193)

1) Computer Graphics Interface (CGI): A proposed ISO standard for the specification of interface techniques for dialogues with graphical devices.

2) Device driver: The device-dependent part of a graphics implementation which supports an actual physical device, and which generates device-dependent output.

3) Graphical Kernel System (GKS): A standardized application programmer’s interface (API) offering 2D facilities for output and input.

4) parameters: this is the information required by each element. An example is the point list for the POLYLINE element.

5) Pattern style: A format for filling closed figures, which consists of an array of variously colored or shaded cells.

6) pixel: The smallest element of a display surface that can be independently assigned color.

7) Virtual device: An idealized graphics device possessing a set of device-independent graphics capabilities and presenting these to a graphics system in a device-independent manner.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 == EOF ===

第10讲

Ch13.2  WHERE TO USE MULTIMEDIA

Multimedia is appropriate whenever a human interface connects a human user to electronic information of any kind. Multimedia enhances traditional text-only computer interfaces and yields measurable benefit by gaining and holding attention and interest;; multimedia improves information retention. When properly woven, multimedia can also be profoundly entertaining.

1. Multimedia in Business

Business applications for multimedia include presentations, training, marketing, advertising, product demos, databases, catalogues, and networked communication. Voice mail and video conferencing will soon be provided on many local and wide area networks (LANs and WANs).

After a morning of mind-numbing 35 mm slide and overhead presentations delivered from the podium of a national sales conference, a multimedia presentation can make an audience come alive. Most presentation software packages let you add audio and video clips to the usual “slide show” (指幻灯播放)of graphics and text material.

Multimedia is enjoying widespread use in training programs. Flight attendants learn to manage international terrorism and security through simulation. Mechanics learn to repair engines. Salespeople learn about product lines and leave behind software to train their customers. Fighter pilots practice full-terrain sorties before spooling up for the real thing.

As companies and businesses catch on to the power of multimedia, and the cost of installing multimedia capability decreases, more applications will be developed both by themselves and by third parties to allow businesses to run more smoothly and efficiently.

2. Multimedia in Schools

Schools are perhaps the most needy destination for multimedia. Many schools in the United States today are chronically underfunded and occasionally slow to adopt new technologies, but it is here that the power of multimedia can be maximized for the greatest long-term benefit to all.

In March 1995, the White House challenged the telecommunications industry to connect every classroom, library, clinic, and hospital to the information superhighway by the year 2000. The White House has also taken steps to provide governmental support with a program of “Challenge-Grants for Technology in Education”, a $27-million effort to support state-of-the-art technology in about 20-low-income rural and urban school districts. Vice-President Al Gore is often seen pulling wire(网络布线) in inner-city school labs, promoting installation of computers in schools.

Multimedia will provoke radical changes in the teaching process during the coming decades, particularly as smart students discover they can go beyond the limits of traditional teaching methods. Indeed, in some instances, teachers may become more like guides and mentors along a learning path, not he primary providers of information and understanding – the students, not teachers, become the core of the teaching and learning process. This is a sensitive and highly politicized subject among educators, so educational software is often positioned as “enriching” the learning process, not as a potential substitute for traditional teacher-based methods.

3. Multimedia at Home

From gardening to cooking to home design, remodeling, and repair to genealogy(系谱、宗谱) software, multimedia has entered the home. Eventually, most multimedia projects will reach the home via television sets or monitors with built-in interactive user inputs. The multimedia viewed on these sets will likely arrive on a pay-for-use(付费点播) basis along the data highway.

4. Multimedia in Public Places

In hotels, train stations, shopping malls, museums, and grocery stores, multimedia will become available at stand-alone terminals or kiosks to provide information and help. Such installations reduce demand on traditional information booths and personnel, and they can work around the clock（一昼夜）, even in the middle of the night, when live help is off duty.

5. Virtual Reality

At the convergence of technology and creative invention in multimedia is virtual reality, or VR. Goggles, helmets, special gloves, and bizarre human interfaces attempt to place you “inside” a lifelike experience. Take a step forward, and the view gets closer, turn your head, and the view rotates. Reach out and grab an object; your hand moves in front of you. Maybe the object explodes in a 90-decibel crescendo as you wrap your fingers around it. Or it slips out from your grip, falls to the floor, and hurriedly escapes through a mouse hole at the bottom of the wall.

On the World Wide Web, standards for transmitting virtual reality worlds or “scenes” in VRML (virtual reality modeling language) documents (with the file name extension .wrl) have been developed.

Using high-speed dedicated computers, multi-million-dollar flight simulators built by Singer, RediFusion, and others have led the way in commercial application of VR. Pilots of F-16s, Boeing 777s, and Rockwell space shuttles have made many dry runs(演习、排练) before doing the real thing. At the California Maritime Academy and other merchant marine officer training schools, computer-controlled simulators teach the intricate loading and unloading of oil tankers and container ships.

 

EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into Chinese.(P221-222)

1) Application programming interface: A set of function calls variables used to access routines that are part of another program. Usually, only the syntax required to use these routines is provided to the programmer. The MOVIE TOOLBOX serves this purpose for QuickTime. Abbreviated as API.

2) application: The practical use of a concept or technology. For example, a sales presentation that uses QuickTime MOVIES is a MULTIMEDIA application.

3) Base system: A computer system that made up of only basic components. For example, most Macintosh base systems consist of a CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT, monitor, diskette drive, hard drive, mouse, and keyboard.

4) bitmap: An image that consists of a collection of data about the color of every PIXEL in the image.

5) Motion video: A series of video images that comprise an entire sequence. Different from STILL VIDEO in that motion video maintains the illusion of movement.

6) Compact disc-read only memory: Commonly abbreviated as CD-ROM, it is a data storage medium that resembles a musical compact disc, but is accessed at a faster rate and can contain images and text, as well as sound. Unlike diskettes, you cannot write over a CD-ROM.

 

 

 

 

 

第11讲

Ch14.1  DATA COMMUNICATIONS

A simplified block diagram of a data communication link is shown in Fig. 14-1. Although only one secondary is shown, it represents a typical secondary in a multipoint system. One of the functions of the host computer is to store the applications programs for the various secondaries.

The end equipment which either generates the digital information for transmission or uses the received digital data can be computers, printers, keyboards, CRTs, and so on. This equipment generally manipulates digital information internally in word units – all the bits that make up a word in a particular piece of equipment are transferred in parallel. Digital data, when transmitted, are in serial form. Parallel transmission of an 8-bit word would require eight pairs of transmission lines – not at all cost-effective. Data terminal equipment (DTE) is a general phrase encompassing all of the circuitry necessary to perform parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel conversions for transmission and reception respectively and for data link management. The UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) and USART (Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) are the devices that perform the parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel conversions. The primary DTE includes a line control unit (LCU or LinCo) which controls the flow of information in a multipoint data link system. A station controller (STACO) is the corresponding unit at the secondaries. If there is software associated with the LCU, it is then called a front-end processor (FEP). At one time, the DTE was the last piece of equipment that belonged to the subscriber in a data link system. Between the DTEs, starting with the modems, was communications equipment owned and maintained by Telco. Recent judgments have removed modems from the realm of exclusive Telco property.

Data communications equipment (DCE) accepts the serial data stream from the DTE and converts it to some form of analog signal suitable for transmission on voice-grade lines. At the receive end, the DCE performs the reverse function of converting the received analog signal to a serial digital data stream. The simplest form of DCT is a modem (modulator/demodulator) or data set. At the transmit end, the modem can be considered a form of digital-to-analog converter, while at the receive end, it can be considered a form of analog-to-digital converter. The most common of modulation by modems are frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). This is a typically data transmission mode using the analog telephone lines, see the bottom line between the two DCEs in Fig. 14-1. If you transmit data by digital channel (sometimes it is called “Digital T-carrier”), a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) equipment must be used, see the middle part of Fig. 14-1. A microwave transmission system can also be used for the data communication. Finally, you can use the satellite communication system for data transmission, non-shown in Fig. 14-1.

If the cables and signal levels used to interconnect the DTE and DCE were left unregulated, the variations generated would probably be proportional to the number of manufacturers. Electronics Industries Association (EIA), an organization of manufacturers concerned with establishing industry standards, have agreed on the RS-232C as the standard interface between the DTE and the modem. This is a 25-pin cable whose pins have designated functions and specified signal levels. The RS-232C is anticipated to be replaced by an updated standard.

 

EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into Chinese.(P242)

1) Broadband ISDN (BISDN): A second generation of ISDN. The key characteristic of broadband ISDN is that it provides transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater than the primary ISDN rate.

2) Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): Division of a transmission facility into two or more channels by splitting the frequency band transmitted by the facility into narrower bands, each of which is used to constitute a distinct channel.

3) Integrated Digital Network (IDN): The integration of transmission and switching functions using digital technology in a circuit-switched telecommunications network.

4) Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) : The division of a transmission facility into multiple channels by allotting the facility to different channels, one at a time.

 

 

 

 

 

第12讲

Ch14.2 ARCHITECTURE OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer network is a complex consisting of two or more connected computing units, it is used for the purpose of data communication and resource sharing. Design of a network and its logical structure should comply with a set of design principles, including the organization of functions and the description of data formats and procedure. This is the network architecture and so called as a set of layers and protocols, because the architecture is a layer-based.

In the next two sections we will discuss two important network architectures, the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model.

1. The OSI Reference Model

The OSI model is shown in Fig. 14-2 (minus the physical medium). This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as the first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. The model is called the ISO OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems – that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. We will usually just call it the OSI model for short.

The OSI model has seven layers. Note that the OSI model itself is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services and protocols to be used in each layer. It just tells what each should do. However, ISO has also produced standards for all the layers, although these are not part of the reference model itself. Each one has been published as a separate international standard.

2. The TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP reference model is an early transport protocol which was designed by the US Department of Defense (DOD) around in 1978. It is often claimed that it gave rise the OSI “connectionless” mode of operation. TCP/IP is still used extensively and is called as a industrial standard of internet work in fact. TCP/IP has two parts: TCP and IP. TCP means it is on the transport layer and IP means it is on the network layer separately.

(1) There are two end-to-end protocols in the transport layer, one of which it TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), another is UDP (User Datagram Protocol). TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing of flow control and wish to provide their own.

(2) The network layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol). The job of the network layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.

The TCP/IP Reference Mode is shown is Fig. 14-3. On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), electronic mail (SMTP) and domain name service (DNS).

 

EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into Chinese.(P242)

1) Asynchronous transmission: Strictly, this implies that the receiver clock is not synchronized to the transmitted clock when data is being transmitted between two devices connected by a transmission line. More generally, it is used to indicate that data is being transmitted as individual characters. Each character is preceded by a start signal and terminated by one or more stop signals, which are used by the receiver for synchronization purposes.

2) Baud: The number of line signal variations per second. It is also used to indicate the rate at which data is transmitted on a line, although this is strictly correct only when each bit is represented by a single signal level on the transmission line. Hence, the bit rate and the line signal rate are both the same.

3) Bandwidth: The difference between the highest and lowest sinusoidal frequency signals that can be transmitted across atransmission line or through a network. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) and also defines the maximum information-carrying capacity of the line or network.