(This foreword is not a part of American National Standard for
Information Systems --- Programming Language C, X3.???-1988.)
American National Standard Programming Language C specifies the
syntax and semantics of programs written in the C programming
language. It specifies the C program's interactions with the
execution environment via input and output data. It also specifies
restrictions and limits imposed upon conforming implementations of C
language translators.
The standard was developed by the X3J11 Technical Committee on the
C Programming Language under project 381-D by American National
Standards Committee on Computers and Information Processing (X3).
SPARC document number 83-079 describes the purpose of this project to
``provide an unambiguous and machine-independent definition of the
language C.''
The need for a single clearly defined standard had arisen in the C
community due to a rapidly expanding use of the C programming language
and the variety of differing translator implementations that had been
and were being developed. The existence of similar but incompatible
implementations was a serious problem for program developers who
wished to develop code that would compile and execute as expected in
several different environments.
Part of this problem could be traced to the fact that implementors
did not have an adequate definition of the C language upon which to
base their implementations. The de facto C programming language
standard, The C Programming Language by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis
M. Ritchie, is an excellent book; however, it is not precise or
complete enough to specify the C language fully. In addition, the
language has grown over years of use to incorporate new ideas in
programming and to address some of the weaknesses of the original
language.
American National Standard Programming Language C addresses the
problems of both the program developer and the translator implementor
by specifying the C language precisely.
The work of X3J11 began in the summer of 1983, based on the several
documents that were made available to the Committee (see $1.5, Base
Documents). The Committee divided the effort into three pieces: the
environment, the language, and the library. A complete specification
in each of these areas is necessary if truly portable programs are to
be developed. Each of these areas is addressed in the Standard. The
Committee evaluated many proposals for additions, deletions, and
changes to the base documents during its deliberations. A concerted
effort was made to codify existing practice wherever unambiguous and
consistent practice could be identified. However, where no consistent
practice could be identified, the Committee worked to establish clear
rules that were consistent with the overall flavor of the language.
This document was approved as an American National Standard by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) on DD MM, 1988.
Suggestions for improvement of this Standard are welcome. They should
be sent to the American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,
New York, NY 10018.
The Standard was processed and approved for submittal to ANSI by
the American National Standards Committee on Computers and Information
Processing, X3. Committee approval of the Standard does not
necessarily imply that all members voted for its approval. At the
time that it approved this Standard, the X3 Committee had the
following members:
Organization Name of Representative
(To be completed on approval of the Standard.)
Technical Committee X3J11 on the C Programming Language had the
following members at the time they forwarded this document to X3 for
processing as an American National Standard:
Chair
Jim Brodie
Vice-Chair
Thomas Plum Plum Hall Secretary
P. J. Plauger Whitesmiths, Ltd.
International Representative
P. J. Plauger Whitesmiths, Ltd.
Steve Hersee Lattice, Inc.
Vocabulary Representative
Andrew Johnson Prime Computer
Environment Subcommittee Chairs
Ralph Ryan Microsoft
Ralph Phraner Phraner Associates
Language Subcommittee Chair
Lawrence Rosler AT&T
Library Subcommittee Chair
P. J. Plauger Whitesmiths, Ltd.
Draft Redactor
David F. Prosser AT&T
Lawrence Rosler AT&T
Rationale Redactor
Randy Hudson Intermetrics, Inc.
In the following list, unmarked names denote principal members and *
denotes alternate members.
David F. Prosser, AT&T
Steven J. Adamski, AT&T* (X3H2 SQL liaison)
Bob Gottlieb, Alliant Computer Systems
Kevin Brosnan, Alliant Computer Systems
Neal Weidenhofer, Amdahl
Philip C. Steel, American Cimflex
Eric McGlohon, American Cimflex*
Stephen Kafka, Analog Devices
Kevin Leary, Analog Devices*
Gordon Sterling, Analog Devices*
John Peyton, Apollo Computer
Elizabeth Crockett, Apple Computers
Ed Wells, Arinc
Tom Ketterhagen, Arinc*
Vaughn Vernon, Aspen Scientific
Craig Bordelon, Bell Communications Research
Steve Carter, Bell Communications Research*
William Puig, Bell Communications Research*
Bob Jervis, Borland International
Yom-Tov Meged, Boston Systems Office
Rose Thomson, Boston Systems Office*
Maurice Fathi, COSMIC
John Wu, Charles River Data Systems
Daniel Mickey, Chemical Abstracts Service
Thomas Mimlitch, Chemical Abstracts Service*
Alan Losoff, Chicago Research & Trading Group
Edward Briggs, Citibank
Firmo Freire, Cobra S/A
Jim Patterson, Cognos
Bruce Tetelman, Columbia U. Center for Computing
Terry Moore, CompuDas
Mark Barrenechea, Computer Associates
George Eberhardt, Computer Innovations
Dave Neathery, Computer Innovations*
Joseph Bibbo, Computrition
Steve Davies, Concurrent Computer Corporation
Don Fosbury, Control Data
George VandeBunte, Control Data*
Lloyd Irons, Cormorant Communications
Tom MacDonald, Cray Research
Lynne Johnson, Cray Research*
Dave Becker, Cray Research*
Jean Risley, Custom Development Environments
Rex Jaeschke, DEC Professional
Mike Terrazas, DECUS Representative
Michael Meissner, Data General
Mark Harris, Data General*
Leonard Ohmes, Datapoint
James Stanley, Data Systems Analysts
Samuel J. Kendall, Delft Consulting
Randy Meyers, Digital Equipment Corporation
Art Bjork, Digital Equipment Corporation*
Lu Anne Van de Pas, Digital Equipment Corporation*
Ben Patel, EDS
Richard Relph, EPI
Graham Andrews, Edinburgh Portable Compilers
Colin McPhail, Edinburgh Portable Compilers*
J. Stephen Adamczyk, Edison Design Group
Eric Schwarz, Edison Design Group*
Dmitry Lenkov, Everest Solutions
Frank Farance, Farance Inc.
Peter Hayes, Farance Inc.*
Florin Jordan, Floradin
Philip Provin, General Electric Information Services
Liz Sanville, Gould CSD
Tina Aleksa, Gould CSD*
Thomas Kelly, HCR Corporation
Paul Jackson, HCR Corporation*
Gary Jeter, Harris Computer Systems
Sue Meloy, Hewlett Packard
Larry Rosler, Hewlett Packard*
Michelle Ruscetta, Hewlett Packard*
Thomas E. Osten, Honeywell Information Systems
David Kayden, Honeywell Information Systems*
Shawn Elliott, IBM
Larry Breed, IBM*
Mel Goldberg, IBM*
Mike Banahan, Instruction Set
Clark Nelson, Intel
Dan Lau, Intel*
John Wolfe, InterACT
Lillian Toll, InterACT*
Randy Hudson, Intermetrics
Keith Winter, International Computers Ltd.
Honey M. Schrecker, International Computers Ltd.*
Jim Brodie, J. Brodie & Associates
Jacklin Kotikian, Kendall Square Research
W. Peter Hesse, LSI Logic Europe Ltd.
John Kaminski, Language Processors Inc.
David Yost, Laurel Arts
Mike Branstetter, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Bob Weaver, Los Alamos National Laboratory
Lidia Eberhart, Modcomp
Robert Sherry, Manx Software
Courtney Meissen, Mark Williams Co.
Patricia Jenkins, Masscomp
Dave Hinman, Masscomp*
Michael Kearns, MetaLink
Tom Pennello, MetaWare Incorporated
David F. Weil, Microsoft
Mitch Harder, Microsoft*
Kim Kempf, Microware Systems
Shane McCarron, Minnesota Educational Computing
Bruce Olsen, Mosaic Technologies
Michael Paton, Motorola
Rick Schubert, NCR
Brian Johnson, NCR*
Joseph Mueller, National Semiconductor
Derek Godfrey, National Semiconductor*
Jim Upperman, National Bureau of Standards
James W. Williams, Naval Research Laboratory
Lisa Simon, OCLC
Paul Amaranth, Oakland University
August R. Hansen, Omniware
Michael Rolle, Oracle
Carl Ellis, Oregon Software
Barry Hedquist, Perennial
Sassan Hazeghi, Peritus International
James Holmlund, Peritus International*
Thomas Plum, Plum Hall
Christopher Skelly, Plum Hall*
Andrew Johnson, Prime Computer
Fran Litterio, Prime Computer*
Daniel J. Conrad, Prismatics
David Fritz, Production Languages
Kenneth Pugh, Pugh
Killeen Ed Ramsey, Purdue University
Stephen Roberts, Purdue University*
Kevin Nolan, Quantitative Technology Corp.
Robert Mueller, Quantitative Technology Corp.*
Chris DeVoney, Que Corporation
Jon Tulk, Rabbit Software
Terry Colligan, Rational Systems
Daniel Saks, Saks & Associates
Nancy Saks, Saks & Associates*
Oliver Bradley, SAS Institute
Alan Beale, SAS Institute*
Larry Jones, SDRC
Donald Kossman, SEI Information Technology
Kenneth Harrenstien, SRI International
Larry Rosenthal, Sierra Systems
Phil Hempfner, Southern Bell Telephone
Purshotam Rajani, Spruce Technology
Savu Savulescu, Stagg Systems
Peter Darnell, Stellar Computer
Lee W. Cooprider, Stellar Computer*
Paul Gilmartin, Storage Technology Corp.
Steve Muchnick, Sun Microsystems
Chuck Rasbold, Supercomputer Systems, Inc.
Kelly O'Hair, Supercomputer Systems, Inc.*
Henry Richardson, Tandem
John M. Hausman, Tandem*
Samuel Harbison, Tartan Laboratories
Michael S. Ball, TauMetric
Carl Sutton, Tektronix
Jim Besemer, Tektronix*
Reid Tatge, Texas Instruments
Ed Brower, Tokheim
Robert Mansfield, Tokheim*
Monika Khushf, Tymlabs
Morgan Jones, Tymlabs*
Don Bixler, Unisys
Steve Bartels, Unisys*
Glenda Berkheimer, Unisys*
Annice Jackson, Unisys*
Fred Blonder, University of Maryland
Fred Schwarz, University of Michigan
R. Jordan Kreindler, University of Southern California CTC
Mike Carmody, University of Waterloo
Douglas Gwyn, US Army BRL (IEEE P1003 liaison)
C. Dale Pierce, US Army Management Engineering*
John C. Black, VideoFinancial
Joseph Musacchia, Wang Labs
Fred Rozakis, Wang Labs*
P. J. Plauger, Whitesmiths, Ltd.
Kim Leeper, Wick Hill
Mark Wittenberg, Zehntel
Jim Balter
Robert Bradbury
Edward Chin
Neil Daniels
Stephen Desofi
Michael Duffy
Phillip Escue
Ralph Phraner
D. Hugh Redelmeier
Arnold Davi
Robbins Roger
Wilks Michael
J. Young
purpose: 1.1
scope: 1.2
references: 1.3
organization of the document: 1.4
base documents: 1.5
definitions of terms: 1.6
compliance: 1.7
translation environment: 2.
execution environment: 2.
separate compilation: 2.1.1.1
separate translation: 2.1.1.1
source file: 2.1.1.1
translation unit: 2.1.1.1
program execution: 2.1.2.3
side effects: 2.1.2.3
sequence point: 2.1.2.3
character set: 2.2.1
signals: 2.2.3
interrupts: 2.2.3
syntax notation: 3.
lexical elements: 3.1
comment: 3.1
white space: 3.1
list of keywords: 3.1.1
reserved words: 3.1.1
underscore character: 3.1.2
enumeration constant: 3.1.2
length of names: 3.1.2
internal name, length of: 3.1.2
external name, length of: 3.1.2
function name, length of: 3.1.2
scopes: 3.1.2.1
prototype, function: 3.1.2.1
function scope: 3.1.2.1
file scope: 3.1.2.1
block scope: 3.1.2.1
block structure: 3.1.2.1
function prototype scope: 3.1.2.1
linkage: 3.1.2.2
external linkage: 3.1.2.2
internal linkage: 3.1.2.2
no linkage: 3.1.2.2
name spaces: 3.1.2.3
named label: 3.1.2.3
structure tag: 3.1.2.3
union tag: 3.1.2.3
enumeration tag: 3.1.2.3
structure member name: 3.1.2.3
union member name: 3.1.2.3
storage duration: 3.1.2.4
static storage duration: 3.1.2.4
automatic storage duration: 3.1.2.4
types: 3.1.2.5
object types: 3.1.2.5
function types: 3.1.2.5
incomplete types: 3.1.2.5
char type: 3.1.2.5
signed character: 3.1.2.5
signed char type: 3.1.2.5
short type: 3.1.2.5
long type: 3.1.2.5
unsigned type: 3.1.2.5
float type: 3.1.2.5
double type: 3.1.2.5
long double type: 3.1.2.5
basic types: 3.1.2.5
character types: 3.1.2.5
enumerated type: 3.1.2.5
void type: 3.1.2.5
derived types: 3.1.2.5
integral types: 3.1.2.5
arithmetic types: 3.1.2.5
scalar types: 3.1.2.5
aggregate types: 3.1.2.5
constants: 3.1.3
floating constant: 3.1.3.1
double constant: 3.1.3.1
integer constant: 3.1.3.2
decimal constant: 3.1.3.2
octal constant: 3.1.3.2
hexadecimal constant: 3.1.3.2
unsigned constant: 3.1.3.2
long constant: 3.1.3.2
enumeration constant: 3.1.3.3
character constant: 3.1.3.4
backslash character: 3.1.3.4
escape character: 3.1.3.4
escape sequence: 3.1.3.4
string literal: 3.1.4
character string: 3.1.4
operator: 3.1.5
evaluation: 3.1.5
operand: 3.1.5
punctuator: 3.1.6
character-integer conversion: 3.2.1.1
integer-character conversion: 3.2.1.1
integral promotions: 3.2.1.1
integer-long conversion: 3.2.1.1
signed character: 3.2.1.1
unsigned-integer conversion: 3.2.1.2
integer-unsigned conversion: 3.2.1.2
long-unsigned conversion: 3.2.1.2
long-integer conversion: 3.2.1.2
floating-integer conversion: 3.2.1.3
integer-floating conversion: 3.2.1.3
float-double conversion: 3.2.1.4
double-float conversion: 3.2.1.4
arithmetic conversions: 3.2.1.5
type conversion rules: 3.2.1.5
lvalue: 3.2.2.1
function designator: 3.2.2.1
conversion of array: 3.2.2.1
conversion of function name: 3.2.2.1
void type: 3.2.2.2
pointer-pointer conversion: 3.2.2.3
integer-pointer conversion: 3.2.2.3
null pointer: 3.2.2.3
expression: 3.3
precedence of operators: 3.3
associativity of operators: 3.3
order of evaluation of expressions: 3.3
order of evaluation: 3.3
bitwise operators: 3.3
exceptions: 3.3
primary expression: 3.3.1
type of string: 3.3.1
parenthesized expression: 3.3.1
subscript operator: 3.3.2
function call: 3.3.2
structure member operator: 3.3.2
structure pointer operator: 3.3.2
++ increment operator: 3.3.2
-- decrement operator: 3.3.2
array, explanation of subscripting: 3.3.2.1
subscripting, explanation of: 3.3.2.1
multi-dimensional array: 3.3.2.1
storage order of array: 3.3.2.1
function call: 3.3.2.2
implicit declaration of function: 3.3.2.2
function argument: 3.3.2.2
call by value: 3.3.2.2
recursion: 3.3.2.2
structure reference: 3.3.2.3
union reference: 3.3.2.3
common initial sequence: 3.3.2.3
postfix ++ and --: 3.3.2.4
-- decrement operator: 3.3.2.4
unary expression: 3.3.3
++ increment operator: 3.3.3
-- decrement operator: 3.3.3
sizeof operator: 3.3.3
& address operator: 3.3.3
* indirection operator: 3.3.3
+ unary plus operator: 3.3.3
- unary minus operator: 3.3.3
~ bitwise complement operator: 3.3.3
! logical negation operator: 3.3.3
++ increment operator: 3.3.3.1
prefix ++ and --: 3.3.3.1
-- decrement operator: 3.3.3.1
+ unary plus operator: 3.3.3.3
- unary minus operator: 3.3.3.3
~ bitwise complement operator: 3.3.3.3
! logical negation operator: 3.3.3.3
byte: 3.3.3.4
storage allocator: 3.3.3.4
cast expression: 3.3.4
cast operator: 3.3.4
explicit conversion operator: 3.3.4
cast operator: 3.3.4
pointer conversion: 3.3.4
explicit conversion operator: 3.3.4
pointer-integer conversion: 3.3.4
integer-pointer conversion: 3.3.4
alignment restriction: 3.3.4
arithmetic operators: 3.3.5
multiplicative operators: 3.3.5
* multiplication operator: 3.3.5
/ division operator: 3.3.5
% modulus operator: 3.3.5
additive operators: 3.3.6
+ addition operator: 3.3.6
- subtraction operator: 3.3.6
pointer arithmetic: 3.3.6
pointer arithmetic: 3.3.6
shift operators: 3.3.7
<< left shift operator: 3.3.7
>> right shift operator: 3.3.7
relational operators: 3.3.8
< less than operator: 3.3.8
> greater than operator: 3.3.8
<= less than or equal to operator: 3.3.8
>= greater than or equal to operator: 3.3.8
pointer comparison: 3.3.8
equality operators: 3.3.9
== equality operator: 3.3.9
!= inequality operator: 3.3.9
& bitwise AND operator: 3.3.10
^ bitwise exclusive OR operator: 3.3.11
| bitwise inclusive OR operator: 3.3.12
&& logical AND operator: 3.3.13
|| logical OR operator: 3.3.14
?: conditional expression: 3.3.15
assignment operators: 3.3.16
assignment expression: 3.3.16
simple assignment: 3.3.16.1
conversion by assignment: 3.3.16.1
compound assignment: 3.3.16.2
comma operator: 3.3.17
constant expression: 3.4
permitted form of initializer: 3.4
declarations: 3.5
storage-class specifier: 3.5.1
storage-class declaration: 3.5.1
typedef declaration: 3.5.1
extern storage class: 3.5.1
static storage class: 3.5.1
auto storage class: 3.5.1
register storage class: 3.5.1
type specifier: 3.5.2
void type: 3.5.2
char type: 3.5.2
short type: 3.5.2
int type: 3.5.2
long type: 3.5.2
float type: 3.5.2
double type: 3.5.2
signed type: 3.5.2
unsigned type: 3.5.2
structure declaration: 3.5.2.1
union declaration: 3.5.2.1
bit-field declaration: 3.5.2.1
bit-field: 3.5.2.1
member alignment: 3.5.2.1
enumeration: 3.5.2.2
enum-specifier: 3.5.2.2
enumerator: 3.5.2.2
structure tag: 3.5.2.3
union tag: 3.5.2.3
structure content: 3.5.2.3
union content: 3.5.2.3
enumeration content: 3.5.2.3
self-referential structure: 3.5.2.3
type qualifier: 3.5.3
const type qualifier: 3.5.3
volatile type qualifier: 3.5.3
declarator: 3.5.4
type declaration: 3.5.4
declaration of pointer: 3.5.4.1
array declaration: 3.5.4.2
declaration of function: 3.5.4.3
type names: 3.5.5
abstract declarator: 3.5.5
typedef declaration: 3.5.6
initialization: 3.5.7
initialization of statics: 3.5.7
implicit initialization: 3.5.7
default initialization: 3.5.7
initialization of automatics: 3.5.7
aggregate initialization: 3.5.7
array initialization: 3.5.7
structure initialization: 3.5.7
character array initialization: 3.5.7
wchar_t array initialization: 3.5.7
statements: 3.6
sequencing of statements: 3.6
full expression: 3.6
labeled statement: 3.6.1
named label: 3.6.1
case label: 3.6.1
default label: 3.6.1
compound statement: 3.6.2
block: 3.6.2
block structure: 3.6.2
initialization in blocks: 3.6.2
expression statement: 3.6.3
null statement: 3.6.3
empty statement: 3.6.3
if-else statement: 3.6.4.1
switch statement: 3.6.4.2
switch body: 3.6.4.2
loop body: 3.6.5
while statement: 3.6.5.1
do statement: 3.6.5.2
for statement: 3.6.5.3
goto statement: 3.6.6.1
continue statement: 3.6.6.2
break statement: 3.6.6.3
return statement: 3.6.6.4
type conversion by return: 3.6.6.4
conversion by return: 3.6.6.4
external definition: 3.7
function definition: 3.7.1
parameter: 3.7.1
array argument: 3.7.1
function name argument: 3.7.1
pointer to function: 3.7.1
object definitions: 3.7.2
scope of externals: 3.7.2
tentative definition: 3.7.2
preprocessing directives: 3.8
macro preprocessor: 3.8
preprocessing directive lines: 3.8
conditional inclusion: 3.8.1
#if: 3.8.1
#elif 3.8.1
#ifdef: 3.8.1
#ifndef: 3.8.1
#else: 3.8.1
#endif: 3.8.1
#include: 3.8.2
source file inclusion: 3.8.2
macro replacement: 3.8.3
object-like macro: 3.8.3
function-like macro: 3.8.3
macro name: 3.8.3
#define: 3.8.3
macro parameters: 3.8.3
macro invocation: 3.8.3
argument substitution: 3.8.3.1
# operator: 3.8.3.2
## operator: 3.8.3.3
rescanning and replacement: 3.8.3.4
macro definition scope: 3.8.3.5
#undef: 3.8.3.5
#line: 3.8.4
error directive: 3.8.5
pragma directive: 3.8.6
null directive: 3.8.7
introduction: 4.1
string definition: 4.1.1
letter definition: 4.1.1
decimal-point definition: 4.1.1
reserved identifier: 4.1.2
printing character: 4.3
control character: 4.3
variable arguments: 4.8
unbuffered stream: 4.9.3
fully buffered stream: 4.9.3
line buffered stream: 4.9.3
appendices: A.
language syntax summary: A.1
sequence points: A.2
library summary: A.3
implementation limits: A.4
warnings: A.5
portability: A.6
order of evaluation: A.6.1
machine dependency: A.6.3
restrictions on registers: A.6.3.7
function pointer casts: A.6.5.7
bit-field types: A.6.5.8
fortran keyword: A.6.5.9
asm keyword: A.6.5.10
multiple external definitions: A.6.5.11
empty macro arguments: A.6.5.12
predefined macro names: A.6.5.13
signal handler arguments: A.6.5.14
stream types: A.6.5.15
file-opening modes: A.6.5.15
file position indicator: A.6.5.16
foreword: A.7
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE
This Standard specifies the form and establishes the interpretation
of programs written in the C programming language./1/
1.2 SCOPE
This Standard specifies:
* the representation of C programs;
* the syntax and constraints of the C language;
* the semantic rules for interpreting C programs;
* the representation of input data to be processed by C programs;
* the representation of output data produced by C programs;
* the restrictions and limits imposed by a conforming implementation of C.
This Standard does not specify:
* the mechanism by which C programs are transformed for use by a
data-processing system;
* the mechanism by which C programs are invoked for use by a
data-processing system;
* the mechanism by which input data are transformed for use by a C program;
* the mechanism by which output data are transformed after being
produced by a C program;
* the size or complexity of a program and its data that will exceed
the capacity of any specific data-processing system or the capacity of
a particular processor;
* all minimal requirements of a data-processing system that is
capable of supporting a conforming implementation.
1.3 REFERENCES
1. ``The C Reference Manual'' by Dennis M. Ritchie, a version of
which was published in The C Programming Language by Brian
W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, Prentice-Hall, Inc., (1978).
Copyright owned by AT&T.
2. 1984 /usr/group Standard by the /usr/group Standards Committee,
Santa Clara, California, USA (November, 1984).
3. American National Dictionary for Information Processing Systems,
Information Processing Systems Technical Report ANSI X3/TR-1-82 (1982).
4. ISO 646-1983 Invariant Code Set.
5. IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985).
6. ISO 4217 Codes for the Representation of Currency and Funds.
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE DOCUMENT
This document is divided into four major sections:
1. this introduction;
2. the characteristics of environments that translate and execute C programs;
3. the language syntax, constraints, and semantics;
4. the library facilities.
Examples are provided to illustrate possible forms of the
constructions described. Footnotes are provided to emphasize
consequences of the rules described in the section or elsewhere in the
Standard. References are used to refer to other related sections. A
set of appendices summarizes information contained in the Standard.
The abstract, the foreword, the examples, the footnotes, the
references, and the appendices are not part of the Standard.
1.5 BASE DOCUMENTS
The language section ($3) is derived from ``The C Reference
Manual'' by Dennis M. Ritchie, a version of which was published as
Appendix A of The C Programming Language by Brian W. Kernighan and
Dennis M. Ritchie, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978; copyright owned by AT&T.
The library section ($4) is based on the 1984 /usr/group Standard by
the /usr/group Standards Committee, Santa Clara, California, USA
(November 14, 1984).
1.6 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
In this Standard, ``shall'' is to be interpreted as a requirement
on an implementation or on a program; conversely, ``shall not'' is to
be interpreted as a prohibition.
The following terms are used in this document:
* Implementation --- a particular set of software, running in a
particular translation environment under particular control options,
that performs translation of programs for, and supports execution of
functions in, a particular execution environment.
* Bit --- the unit of data storage in the execution environment large
enough to hold an object that may have one of two values. It need not
be possible to express the address of each individual bit of an
object.
* Byte --- the unit of data storage in the execution environment
large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the
execution environment. It shall be possible to express the address of
each individual byte of an object uniquely. A byte is composed of a
contiguous sequence of bits, the number of which is
implementation-defined. The least significant bit is called the
low-order bit; the most significant bit is called the high-order bit.
* Object --- a region of data storage in the execution environment,
the contents of which can represent values. Except for bit-fields,
objects are composed of contiguous sequences of one or more bytes, the
number, order, and encoding of which are either explicitly specified
or implementation-defined.
* Character --- a single byte representing a member of the basic
character set of either the source or the execution environment.
* Multibyte character --- a sequence of one or more bytes
representing a member of the extended character set of either the
source or the execution environment. The extended character set is a
superset of the basic character set.
* Alignment --- a requirement that objects of a particular type be
located on storage boundaries with addresses that are particular
multiples of a byte address.
* Argument --- an expression in the comma-separated list bounded by
the parentheses in a function call expression, or a sequence of
preprocessing tokens in the comma-separated list bounded by the
parentheses in a function-like macro invocation. Also known as
``actual argument'' or ``actual parameter.''
* Parameter --- an object declared as part of a function declaration
or definition that acquires a value on entry to the function, or an
identifier from the comma-separated list bounded by the parentheses
immediately following the macro name in a function-like macro
definition. Also known as ``formal argument'' or ``formal
parameter.''
* Unspecified behavior --- behavior, for a correct program construct
and correct data, for which the Standard imposes no requirements.
* Undefined behavior --- behavior, upon use of a nonportable or
erroneous program construct, of erroneous data, or of
indeterminately-valued objects, for which the Standard imposes no
requirements. Permissible undefined behavior ranges from ignoring the
situation completely with unpredictable results, to behaving during
translation or program execution in a documented manner characteristic
of the environment (with or without the issuance of a diagnostic
message), to terminating a translation or execution (with the issuance
of a diagnostic message).
If a ``shall'' or ``shall not'' requirement that appears outside of
a constraint is violated, the behavior is undefined. Undefined
behavior is otherwise indicated in this Standard by the words
``undefined behavior'' or by the omission of any explicit definition
of behavior. There is no difference in emphasis among these three;
they all describe ``behavior that is undefined.''
* Implementation-defined behavior --- behavior, for a correct program
construct and correct data, that depends on the characteristics of the
implementation and that each implementation shall document.
* Locale-specific behavior --- behavior that depends on local
conventions of nationality, culture, and language that each
implementation shall document.
* Diagnostic message --- a message belonging to an
implementation-defined subset of the implementation's message output.
* Constraints --- syntactic and semantic restrictions by which the
exposition of language elements is to be interpreted.
* Implementation limits --- restrictions imposed upon programs by the
implementation.
* Forward references --- references to later sections of the Standard
that contain additional information relevant to this section.
Other terms are defined at their first appearance, indicated by italic
type. Terms explicitly defined in this Standard are not to be
presumed to refer implicitly to similar terms defined elsewhere.
Terms not defined in this Standard are to be interpreted according to
the American National Dictionary for Information Processing Systems,
Information Processing Systems Technical Report ANSI X3/TR-1-82 (1982).
Forward references: localization ($4.4).
"Examples"
An example of unspecified behavior is the order in which the
arguments to a function are evaluated.
An example of undefined behavior is the behavior on integer overflow.
An example of implementation-defined behavior is the propagation of
the high-order bit when a signed integer is shifted right.
An example of locale-specific behavior is whether the islower
function returns true for characters other than the 26 lower-case
English letters.
Forward references: bitwise shift operators ($3.3.7), expressions
($3.3), function calls ($3.3.2.2), the islower function ($4.3.1.6).
1.7 COMPLIANCE
A strictly conforming program shall use only those features of the
language and library specified in this Standard. It shall not produce
output dependent on any unspecified, undefined, or
implementation-defined behavior, and shall not exceed any minimum
implementation limit.
The two forms of conforming implementation are hosted and
freestanding. A conforming hosted implementation shall accept any
strictly conforming program. A conforming freestanding implementation
shall accept any strictly conforming program in which the use of the
features specified in the library section ($4) is confined to the
contents of the standard headers <float.h> , <limits.h> , <stdarg.h> ,
and <stddef.h> . A conforming implementation may have extensions
(including additional library functions), provided they do not alter
the behavior of any strictly conforming program.
A conforming program is one that is acceptable to a conforming
implementation./2/
An implementation shall be accompanied by a document that defines
all implementation-defined characteristics and all extensions.
Forward references: limits <float.h> and <limits.h> ($4.1.4), variable
arguments <stdarg.h> ($4.8), common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5).
1.8 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
With the introduction of new devices and extended character sets,
new features may be added to the Standard. Subsections in the
language and library sections warn implementors and programmers of
usages which, though valid in themselves, may conflict with future
additions.
Certain features are obsolescent , which means that they may be
considered for withdrawal in future revisions of the Standard. They
are retained in the Standard because of their widespread use, but
their use in new implementations (for implementation features) or new
programs (for language or library features) is discouraged.
Forward references: future language directions ($3.9.9), future
library directions ($4.13).
1.9 ABOUT THIS DRAFT
Symbols in the right margin mark substantive differences between
this draft and its predecessor (ANSI X3J11/88-001, January 11, 1988).
A plus sign indicates an addition, a minus sign a deletion, and a
vertical bar a replacement.
This section and the difference marks themselves will not appear in
the published document.
2. ENVIRONMENT
An implementation translates C source files and executes C programs
in two data-processing-system environments, which will be called the
translation environment and the execution environment in this
Standard. Their characteristics define and constrain the results of
executing conforming C programs constructed according to the syntactic
and semantic rules for conforming implementations.
Forward references: In the environment section ($2), only a few of
many possible forward references have been noted.
2.1 CONCEPTUAL MODELS
2.1.1 Translation environment
2.1.1.1 Program structure
A C program need not all be translated at the same time. The text
of the program is kept in units called source files in this Standard.
A source file together with all the headers and source files included
via the preprocessing directive #include , less any source lines
skipped by any of the conditional inclusion preprocessing directives,
is called a translation unit. Previously translated translation units
may be preserved individually or in libraries. The separate
translation units of a program communicate by (for example) calls to
functions whose identifiers have external linkage, by manipulation of
objects whose identifiers have external linkage, and by manipulation
of data files. Translation units may be separately translated and
then later linked to produce an executable program.
Forward references: conditional inclusion ($3.8.1), linkages of
identifiers ($3.1.2.2), source file inclusion ($3.8.2).
2.1.1.2 Translation phases
The precedence among the syntax rules of translation is specified
by the following phases./3/
1. Physical source file characters are mapped to the source character
set (introducing new-line characters for end-of-line indicators) if
necessary. Trigraph sequences are replaced by corresponding
single-character internal representations.
2. Each instance of a new-line character and an immediately preceding
backslash character is deleted, splicing physical source lines to form
logical source lines. A source file that is not empty shall end in a
new-line character, which shall not be immediately preceded by a
backslash character.
3. The source file is decomposed into preprocessing tokens/4/ and
sequences of white-space characters (including comments). A source
file shall not end in a partial preprocessing token or comment. Each
comment is replaced by one space character. New-line characters are
retained. Whether each nonempty sequence of other white-space
characters is retained or replaced by one space character is
implementation-defined.
4. Preprocessing directives are executed and macro invocations are
expanded. A #include preprocessing directive causes the named header
or source file to be processed from phase 1 through phase 4,
recursively.
5. Each escape sequence in character constants and string literals is
converted to a member of the execution character set.
6. Adjacent character string literal tokens are concatenated and
adjacent wide string literal tokens are concatenated.
7. White-space characters separating tokens are no longer
significant. Preprocessing tokens are converted into tokens. The
resulting tokens are syntactically and semantically analyzed and
translated.
8. All external object and function references are resolved. Library
components are linked to satisfy external references to functions and
objects not defined in the current translation. All such translator
output is collected into a program image which contains information
needed for execution in its execution environment.
Forward references: lexical elements ($3.1), preprocessing directives
($3.8), trigraph sequences ($2.2.1.1).
2.1.1.3 Diagnostics
A conforming implementation shall produce at least one diagnostic
message (identified in an implementation-defined manner) for every
translation unit that contains a violation of any syntax rule or
constraint. Diagnostic messages need not be produced in other
circumstances.
2.1.2 Execution environments
Two execution environments are defined: freestanding and hosted.
In both cases, program startup occurs when a designated C function
is called by the execution environment. All objects in static storage
shall be initialized (set to their initial values) before program
startup. The manner and timing of such initialization are otherwise
unspecified. Program termination returns control to the execution
environment.
Forward references: initialization ($3.5.7).
2.1.2.1 Freestanding environment
In a freestanding environment (in which C program execution may
take place without any benefit of an operating system), the name and
type of the function called at program startup are
implementation-defined. There are otherwise no reserved external
identifiers. Any library facilities available to a freestanding
program are implementation-defined.
The effect of program termination in a freestanding environment is
implementation-defined.
2.1.2.2 Hosted environment
A hosted environment need not be provided, but shall conform to the
following specifications if present.
"Program startup"
The function called at program startup is named main . The
implementation declares no prototype for this function. It can be
defined with no parameters:
int main(void) { /*...*/ }
or with two parameters (referred to here as argc and argv , though any
names may be used, as they are local to the function in which they are
declared):
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { /*...*/ }
If they are defined, the parameters to the main function shall obey
the following constraints:
* The value of argc shall be nonnegative.
* argv[argc] shall be a null pointer.
* If the value of argc is greater than zero, the array members
argv[0] through argv[argc-1] inclusive shall contain pointers to
strings, which are given implementation-defined values by the host
environment prior to program startup. The intent is to supply to the
program information determined prior to program startup from elsewhere
in the hosted environment. If the host environment is not capable of
supplying strings with letters in both upper-case and lower-case, the
implementation shall ensure that the strings are received in
lower-case.
* If the value of argc is greater than zero, the string pointed to by
argv[0] represents the program name ;argv[0][0] shall be the null
character if the program name is not available from the host
environment. If the value of argc is greater than one, the strings
pointed to by argv[1] through argv[argc-1] represent the program
parameters .
* The parameters argc and argv and the strings pointed to by the argv
array shall be modifiable by the program, and retain their last-stored
values between program startup and program termination.
"Program execution"
In a hosted environment, a program may use all the functions,
macros, type definitions, and objects described in the library section ($4).
"Program termination"
A return from the initial call to the main function is equivalent
to calling the exit function with the value returned by the main
function as its argument. If the main function executes a return that
specifies no value, the termination status returned to the host
environment is undefined.
Forward references: definition of terms ($4.1.1), the exit function
($4.10.4.3).
2.1.2.3 Program execution
The semantic descriptions in this Standard describe the behavior of
an abstract machine in which issues of optimization are irrelevant.
Accessing a volatile object, modifying an object, modifying a file,
or calling a function that does any of those operations are all side
effects ,which are changes in the state of the execution environment.
Evaluation of an expression may produce side effects. At certain
specified points in the execution sequence called sequence points, all
side effects of previous evaluations shall be complete and no side
effects of subsequent evaluations shall have taken place.
In the abstract machine, all expressions are evaluated as specified
by the semantics. An actual implementation need not evaluate part of
an expression if it can deduce that its value is not used and that no
needed side effects are produced (including any caused by calling a
function or accessing a volatile object).
When the processing of the abstract machine is interrupted by
receipt of a signal, only the values of objects as of the previous
sequence point may be relied on. Objects that may be modified between
the previous sequence point and the next sequence point need not have
received their correct values yet.
An instance of each object with automatic storage duration is
associated with each entry into a block. Such an object exists and
retains its last-stored value during the execution of the block and
while the block is suspended (by a call of a function or receipt of a
signal).
The least requirements on a conforming implementation are:
* At sequence points, volatile objects are stable in the sense that
previous evaluations are complete and subsequent evaluations have not
yet occurred.
* At program termination, all data written into files shall be
identical to the result that execution of the program according to the
abstract semantics would have produced.
* The input and output dynamics of interactive devices shall take
place as specified in $4.9.3. The intent of these requirements is
that unbuffered or line-buffered output appear as soon as possible, to
ensure that prompting messages actually appear prior to a program
waiting for input.
What constitutes an interactive device is implementation-defined.
More stringent correspondences between abstract and actual
semantics may be defined by each implementation.
"Examples"
An implementation might define a one-to-one correspondence between
abstract and actual semantics: at every sequence point, the values of
the actual objects would agree with those specified by the abstract
semantics. The keyword volatile would then be redundant.
Alternatively, an implementation might perform various
optimizations within each translation unit, such that the actual
semantics would agree with the abstract semantics only when making
function calls across translation unit boundaries. In such an
implementation, at the time of each function entry and function return
where the calling function and the called function are in different
translation units, the values of all externally linked objects and of
all objects accessible via pointers therein would agree with the
abstract semantics. Furthermore, at the time of each such function
entry the values of the parameters of the called function and of all
objects accessible via pointers therein would agree with the abstract
semantics. In this type of implementation, objects referred to by
interrupt service routines activated by the signal function would
require explicit specification of volatile storage, as well as other
implementation-defined restrictions.
In executing the fragment
char c1, c2;
/*...*/
c1 = c1 + c2;
the ``integral promotions'' require that the abstract machine promote
the value of each variable to int size and then add the two int s and
truncate the sum. Provided the addition of two char s can be done
without creating an overflow exception, the actual execution need only
produce the same result, possibly omitting the promotions.
Similarly, in the fragment
float f1, f2;
double d;
/*...*/
f1 = f2 * d;
the multiplication may be executed using single-precision arithmetic
if the implementation can ascertain that the result would be the same
as if it were executed using double-precision arithmetic (for example,
if d were replaced by the constant 2.0, which has type double ).
Alternatively, an operation involving only int s or float s may be
executed using double-precision operations if neither range nor
precision is lost thereby.
Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2), files
($4.9.3), sequence points ($3.3, $3.6), the signal function ($4.7),
type qualifiers ($3.5.3).
2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.2.1 Character sets
Two sets of characters and their associated collating sequences
shall be defined: the set in which source files are written, and the
set interpreted in the execution environment. The values of the
members of the execution character set are implementation-defined; any
additional members beyond those required by this section are
locale-specific.
In a character constant or string literal, members of the execution
character set shall be represented by corresponding members of the
source character set or by escape sequences consisting of the
backslash \ followed by one or more characters. A byte with all bits
set to 0, called the null character, shall exist in the basic
execution character set; it is used to terminate a character string
literal.
Both the basic source and basic execution character sets shall have
at least the following members: the 26 upper-case letters of the
English alphabet
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
the 26 lower-case letters of the English alphabet
a b c d e f g h i j k l m
n o p q r s t u v w x y z
the 10 decimal digits
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
the following 29 graphic characters
! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / :
; < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ { | } ~
the space character, and control characters representing horizontal
tab, vertical tab, and form feed. In both the source and execution
basic character sets, the value of each character after 0 in the above
list of decimal digits shall be one greater than the value of the
previous. In source files, there shall be some way of indicating the
end of each line of text; this Standard treats such an end-of-line
indicator as if it were a single new-line character. In the execution
character set, there shall be control characters representing alert,
backspace, carriage return, and new line. If any other characters are
encountered in a source file (except in a preprocessing token that is
never converted to a token, a character constant, a string literal, or
a comment), the behavior is undefined.
Forward references: character constants ($3.1.3.4), preprocessing
directives ($3.8), string literals ($3.1.4), comments ($3.1.9).
2.2.1.1 Trigraph sequences
All occurrences in a source file of the following sequences of
three characters (called trigraph sequences /5/)are replaced with the
corresponding single character.
??= #
??( [
??/ \
??) ]
??' ^
??< {
??! |
??> }
??- ~
No other trigraph sequences exist. Each ? that does not begin one of
the trigraphs listed above is not changed.
Example
The following source line
printf("Eh???/n");
becomes (after replacement of the trigraph sequence ??/ )
printf("Eh?\n");
2.2.1.2 Multibyte characters
The source character set may contain multibyte characters, used to
represent members of the extended character set. The execution
character set may also contain multibyte characters, which need not
have the same encoding as for the source character set. For both
character sets, the following shall hold:
* The single-byte characters defined in $2.2.1 shall be present.
* The presence, meaning, and representation of any additional members
is locale-specific.
* A multibyte character may have a state-dependent encoding ,wherein
each sequence of multibyte characters begins in an initial shift state
and enters other implementation-defined shift states when specific
multibyte characters are encountered in the sequence. While in the
initial shift state, all single-byte characters retain their usual
interpretation and do not alter the shift state. The interpretation
for subsequent bytes in the sequence is a function of the current
shift state.
* A byte with all bits zero shall be interpreted as a null character
independent of shift state.
* A byte with all bits zero shall not occur in the second or
subsequent bytes of a multibyte character.
For the source character set, the following shall hold:
* A comment, string literal, character constant, or header name shall
begin and end in the initial shift state.
* A comment, string literal, character constant, or header name shall
consist of a sequence of valid multibyte characters.
2.2.2 Character display semantics
The active position is that location on a display device where the
next character output by the fputc function would appear. The intent
of writing a printable character (as defined by the isprint function)
to a display device is to display a graphic representation of that
character at the active position and then advance the active position
to the next position on the current line. The direction of printing
is locale-specific. If the active position is at the final position
of a line (if there is one), the behavior is unspecified.
Alphabetic escape sequences representing nongraphic characters in
the execution character set are intended to produce actions on display
devices as follows: ( alert ) Produces an audible or visible alert.
The active position shall not be changed. ( backspace ) Moves the
active position to the previous position on the current line. If the
active position is at the initial position of a line, the behavior is
unspecified. ( "form feed" ) Moves the active position to the initial
position at the start of the next logical page. ( "new line" ) Moves
the active position to the initial position of the next line.
( "carriage return" ) Moves the active position to the initial position
of the current line. ( "horizontal tab" ) Moves the active position
to the next horizontal tabulation position on the current line. If
the active position is at or past the last defined horizontal
tabulation position, the behavior is unspecified. ( "vertical tab" )
Moves the active position to the initial position of the next vertical
tabulation position. If the active position is at or past the last
defined vertical tabulation position, the behavior is unspecified.
Each of these escape sequences shall produce a unique
implementation-defined value which can be stored in a single char
object. The external representations in a text file need not be
identical to the internal representations, and are outside the scope
of this Standard.
Forward references: the fputc function ($4.9.7.3), the isprint
function ($4.3.1.7).
2.2.3 Signals and interrupts
Functions shall be implemented such that they may be interrupted at
any time by a signal, or may be called by a signal handler, or both,
with no alteration to earlier, but still active, invocations' control
flow (after the interruption), function return values, or objects with
automatic storage duration. All such objects shall be maintained
outside the function image (the instructions that comprise the
executable representation of a function) on a per-invocation basis.
The functions in the standard library are not guaranteed to be
reentrant and may modify objects with static storage duration.
2.2.4 Environmental limits
Both the translation and execution environments constrain the
implementation of language translators and libraries. The following
summarizes the environmental limits on a conforming implementation.
2.2.4.1 Translation limits
The implementation shall be able to translate and execute at least
one program that contains at least one instance of every one of the
following limits:/6/
* 15 nesting levels of compound statements, iteration control
structures, and selection control structures
* 8 nesting levels of conditional inclusion
* 12 pointer, array, and function declarators (in any combinations)
modifying an arithmetic, a structure, a union, or an incomplete type
in a declaration
* 31 declarators nested by parentheses within a full declarator
* 32 expressions nested by parentheses within a full expression
* 31 significant initial characters in an internal identifier or a
macro name
* 6 significant initial characters in an external identifier
* 511 external identifiers in one translation unit
* 127 identifiers with block scope declared in one block
* 1024 macro identifiers simultaneously defined in one translation unit
* 31 parameters in one function definition
* 31 arguments in one function call
* 31 parameters in one macro definition
* 31 arguments in one macro invocation
* 509 characters in a logical source line
* 509 characters in a character string literal or wide string literal
(after concatenation)
* 32767 bytes in an object (in a hosted environment only)
* 8 nesting levels for #include'd files
* 257 case labels for a switch statement (excluding those for any
nested switch statements)
* 127 members in a single structure or union
* 127 enumeration constants in a single enumeration
* 15 levels of nested structure or union definitions in a single
struct-declaration-list
2.2.4.2 Numerical limits
A conforming implementation shall document all the limits specified
in this section, which shall be specified in the headers <limits.h>
and <float.h> .
"Sizes of integral types <limits.h>"
The values given below shall be replaced by constant expressions
suitable for use in #if preprocessing directives. Their
implementation-defined values shall be equal or greater in magnitude
(absolute value) to those shown, with the same sign.
* maximum number of bits for smallest object that is not a bit-field (byte)
CHAR_BIT 8
* minimum value for an object of type signed char
SCHAR_MIN -127
* maximum value for an object of type signed char
SCHAR_MAX +127
* maximum value for an object of type unsigned char
UCHAR_MAX 255
* minimum value for an object of type char
CHAR_MIN see below
* maximum value for an object of type char
CHAR_MAX see below
* maximum number of bytes in a multibyte character, for any supported locale
MB_LEN_MAX 1
* minimum value for an object of type short int
SHRT_MIN -32767
* maximum value for an object of type short int
SHRT_MAX +32767
* maximum value for an object of type unsigned short int
USHRT_MAX 65535
* minimum value for an object of type int
INT_MIN -32767
* maximum value for an object of type int
INT_MAX +32767
* maximum value for an object of type unsigned int
UINT_MAX 65535
* minimum value for an object of type long int
LONG_MIN -2147483647
* maximum value for an object of type long int
LONG_MAX +2147483647
* maximum value for an object of type unsigned long int
ULONG_MAX 4294967295
If the value of an object of type char sign-extends when used in an
expression, the value of CHAR_MIN shall be the same as that of
SCHAR_MIN and the value of CHAR_MAX shall be the same as that of
SCHAR_MAX . If the value of an object of type char does not
sign-extend when used in an expression, the value of CHAR_MIN shall be
0 and the value of CHAR_MAX shall be the same as that of UCHAR_MAX
./7/
"Characteristics of floating types <float.h>"
delim $$ The characteristics of floating types are defined in terms
of a model that describes a representation of floating-point numbers
and values that provide information about an implementation's
floating-point arithmetic. The following parameters are used to
define the model for each floating-point type:
A normalized floating-point number x ($f sub 1$ > 0 if x is defined
by the following model:/8/ $x~=~s~times~b sup e~times~sum from k=1 to
p~f sub k~times~b sup -k~,~~~e sub min~<=~e~<=~e sub max$
Of the values in the <float.h> header, FLT_RADIX shall be a
constant expression suitable for use in #if preprocessing directives;
all other values need not be constant expressions. All except
FLT_RADIX and FLT_ROUNDS have separate names for all three
floating-point types. The floating-point model representation is
provided for all values except FLT_ROUNDS .
The rounding mode for floating-point addition is characterized by
the value of FLT_ROUNDS : -1 indeterminable, 0 toward zero, 1 to nearest,
2 toward positive infinity, 3 toward negative infinity. All other values
for FLT_ROUNDS characterize implementation-defined rounding behavior.
The values given in the following list shall be replaced by
implementation-defined expressions that shall be equal or greater in
magnitude (absolute value) to those shown, with the same sign.
* radix of exponent representation, b
FLT_RADIX 2
* number of base- FLT_RADIX digits in the floating-point mantissa, p
FLT_MANT_DIG
DBL_MANT_DIG
LDBL_MANT_DIG
* number of decimal digits of precision, $left floor~(p~-~1)~times~{
log sub 10 } b~right floor ~+~ left { lpile { 1 above 0 } ~~ lpile {
roman "if " b roman " is a power of 10" above roman otherwise }$
FLT_DIG 6
DBL_DIG 10
LDBL_DIG 10
* minimum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX raised to that power
minus 1 is a normalized floating-point number, $e sub min$
FLT_MIN_EXP
DBL_MIN_EXP
LDBL_MIN_EXP
* minimum negative integer such that 10 raised to that power is in
the range of normalized floating-point numbers,
FLT_MIN_10_EXP -37
DBL_MIN_10_EXP -37
LDBL_MIN_10_EXP -37
* maximum integer such that FLT_RADIX raised to that power minus 1 is
a representable finite floating-point number, $e sub max$
FLT_MAX_EXP
DBL_MAX_EXP
LDBL_MAX_EXP
* maximum integer such that 10 raised to that power is in the range
of representable finite floating-point numbers,
FLT_MAX_10_EXP +37
DBL_MAX_10_EXP +37
LDBL_MAX_10_EXP +37
The values given in the following list shall be replaced by
implementation-defined expressions with values that shall be equal to
or greater than those shown.
* maximum representable finite floating-point number,
FLT_MAX 1E+37
DBL_MAX 1E+37
LDBL_MAX 1E+37
The values given in the following list shall be replaced by
implementation-defined expressions with values that shall be equal to
or smaller than those shown.
* minimum positive floating-point number x such that 1.0 + x
FLT_EPSILON 1E-5
DBL_EPSILON 1E-9
LDBL_EPSILON 1E-9
* minimum normalized positive floating-point number, $b sup { e sub
min - 1 }$
FLT_MIN 1E-37
DBL_MIN 1E-37
LDBL_MIN 1E-37
Examples
The following describes an artificial floating-point representation
that meets the minimum requirements of the Standard, and the
appropriate values in a <float.h> header for type float :
$x~=~s~times~16 sup e~times~sum from k=1 to 6~f sub k~times~16 sup
-k~,~~~-31~<=~e~<=~+32$
FLT_RADIX 16
FLT_MANT_DIG 6
FLT_EPSILON 9.53674316E-07F
FLT_DIG 6
FLT_MIN_EXP -31
FLT_MIN 2.93873588E-39F
FLT_MIN_10_EXP -38
FLT_MAX_EXP +32
FLT_MAX 3.40282347E+38F
FLT_MAX_10_EXP +38
The following describes floating-point representations that also
meet the requirements for single-precision and double-precision
normalized numbers in the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point
Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985),/9/ b and the appropriate values
in a <float.h> header for types float and double : $x sub
f~=~s~times~2 sup e~times~{ sum from k=1 to 24~f sub k~times~2 sup -k
},~~~-125~<=~e~<=~+128$ $x sub d~=~s~times~2 sup e~times~{ sum from
k=1 to 53~f sub k~times~2 sup -k },~~~-1021~<=~e~<=~+1024$
FLT_RADIX 2
FLT_MANT_DIG 24
FLT_EPSILON 1.19209290E-07F
FLT_DIG 6
FLT_MIN_EXP -125
FLT_MIN 1.17549435E-38F
FLT_MIN_10_EXP -37
FLT_MAX_EXP +128
FLT_MAX 3.40282347E+38F
FLT_MAX_10_EXP +38
DBL_MANT_DIG 53
DBL_EPSILON 2.2204460492503131E-16
DBL_DIG 15
DBL_MIN_EXP -1021
DBL_MIN 2.2250738585072016E-308
DBL_MIN_10_EXP -307
DBL_MAX_EXP +1024
DBL_MAX 1.7976931348623157E+308
DBL_MAX_10_EXP +308
The values shown above for FLT_EPSILON and DBL_EPSILON are
appropriate for the ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985 default rounding mode (to
nearest). Their values may differ for other rounding modes.
Forward references: conditional inclusion ($3.8.1). conditional
inclusion ($3.8.1).
3. LANGUAGE
In the syntax notation used in the language section ($3), syntactic
categories (nonterminals) are indicated by italic type, and literal
words and character set members (terminals) by bold type. A colon (:)
following a nonterminal introduces its definition. Alternative
definitions are listed on separate lines, except when prefaced by the
words ``one of.'' An optional symbol is indicated by the so that
{ expression<opt> }
indicates an optional expression enclosed in braces.
3.1 LEXICAL ELEMENTS
Syntax
token:
keyword
identifier
constant
string-literal
operator
punctuator
preprocessing-token:
header-name
identifier
pp-number
character-constant
string-literal
operator
punctuator
each non-white-space character that cannot be one of
the above
Constraints
Each preprocessing token that is converted to a token shall have
the lexical form of a keyword, an identifier, a constant, a string
literal, an operator, or a punctuator.
Semantics
A token is the minimal lexical element of the language in
translation phases 7 and 8. The categories of tokens are: keywords,
identifiers, constants, string literals, operators, and punctuators.
A preprocessing token is the minimal lexical element of the language
in translation phases 3 through 6. The categories of preprocessing
token are: header names, identifiers, preprocessing numbers,
character constants, string literals, operators, punctuators, and
single non-white-space characters that do not lexically match the
other preprocessing token categories. If a ' or a " character matches
the last category, the behavior is undefined. Comments (described
later) and the characters space, horizontal tab, new-line, vertical
tab, and form-feed---collectively called white space ---canseparate
preprocessing tokens. As described in $3.8, in certain circumstances
during translation phase 4, white space (or the absence thereof)
serves as more than preprocessing token separation. White space may
appear within a preprocessing token only as part of a header name or
between the quotation characters in a character constant or string
literal.
If the input stream has been parsed into preprocessing tokens up to
a given character, the next preprocessing token is the longest
sequence of characters that could constitute a preprocessing token.
Examples
The program fragment 1Ex is parsed as a preprocessing number token
(one that is not a valid floating or integer constant token), even
though a parse as the pair of preprocessing tokens 1 and Ex might
produce a valid expression (for example, if Ex were a macro defined as
+1 ). Similarly, the program fragment 1E1 is parsed as a
preprocessing number (one that is a valid floating constant token),
whether or not E is a macro name.
The program fragment x+++++y is parsed as x ++ ++ + y, which
violates a constraint on increment operators, even though the parse x
++ + ++ y might yield a correct expression.
Forward references: character constants ($3.1.3.4), comments ($3.1.9),
expressions ($3.3), floating constants ($3.1.3.1), header names
($3.1.7), macro replacement ($3.8.3), postfix increment and decrement
operators ($3.3.2.4), prefix increment and decrement operators
($3.3.3.1), preprocessing directives ($3.8), preprocessing numbers
($3.1.8), string literals ($3.1.4).
3.1.1 Keywords
Syntax
keyword: one of
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
Semantics
The above tokens (entirely in lower-case) are reserved (in
translation phases 7 and 8) for use as keywords, and shall not be used
otherwise.
3.1.2 Identifiers
Syntax
identifier:
nondigit
identifier nondigit
identifier digit
nondigit: one of
_ a b c d e f g h i j k l m
n o p q r s t u v w x y z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
digit: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Description
An identifier is a sequence of nondigit characters (including the
underscore _ and the lower-case and upper-case letters) and digits.
The first character shall be a nondigit character.
Constraints
In translation phases 7 and 8, an identifier shall not consist of
the same sequence of characters as a keyword.
Semantics
An identifier denotes an object, a function, or one of the
following entities that will be described later: a tag or a member of
a structure, union, or enumeration; a typedef name; a label name; a
macro name; or a macro parameter. A member of an enumeration is
called an enumeration constant. Macro names and macro parameters are
not considered further here, because prior to the semantic phase of
program translation any occurrences of macro names in the source file
are replaced by the preprocessing token sequences that constitute
their macro definitions.
There is no specific limit on the maximum length of an identifier.
"Implementation limits"
The implementation shall treat at least the first 31 characters of
an internal name (a macro name or an identifier that does not have
external linkage) as significant. Corresponding lower-case and
upper-case letters are different. The implementation may further
restrict the significance of an external name (an identifier that has
external linkage) to six characters and may ignore distinctions of
alphabetical case for such names./10/ These limitations on identifiers
are all implementation-defined.
Any identifiers that differ in a significant character are
different identifiers. If two identifiers differ in a non-significant
character, the behavior is undefined.
Forward references: linkages of identifiers ($3.1.2.2), macro
replacement ($3.8.3).
3.1.2.1 Scopes of identifiers
An identifier is visible (i.e., can be used) only within a region
of program text called its scope . There are four kinds of scopes:
function, file, block, and function prototype. (A function prototype
is a declaration of a function that declares the types of its
parameters.)
A label name is the only kind of identifier that has function scope.
It can be used (in a goto statement) anywhere in the function in
which it appears, and is declared implicitly by its syntactic
appearance (followed by a : and a statement). Label names shall be
unique within a function.
Every other identifier has scope determined by the placement of its
declaration (in a declarator or type specifier). If the declarator or
type specifier that declares the identifier appears outside of any
block or list of parameters, the identifier has file scope, which
terminates at the end of the translation unit. If the declarator or
type specifier that declares the identifier appears inside a block or
within the list of parameter declarations in a function definition,
the identifier has block scope, which terminates at the } that closes
the associated block. If the declarator or type specifier that
declares the identifier appears within the list of parameter
declarations in a function prototype (not part of a function
definition), the identifier has function prototype scope ,which
terminates at the end of the function declarator. If an outer
declaration of a lexically identical identifier exists in the same
name space, it is hidden until the current scope terminates, after
which it again becomes visible.
Structure, union, and enumeration tags have scope that begins just
after the appearance of the tag in a type specifier that declares the
tag. Each enumeration constant has scope that begins just after the
appearance of its defining enumerator in an enumerator list. Any
other identifier has scope that begins just after the completion of
its declarator.
Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2),
declarations ($3.5), enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2), function calls
($3.3.2.2), function declarators (including prototypes) ($3.5.4.3),
function definitions ($3.7.1), the goto statement ($3.6.6.1), labeled
statements ($3.6.1), name spaces of identifiers ($3.1.2.3), scope of
macro definitions ($3.8.3.5), source file inclusion ($3.8.2), tags
($3.5.2.3), type specifiers ($3.5.2).
3.1.2.2 Linkages of identifiers
An identifier declared in different scopes or in the same scope
more than once can be made to refer to the same object or function by
a process called linkage . There are three kinds of linkage: external,
internal, and none.
In the set of translation units and libraries that constitutes an
entire program, each instance of a particular identifier with external
linkage denotes the same object or function. Within one translation
unit, each instance of an identifier with internal linkage denotes the
same object or function. Identifiers with no linkage denote unique
entities.
If the declaration of an identifier for an object or a function has
file scope and contains the storage-class specifier static, the
identifier has internal linkage.
If the declaration of an identifier for an object or a function
contains the storage-class specifier extern , the identifier has the
same linkage as any visible declaration of the identifier with file
scope. If there is no visible declaration with file scope, the
identifier has external linkage.
If the declaration of an identifier for a function has no
storage-class specifier, its linkage is determined exactly as if it
were declared with the storage-class specifier extern . If the
declaration of an identifier for an object has file scope and no
storage-class specifier, its linkage is external.
The following identifiers have no linkage: an identifier declared
to be anything other than an object or a function; an identifier
declared to be a function parameter; an identifier declared to be an
object inside a block without the storage-class specifier extern.
If, within a translation unit, the same identifier appears with
both internal and external linkage, the behavior is undefined.
Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2),
declarations ($3.5), expressions ($3.3), external definitions ($3.7).
3.1.2.3 Name spaces of identifiers
If more than one declaration of a particular identifier is visible
at any point in a translation unit, the syntactic context
disambiguates uses that refer to different entities. Thus, there are
separate name spaces for various categories of identifiers, as
follows:
* label names (disambiguated by the syntax of the label declaration
and use);
* the tags of structures, unions, and enumerations (disambiguated by
following any/11/ of the keywords struct , union , or enum );
* the members of structures or unions; each structure or union has a
separate name space for its members (disambiguated by the type of the
expression used to access the member via the . or -> operator);
* all other identifiers, called ordinary identifiers (declared in
ordinary declarators or as enumeration constants).
Forward references: declarators ($3.5.4), enumeration specifiers
($3.5.2.2), labeled statements ($3.6.1), structure and union
specifiers ($3.5.2.1), structure and union members ($3.3.2.3), tags
($3.5.2.3).
3.1.2.4 Storage durations of objects
An object has a storage duration that determines its lifetime.
There are two storage durations: static and automatic.
An object declared with external or internal linkage, or with the
storage-class specifier static has static storage duration. For such
an object, storage is reserved and its stored value is initialized
only once, prior to program startup. The object exists and retains
its last-stored value throughout the execution of the entire
program./12/
An object declared with no linkage and without the storage-class
specifier static has automatic storage duration. Storage is guaranteed
to be reserved for a new instance of such an object on each normal
entry into the block in which it is declared, or on a jump from
outside the block to a label in the block or in an enclosed block. If
an initialization is specified for the value stored in the object, it
is performed on each normal entry, but not if the block is entered by
a jump to a label. Storage for the object is no longer guaranteed to
be reserved when execution of the block ends in any way. (Entering an
enclosed block suspends but does not end execution of the enclosing
block. Calling a function that returns suspends but does not end
execution of the block containing the call.) The value of a pointer
that referred to an object with automatic storage duration that is no
longer guaranteed to be reserved is indeterminate.
Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2), function
calls ($3.3.2.2), initialization ($3.5.7).
3.1.2.5 Types
The meaning of a value stored in an object or returned by a
function is determined by the type of the expression used to access
it. (An identifier declared to be an object is the simplest such
expression; the type is specified in the declaration of the
identifier.) Types are partitioned into object types (types that
describe objects), function types (types that describe functions), and
incomplete types (types that describe objects but lack information
needed to determine their sizes).
An object declared as type char is large enough to store any member
of the basic execution character set. If a member of the required
source character set enumerated in $2.2.1 is stored in a char object,
its value is guaranteed to be positive. If other quantities are
stored in a char object, the behavior is implementation-defined: the
values are treated as either signed or nonnegative integers.
There are four signed integer types, designated as signed char,
short int, int, and long int. (The signed integer and other types
may be designated in several additional ways, as described in $3.5.2.)
An object declared as type signed char occupies the same amount of
storage as a ``plain'' char object. A ``plain'' int object has the
natural size suggested by the architecture of the execution
environment (large enough to contain any value in the range INT_MIN to
INT_MAX as defined in the header <limits.h> ). In the list of signed
integer types above, the range of values of each type is a subrange of
the values of the next type in the list.
For each of the signed integer types, there is a corresponding (but
different) unsigned integer type (designated with the keyword unsigned)
that uses the same amount of storage (including sign information)
and has the same alignment requirements. The range of nonnegative
values of a signed integer type is a subrange of the corresponding
unsigned integer type, and the representation of the same value in
each type is the same. A computation involving unsigned operands can
never overflow, because a result that cannot be represented by the
resulting unsigned integer type is reduced modulo the number that is
one greater than the largest value that can be represented by the
resulting unsigned integer type.
There are three floating types, designated as float , double , and
long double . The set of values of the type float is a subset of the
set of values of the type double ; the set of values of the type
double is a subset of the set of values of the type long double.
The type char, the signed and unsigned integer types, and the
floating types are collectively called the basic types. Even if the
implementation defines two or more basic types to have the same
representation, they are nevertheless different types.
There are three character types, designated as char , signed char ,
and unsigned char.
An enumeration comprises a set of named integer constant values.
Each distinct enumeration constitutes a different enumerated type.
The void type comprises an empty set of values; it is an incomplete
type that cannot be completed.
Any number of derived types can be constructed from the basic,
enumerated, and incomplete types, as follows:
* An array type describes a contiguously allocated set of objects
with a particular member object type, called the element type .Array
types are characterized by their element type and by the number of
members of the array. An array type is said to be derived from its
element type, and if its element type is T , the array type is
sometimes called ``array of T .'' The construction of an array type
from an element type is called ``array type derivation.''
* A structure type describes a sequentially allocated set of member
objects, each of which has an optionally specified name and possibly
distinct type.
* A union type describes an overlapping set of member objects, each
of which has an optionally specified name and possibly distinct type.
* A function type describes a function with specified return type. A
function type is characterized by its return type and the number and
types of its parameters. A function type is said to be derived from
its return type, and if its return type is T , the function type is
sometimes called ``function returning T.'' The construction of a
function type from a return type is called ``function type
derivation.''
* A pointer type may be derived from a function type, an object type,
or an incomplete type, called the referenced type. A pointer type
describes an object whose value provides a reference to an entity of
the referenced type. A pointer type derived from the referenced type
T is sometimes called ``pointer to T .'' The construction of a pointer
type from a referenced type is called ``pointer type derivation.''
These methods of constructing derived types can be applied
recursively.
The type char, the signed and unsigned integer types, and the
enumerated types are collectively called integral types. The
representations of integral types shall define values by use of a pure
binary numeration system./13/ American National Dictionary for
Information Processing Systems.) The representations of floating types
are unspecified.
Integral and floating types are collectively called arithmetic
types. Arithmetic types and pointer types are collectively called
scalar types. Array and structure types are collectively called
aggregate types. /14/
A pointer to void shall have the same representation and alignment
requirements as a pointer to a character type. Other pointer types
need not have the same representation or alignment requirements.
An array type of unknown size is an incomplete type. It is
completed, for an identifier of that type, by specifying the size in a
later declaration (with internal or external linkage). A structure or
union type of unknown content (as described in $3.5.2.3) is an
incomplete type. It is completed, for all declarations of that type,
by declaring the same structure or union tag with its defining content
later in the same scope.
Array, function, and pointer types are collectively called derived
declarator types. A declarator type derivation from a type T is the
construction of a derived declarator type from T by the application of
an array, a function, or a pointer type derivation to T.
A type is characterized by its top type, which is either the first
type named in describing a derived type (as noted above in the
construction of derived types), or the type itself if the type
consists of no derived types.
A type has qualified type if its top type is specified with a type
qualifier; otherwise it has unqualified type. The type qualifiers
const and volatile respectively designate const-qualified type and
volatile-qualified type. /15/ For each qualified type there is an
unqualified type that is specified the same way as the qualified type,
but without any type qualifiers in its top type. This type is known
as the unqualified version of the qualified type. Similarly, there
are appropriately qualified versions of types (such as a
const-qualified version of a type), just as there are appropriately
non-qualified versions of types (such as a non-const-qualified version
of a type).
Examples
The type designated as ``float *'' is called ``pointer to float''
and its top type is a pointer type, not a floating type. The
const-qualified version of this type is designated as ``float * const''
whereas the type designated as `` const float * '' is not a
qualified type --- it is called ``pointer to const float '' and is a
pointer to a qualified type.
Finally, the type designated as `` struct tag (*[5])(float) '' is
called ``array of pointer to function returning struct tag.'' Its top
type is array type. The array has length five and the function has a
single parameter of type float.
Forward references: character constants ($3.1.3.4), declarations
($3.5), tags ($3.5.2.3), type qualifiers ($3.5.3).
3.1.2.6 Compatible type and composite type
Two types have compatible type if their types are the same.
Additional rules for determining whether two types are compatible are
described in $3.5.2 for type specifiers, in $3.5.3 for type
qualifiers, and in $3.5.4 for declarators. /16/ Moreover, two
structure, union, or enumeration types declared in separate
translation units are compatible if they have the same number of
members, the same member names, and compatible member types; for two
structures, the members shall be in the same order; for two
enumerations, the members shall have the same values.
All declarations that refer to the same object or function shall
have compatible type; otherwise the behavior is undefined.
A composite type can be constructed from two types that are
compatible; it is a type that is compatible with both of the two types
and has the following additions:
* If one type is an array of known size, the composite type is an
array of that size.
* If only one type is a function type with a parameter type list (a
function prototype), the composite type is a function prototype with
the parameter type list.
* If both types have parameter type lists, the type of each parameter
in the composite parameter type list is the composite type of the
corresponding parameters.
These rules apply recursively to the types from which the two types
are derived.
For an identifier with external or internal linkage declared in the
same scope as another declaration for that identifier, the type of the
identifier becomes the composite type.
Example
Given the following two file scope declarations:
int f(int (*)(), double (*)[3]);
int f(int (*)(char *), double (*)[]);
The resulting composite type for the function is:
int f(int (*)(char *), double (*)[3]);
Forward references: declarators ($3.5.4), enumeration specifiers
($3.5.2.2), structure and union specifiers ($3.5.2.1), type
definitions ($3.5.6), type qualifiers ($3.5.3), type specifiers
($3.5.2).
3.1.3 Constants
Syntax
constant:
floating-constant
integer-constant
enumeration-constant
character-constant
Constraints
The value of a constant shall be in the range of representable
values for its type.
Semantics
Each constant has a type, determined by its form and value, as
detailed later.
3.1.3.1 Floating constants
Syntax
floating-constant:
fractional-constant exponent-part<opt> floating-suffix<opt>
digit-sequence exponent-part floating-suffix<opt>
fractional-constant:
digit-sequence<opt>.digit-sequence
digit-sequence.
exponent-part:
e sign<opt> digit-sequence
E sign<opt> digit-sequence
sign: one of
+ -
digit-sequence:
digit
digit-sequence digit
floating-suffix: one of
f l F L
Description
A floating constant has a value part that may be followed by an
exponent part and a suffix that specifies its type. The components of
the value part may include a digit sequence representing the
whole-number part, followed by a period (.), followed by a digit
sequence representing the fraction part. The components of the
exponent part are an e or E followed by an exponent consisting of an
optionally signed digit sequence. Either the whole-number part or the
fraction part shall be present; either the period or the exponent part
shall be present.
Semantics
The value part is interpreted as a decimal rational number; the
digit sequence in the exponent part is interpreted as a decimal
integer. The exponent indicates the power of 10 by which the value
part is to be scaled. If the scaled value is in the range of
representable values (for its type) but cannot be represented exactly,
the result is either the nearest higher or nearest lower value, chosen
in an implementation-defined manner.
An unsuffixed floating constant has type double. If suffixed by
the letter f or F, it has type float. If suffixed by the letter l
or L, it has type long double.
3.1.3.2 Integer constants
Syntax
integer-constant:
decimal-constant integer-suffix<opt>
octal-constant integer-suffix<opt>
hexadecimal-constant integer-suffix<opt>
decimal-constant:
nonzero-digit
decimal-constant digit
octal-constant:
0
octal-constant octal-digit
hexadecimal-constant:
0x hexadecimal-digit
0X hexadecimal-digit
hexadecimal-constant hexadecimal-digit
nonzero-digit: one of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
octal-digit: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hexadecimal-digit: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a b c d e f
A B C D E F
integer-suffix:
unsigned-suffix long-suffix<opt>
long-suffix unsigned-suffix<opt>
unsigned-suffix: one of
u U
long-suffix: one of
l L
Description
An integer constant begins with a digit, but has no period or
exponent part. It may have a prefix that specifies its base and a
suffix that specifies its type.
A decimal constant begins with a nonzero digit and consists of a
sequence of decimal digits. An octal constant consists of the prefix
0 optionally followed by a sequence of the digits 0 through 7 only. A
hexadecimal constant consists of the prefix 0x or 0X followed by a
sequence of the decimal digits and the letters a (or A ) through f (or
F) with values 10 through 15 respectively.
Semantics
The value of a decimal constant is computed base 10; that of an
octal constant, base 8; that of a hexadecimal constant, base 16. The
lexically first digit is the most significant.
The type of an integer constant is the first of the corresponding
list in which its value can be represented. Unsuffixed decimal: int,
long int, unsigned long int; unsuffixed octal or hexadecimal: int,
unsigned int, long int, unsigned long int; suffixed by the letter u
or U: unsigned int, unsigned long int; suffixed by the letter l or
L: long int, unsigned long int; suffixed by both the letters u or U
and l or L: unsigned long int .
3.1.3.3 Enumeration constants
Syntax
enumeration-constant:
identifier
Semantics
An identifier declared as an enumeration constant has type int.
Forward references: enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2).
3.1.3.4 Character constants
Syntax
character-constant:
' c-char-sequence'
L' c-char-sequence'
c-char-sequence:
c-char
c-char-sequence c-char
c-char:
any member of the source character set except
the single-quote ', backslash \, or new-line character
escape-sequence
escape-sequence:
simple-escape-sequence
octal-escape-sequence
hexadecimal-escape-sequence
simple-escape-sequence: one of
\' \" \? \\
\a \b \f \n \r \t \v
octal-escape-sequence:
\ octal-digit
\ octal-digit octal-digit
\ octal-digit octal-digit octal-digit
hexadecimal-escape-sequence:
\x hexadecimal-digit
hexadecimal-escape-sequence hexadecimal-digit
Description
An integer character constant is a sequence of one or more
multibyte characters enclosed in single-quotes, as in 'x' or 'ab'. A
wide character constant is the same, except prefixed by the letter L .
With a few exceptions detailed later, the elements of the sequence are
any members of the source character set; they are mapped in an
implementation-defined manner to members of the execution character
set.
The single-quote ', the double-quote , the question-mark ?, the
backslash \ , and arbitrary integral values, are representable
according to the following table of escape sequences:
single-quote ' \'
double-quote " \"
question-mark ? \?
backslash \ \\
octal integer \ octal digits
hexadecimal integer \x hexadecimal digits
The double-quote and question-mark ? are representable either by
themselves or by the escape sequences \" and \? respectively, but the
single-quote ' and the backslash \ shall be represented, respectively,
by the escape sequences \' and \\ .
The octal digits that follow the backslash in an octal escape
sequence are taken to be part of the construction of a single
character for an integer character constant or of a single wide
character for a wide character constant. The numerical value of the
octal integer so formed specifies the value of the desired character.
The hexadecimal digits that follow the backslash and the letter x
in a hexadecimal escape sequence are taken to be part of the
construction of a single character for an integer character constant
or of a single wide character for a wide character constant. The
numerical value of the hexadecimal integer so formed specifies the
value of the desired character.
Each octal or hexadecimal escape sequence is the longest sequence
of characters that can constitute the escape sequence.
In addition, certain nongraphic characters are representable by
escape sequences consisting of the backslash \ followed by a
lower-case letter: \a , \b , \f , \n , \r , \t , and \v ./17/ If any
other escape sequence is encountered, the behavior is undefined./18/
Constraints
The value of an octal or hexadecimal escape sequence shall be in
the range of representable values for the unsigned type corresponding
to its type.
Semantics
An integer character constant has type int. The value of an
integer character constant containing a single character that maps
into a member of the basic execution character set is the numerical
value of the representation of the mapped character interpreted as an
integer. The value of an integer character constant containing more
than one character, or containing a character or escape sequence not
represented in the basic execution character set, is
implementation-defined. In particular, in an implementation in which
type char has the same range of values as signed char, the high-order
bit position of a single-character integer character constant is
treated as a sign bit.
A wide character constant has type wchar_t , an integral type
defined in the <stddef.h> header. The value of a wide character
constant containing a single multibyte character that maps into a
member of the extended execution character set is the wide character
(code) corresponding to that multibyte character, as defined by the
mbtowc function, with an implementation-defined current locale. The
value of a wide character constant containing more than one multibyte
character, or containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not
represented in the extended execution character set, is
implementation-defined.
Examples
The construction '\0' is commonly used to represent the null character.
Consider implementations that use two's-complement representation
for integers and eight bits for objects that have type char. In an
implementation in which type char has the same range of values as
signed char, the integer character constant '\xFF' has the value if
type char has the same range of values as unsigned char, the
character constant '\xFF' has the value
Even if eight bits are used for objects that have type char , the
construction '\x123' specifies an integer character constant
containing only one character. (The value of this single-character
integer character constant is implementation-defined and violates the
above constraint.) To specify an integer character constant containing
the two characters whose values are 0x12 and '3', the construction
'\0223' may be used, since a hexadecimal escape sequence is terminated
only by a non-hexadecimal character. (The value of this two-character
integer character constant is implementation-defined also.)
Even if 12 or more bits are used for objects that have type wchar_t,
the construction L'\1234' specifies the implementation-defined value
that results from the combination of the values 0123 and '4'.
Forward references: characters and integers ($3.2.1.1) common
definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5), the mbtowc function ($4.10.7.2).
3.1.4 String literals
Syntax
string-literal:
" s-char-sequence<opt>"
L" s-char-sequence<opt>"
s-char-sequence:
s-char
s-char-sequence s-char
s-char:
any member of the source character set except
the double-quote ", backslash \, or new-line character
escape-sequence
Description
A character string literal is a sequence of zero or more multibyte
characters enclosed in double-quotes, as in xyz. A wide string
literal is the same, except prefixed by the letter L.
The same considerations apply to each element of the sequence in a
character string literal or a wide string literal as if it were in an
integer character constant or a wide character constant, except that
the single-quote ' is representable either by itself or by the escape
sequence \', but the double-quote shall be represented by the escape
sequence \.
Semantics
A character string literal has static storage duration and type
``array of char ,'' and is initialized with the given characters. A
wide string literal has static storage duration and type ``array of
wchar_t,'' and is initialized with the wide characters corresponding
to the given multibyte characters. Character string literals that are
adjacent tokens are concatenated into a single character string
literal. A null character is then appended. /19/ Likewise, adjacent
wide string literal tokens are concatenated into a single wide string
literal to which a code with value zero is then appended. If a
character string literal token is adjacent to a wide string literal
token, the behavior is undefined.
Identical string literals of either form need not be distinct. If
the program attempts to modify a string literal of either form, the
behavior is undefined.
Example
This pair of adjacent character string literals
"\x12" "3"
produces a single character string literal containing the two
characters whose values are \x12 and '3', because escape sequences are
converted into single members of the execution character set just
prior to adjacent string literal concatenation.
Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5).
3.1.5 Operators
Syntax
operator: one of
[ ] ( ) . ->
++ -- & * + - ~ ! sizeof
/ % << >> < > <= >= == != ^ | && ||
? :
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
, # ##
Constraints
The operators [ ] , ( ) , and ? : shall occur in pairs, possibly
separated by expressions. The operators # and ## shall occur in
macro-defining preprocessing directives only.
Semantics
An operator specifies an operation to be performed (an evaluation )
that yields a value, or yields a designator, or produces a side
effect, or a combination thereof. An operand is an entity on which an
operator acts.
Forward references: expressions ($3.3), macro replacement ($3.8.3).
3.1.6 Punctuators
Syntax
punctuator: one of
[ ] ( ) { } * , : = ; ... #
Constraints
The punctuators [ ] , ( ) , and { } shall occur in pairs, possibly
separated by expressions, declarations, or statements. The punctuator
# shall occur in preprocessing directives only.
Semantics
A punctuator is a symbol that has independent syntactic and
semantic significance but does not specify an operation to be
performed that yields a value. Depending on context, the same symbol
may also represent an operator or part of an operator.
Forward references: expressions ($3.3), declarations ($3.5),
preprocessing directives ($3.8), statements ($3.6).
3.1.7 Header names
Syntax
header-name:
< h-char-sequence>
" q-char-sequence"
h-char-sequence:
h-char
h-char-sequence h-char
h-char:
any member of the source character set except
the new-line character and >
q-char-sequence:
q-char
q-char-sequence q-char
q-char:
any member of the source character set except
the new-line character and "
Constraints
Header name preprocessing tokens shall only appear within a
#include preprocessing directive.
Semantics
The sequences in both forms of header names are mapped in an
implementation-defined manner to headers or external source file names
as specified in $3.8.2.
If the characters ', \ , , or /* occur in the sequence between the
< and > delimiters, the behavior is undefined. Similarly, if the
characters ', \ , or /* occur in the sequence between the " delimiters,
the behavior is undefined. /20/
Example
The following sequence of characters:
0x3<1/a.h>1e2
#include <1/a.h>
#define const.member@$
forms the following sequence of preprocessing tokens (with each
individual preprocessing token delimited by a { on the left and a } on
the right).
{0x3}{<}{1}{/}{a}{.}{h}{>}{1e2}
{#}{include} {<1/a.h>}
{#}{define} {const}{.}{member}{@}{$}
Forward references: source file inclusion ($3.8.2).
3.1.8 Preprocessing numbers
Syntax
pp-number:
digit
. digit
pp-number digit
pp-number nondigit
pp-number e sign
pp-number E sign
pp-number .
Description
A preprocessing number begins with a digit optionally preceded by a
period (.) and may be followed by letters, underscores, digits,
periods, and e+, e-, E+, or E- character sequences.
Preprocessing number tokens lexically include all floating and
integer constant tokens.
Semantics
A preprocessing number does not have type or a value; it acquires
both after a successful conversion (as part of translation phase 7) to
a floating constant token or an integer constant token.
3.1.9 Comments
Except within a character constant, a string literal, or a comment,
the characters /* introduce a comment. The contents of a comment are
examined only to identify multibyte characters and to find the
characters */ that terminate it. /21/
3.2 CONVERSIONS
Several operators convert operand values from one type to another
automatically. This section specifies the result required from such
an implicit conversion, as well as those that result from a cast
operation (an explicit conversion). The list in $3.2.1.5 summarizes
the conversions performed by most ordinary operators; it is
supplemented as required by the discussion of each operator in $3.3.
Conversion of an operand value to a compatible type causes no change.
Forward references: cast operators ($3.3.4).
3.2.1 Arithmetic operands
3.2.1.1 Characters and integers
A char, a short int, or an int bit-field, or their signed or
unsigned varieties, or an object that has enumeration type, may be
used in an expression wherever an int or unsigned int may be used. If
an int can represent all values of the original type, the value is
converted to an int; otherwise it is converted to an unsigned int.
These are called the integral promotions.
The integral promotions preserve value including sign. As
discussed earlier, whether a ``plain'' char is treated as signed is
implementation-defined.
Forward references: enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2), structure and
union specifiers ($3.5.2.1).
3.2.1.2 Signed and unsigned integers
When an unsigned integer is converted to another integral type, if
the value can be represented by the new type, its value is unchanged.
When a signed integer is converted to an unsigned integer with
equal or greater size, if the value of the signed integer is
nonnegative, its value is unchanged. Otherwise: if the unsigned
integer has greater size, the signed integer is first promoted to the
signed integer corresponding to the unsigned integer; the value is
converted to unsigned by adding to it one greater than the largest
number that can be represented in the unsigned integer type. /22/
When an integer is demoted to an unsigned integer with smaller
size, the result is the nonnegative remainder on division by the
number one greater than the largest unsigned number that can be
represented in the type with smaller size. When an integer is demoted
to a signed integer with smaller size, or an unsigned integer is
converted to its corresponding signed integer, if the value cannot be
represented the result is implementation-defined.
3.2.1.3 Floating and integral
When a value of floating type is converted to integral type, the
fractional part is discarded. If the value of the integral part
cannot be represented by the integral type, the behavior is
undefined. /23/
When a value of integral type is converted to floating type, if the
value being converted is in the range of values that can be
represented but cannot be represented exactly, the result is either
the nearest higher or nearest lower value, chosen in an
implementation-defined manner.
3.2.1.4 Floating types
When a float is promoted to double or long double , or a double is
promoted to long double , its value is unchanged.
When a double is demoted to float or a long double to double or
float, if the value being converted is outside the range of values
that can be represented, the behavior is undefined. If the value
being converted is in the range of values that can be represented but
cannot be represented exactly, the result is either the nearest higher
or nearest lower value, chosen in an implementation-defined manner.
3.2.1.5 Usual arithmetic conversions
Many binary operators that expect operands of arithmetic type cause
conversions and yield result types in a similar way. The purpose is
to yield a common type, which is also the type of the result. This
pattern is called the usual arithmetic conversions: First, if either
operand has type long double, the other operand is converted to long
double . Otherwise, if either operand has type double, the other
operand is converted to double. Otherwise, if either operand has
type float, the other operand is converted to float. Otherwise, the
integral promotions are performed on both operands. Then the
following rules are applied: If either operand has type unsigned long
int, the other operand is converted to unsigned long int.
Otherwise, if one operand has type long int and the other has type
unsigned int, if a long int can represent all values of an unsigned
int, the operand of type unsigned int is converted to long int ; if a
long int cannot represent all the values of an unsigned int, both
operands are converted to unsigned long int. Otherwise, if either
operand has type long int, the other operand is converted to long int.
Otherwise, if either operand has type unsigned int, the other
operand is converted to unsigned int. Otherwise, both operands have
type int.
The values of operands and of the results of expressions may be
represented in greater precision and range than that required by the
type; the types are not changed thereby.
3.2.2 Other operands
3.2.2.1 Lvalues and function designators
An lvalue is an expression (with an object type or an incomplete
type other than void) that designates an object. /24/ When an object
is said to have a particular type, the type is specified by the lvalue
used to designate the object. A modifiable lvalue is an lvalue that
does not have array type, does not have an incomplete type, does not
have a const-qualified type, and if it is a structure or union, does
not have any member (including, recursively, any member of all
contained structures or unions) with a const-qualified type.
Except when it is the operand of the sizeof operator, the unary &
operator, the ++ operator, the -- operator, or the left operand of the .
operator or an assignment operator, an lvalue that does not have
array type is converted to the value stored in the designated object
(and is no longer an lvalue). If the lvalue has qualified type, the
value has the unqualified version of the type of the lvalue; otherwise
the value has the type of the lvalue. If the lvalue has an incomplete
type and does not have array type, the behavior is undefined.
Except when it is the operand of the sizeof operator or the unary &
operator, or is a character string literal used to initialize an array
of character type, or is a wide string literal used to initialize an
array with element type compatible with wchar_t, an lvalue that has
type ``array of type '' is converted to an expression that has type
``pointer to type '' that points to the initial member of the array
object and is not an lvalue.
A function designator is an expression that has function type.
Except when it is the operand of the sizeof operator /25/ or the unary
& operator, a function designator with type ``function returning type
'' is converted to an expression that has type ``pointer to function
returning type .''
Forward references: address and indirection operators ($3.3.3.2),
assignment operators ($3.3.16), common definitions <stddef.h>
($4.1.5), initialization ($3.5.7), postfix increment and decrement
operators ($3.3.2.4), prefix increment and decrement operators
($3.3.3.1), the sizeof operator ($3.3.3.4), structure and union
members ($3.3.2.3).
3.2.2.2 void
The (nonexistent) value of a void expression (an expression that
has type void) shall not be used in any way, and implicit or explicit
conversions (except to void ) shall not be applied to such an
expression. If an expression of any other type occurs in a context
where a void expression is required, its value or designator is
discarded. (A void expression is evaluated for its side effects.)
3.2.2.3 Pointers
A pointer to void may be converted to or from a pointer to any
incomplete or object type. A pointer to any incomplete or object type
may be converted to a pointer to void and back again; the result shall
compare equal to the original pointer.
A pointer to a non-q-qualified type may be converted to a pointer
to the q-qualified version of the type; the values stored in the
original and converted pointers shall compare equal.
An integral constant expression with the value 0, or such an
expression cast to type void * , is called a null pointer constant. If
a null pointer constant is assigned to or compared for equality to a
pointer, the constant is converted to a pointer of that type. Such a
pointer, called a null pointer, is guaranteed to compare unequal to a
pointer to any object or function.
Two null pointers, converted through possibly different sequences
of casts to pointer types, shall compare equal.
Forward references: cast operators ($3.3.4), equality operators
($3.3.9), simple assignment ($3.3.16.1).
3.3 EXPRESSIONS
An expression is a sequence of operators and operands that
specifies computation of a value, or that designates an object or a
function, or that generates side effects, or that performs a
combination thereof.
Between the previous and next sequence point an object shall have
its stored value modified at most once by the evaluation of an
expression. Furthermore, the prior value shall be accessed only to
determine the value to be stored. /26/
Except as indicated by the syntax /27/ or otherwise specified later
(for the function-call operator () , && , || , ?: , and comma
operators), the order of evaluation of subexpressions and the order in
which side effects take place are both unspecified.
Some operators (the unary operator ~ , and the binary operators << ,
>> , & , ^ , and | , collectively described as bitwise operators
)shall have operands that have integral type. These operators return
values that depend on the internal representations of integers, and
thus have implementation-defined aspects for signed types.
If an exception occurs during the evaluation of an expression (that
is, if the result is not mathematically defined or not representable),
the behavior is undefined.
An object shall have its stored value accessed only by an lvalue
that has one of the following types: /28/
* the declared type of the object,
* a qualified version of the declared type of the object,
* a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the
declared type of the object,
* a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a
qualified version of the declared type of the object,
* an aggregate or union type that includes one of the aforementioned
types among its members (including, recursively, a member of a
subaggregate or contained union), or
* a character type.
3.3.1 Primary expressions
Syntax
primary-expression:
identifier
constant
string-literal
( expression )
Semantics
An identifier is a primary expression, provided it has been
declared as designating an object (in which case it is an lvalue) or a
function (in which case it is a function designator).
A constant is a primary expression. Its type depends on its form,
as detailed in $3.1.3.
A string literal is a primary expression. It is an lvalue with
type as detailed in $3.1.4.
A parenthesized expression is a primary expression. Its type and
value are identical to those of the unparenthesized expression. It is
an lvalue, a function designator, or a void expression if the
unparenthesized expression is, respectively, an lvalue, a function
designator, or a void expression.
Forward references: declarations ($3.5).
3.3.2 Postfix operators
Syntax
postfix-expression:
primary-expression
postfix-expression [ expression ]
postfix-expression ( argument-expression-list<opt> )
postfix-expression . identifier
postfix-expression -> identifier
postfix-expression ++
postfix-expression --
argument-expression-list:
assignment-expression
argument-expression-list , assignment-expression
3.3.2.1 Array subscripting
Constraints
One of the expressions shall have type ``pointer to object type ,''
the other expression shall have integral type, and the result has type
`` type .''
Semantics
A postfix expression followed by an expression in square brackets
[] is a subscripted designation of a member of an array object. The
definition of the subscript operator [] is that E1[E2] is identical to
(*(E1+(E2))) . Because of the conversion rules that apply to the
binary + operator, if E1 is an array object (equivalently, a pointer
to the initial member of an array object) and E2 is an integer, E1[E2]
designates the E2 -th member of E1 (counting from zero).
Successive subscript operators designate a member of a
multi-dimensional array object. If E is an n -dimensional array ( n
>=2) with dimensions i x j "x ... x" k , then E (used as other than an
lvalue) is converted to a pointer to an ( n -1)-dimensional array with
dimensions j "x ... x" k . If the unary * operator is applied to this
pointer explicitly, or implicitly as a result of subscripting, the
result is the pointed-to ( n -1)-dimensional array, which itself is
converted into a pointer if used as other than an lvalue. It follows
from this that arrays are stored in row-major order (last subscript
varies fastest).
Example
Consider the array object defined by the declaration
int x[3][5];
Here x is a 3x5 array of int s; more precisely, x is an array of three
member objects, each of which is an array of five int s. In the
expression x[i] , which is equivalent to (*(x+(i))) , x is first
converted to a pointer to the initial array of five int s. Then i is
adjusted according to the type of x , which conceptually entails
multiplying i by the size of the object to which the pointer points,
namely an array of five int objects. The results are added and
indirection is applied to yield an array of five int s. When used in
the expression x[i][j] , that in turn is converted to a pointer to the
first of the int s, so x[i][j] yields an int.
Forward references: additive operators ($3.3.6), address and
indirection operators ($3.3.3.2), array declarators ($3.5.4.2).
3.3.2.2 Function calls
Constraints
The expression that denotes the called function/29/ shall have type
pointer to function returning void or returning an object type other
than array.
If the expression that denotes the called function has a type that
includes a prototype, the number of arguments shall agree with the
number of parameters. Each argument shall have a type such that its
value may be assigned to an object with the unqualified version of the
type of its corresponding parameter.
Semantics
A postfix expression followed by parentheses () containing a
possibly empty, comma-separated list of expressions is a function
call. The postfix expression denotes the called function. The list
of expressions specifies the arguments to the function.
If the expression that precedes the parenthesized argument list in
a function call consists solely of an identifier, and if no
declaration is visible for this identifier, the identifier is
implicitly declared exactly as if, in the innermost block containing
the function call, the declaration
extern int identifier();
appeared. /30/
An argument may be an expression of any object type. In preparing
for the call to a function, the arguments are evaluated, and each
parameter is assigned the value of the corresponding argument./31/ The
value of the function call expression is specified in $3.6.6.4.
If the expression that denotes the called function has a type that
does not include a prototype, the integral promotions are performed on
each argument and arguments that have type float are promoted to
double. These are called the default argument promotions. If the
number of arguments does not agree with the number of parameters, the
behavior is undefined. If the function is defined with a type that
does not include a prototype, and the types of the arguments after
promotion are not compatible with those of the parameters after
promotion, the behavior is undefined. If the function is defined with
a type that includes a prototype, and the types of the arguments after
promotion are not compatible with the types of the parameters, or if
the prototype ends with an ellipsis ( ", ..." ), the behavior is
undefined.
If the expression that denotes the called function has a type that
includes a prototype, the arguments are implicitly converted, as if by
assignment, to the types of the corresponding parameters. The
ellipsis notation in a function prototype declarator causes argument
type conversion to stop after the last declared parameter. The
default argument promotions are performed on trailing arguments. If
the function is defined with a type that is not compatible with the
type (of the expression) pointed to by the expression that denotes the
called function, the behavior is undefined.
No other conversions are performed implicitly; in particular, the
number and types of arguments are not compared with those of the
parameters in a function definition that does not include a function
prototype declarator.
The order of evaluation of the function designator, the arguments,
and subexpressions within the arguments is unspecified, but there is a
sequence point before the actual call.
Recursive function calls shall be permitted, both directly and
indirectly through any chain of other functions.
Example
In the function call
(*pf[f1()]) (f2(), f3() + f4())
the functions f1 , f2 , f3 , and f4 may be called in any order. All
side effects shall be completed before the function pointed to by
pf[f1()] is entered.
Forward references: function declarators (including prototypes)
($3.5.4.3), function definitions ($3.7.1), the return statement
($3.6.6.4), simple assignment ($3.3.16.1).
3.3.2.3 Structure and union members
Constraints
The first operand of the . operator shall have a qualified or
unqualified structure or union type, and the second operand shall name
a member of that type.
The first operand of the -> operator shall have type ``pointer to
qualified or unqualified structure'' or ``pointer to qualified or
unqualified union,'' and the second operand shall name a member of the
type pointed to.
Semantics
A postfix expression followed by a dot . and an identifier
designates a member of a structure or union object. The value is that
of the named member, and is an lvalue if the first expression is an
lvalue. If the first expression has qualified type, the result has
the so-qualified version of the type of the designated member.
A postfix expression followed by an arrow -> and an identifier
designates a member of a structure or union object. The value is that
of the named member of the object to which the first expression
points, and is an lvalue./32/ If the first expression is a pointer to
a qualified type, the result has the so-qualified version of the type
of the designated member.
With one exception, if a member of a union object is accessed after
a value has been stored in a different member of the object, the
behavior is implementation-defined./33/ One special guarantee is made
in order to simplify the use of unions: If a union contains several
structures that share a common initial sequence, and if the union
object currently contains one of these structures, it is permitted to
inspect the common initial part of any of them. Two structures share
a common initial sequence if corresponding members have compatible
types for a sequence of one or more initial members.
Example
If f is a function returning a structure or union, and x is a
member of that structure or union, f().x is a valid postfix expression
but is not an lvalue.
The following is a valid fragment:
union {
struct {
int alltypes;
} n;
struct {
int type;
int intnode;
} ni;
struct {
int type;
double doublenode;
} nf;
} u;
/*...*/
u.nf.type = 1;
u.nf.doublenode = 3.14;
/*...*/
if (u.n.alltypes == 1)
/*...*/ sin(u.nf.doublenode) /*...*/
Forward references: address and indirection operators ($3.3.3.2),
structure and union specifiers ($3.5.2.1).
3.3.2.4 Postfix increment and decrement operators
Constraints
The operand of the postfix increment or decrement operator shall
have qualified or unqualified scalar type and shall be a modifiable
lvalue.
Semantics
The result of the postfix ++ operator is the value of the operand.
After the result is obtained, the value of the operand is incremented.
(That is, the value 1 of the appropriate type is added to it.) See the
discussions of additive operators and compound assignment for
information on constraints, types and conversions and the effects of
operations on pointers. The side effect of updating the stored value
of the operand shall occur between the previous and the next sequence
point.
The postfix -- operator is analogous to the postfix ++ operator,
except that the value of the operand is decremented (that is, the
value 1 of the appropriate type is subtracted from it).
Forward references: additive operators ($3.3.6), compound assignment
($3.3.16.2).
3.3.3 Unary operators
Syntax
unary-expression:
postfix-expression
++ unary-expression
-- unary-expression
unary-operator cast-expression
sizeof unary-expression
sizeof ( type-name )
unary-operator: one of
& * + - ~ !
3.3.3.1 Prefix increment and decrement operators
Constraints
The operand of the prefix increment or decrement operator shall
have qualified or unqualified scalar type and shall be a modifiable
lvalue.
Semantics
The value of the operand of the prefix ++ operator is incremented.
The result is the new value of the operand after incrementation. The
expression ++E is equivalent to (E+=1) . See the discussions of
additive operators and compound assignment for information on
constraints, types, side effects, and conversions and the effects of
operations on pointers.
The prefix -- operator is analogous to the prefix ++ operator,
except that the value of the operand is decremented.
Forward references: additive operators ($3.3.6), compound assignment
($3.3.16.2).
3.3.3.2 Address and indirection operators
Constraints
The operand of the unary & operator shall be either a function
designator or an lvalue that designates an object that is not a
bit-field and is not declared with the register storage-class
specifier.
The operand of the unary * operator shall have pointer type.
Semantics
The result of the unary & (address-of) operator is a pointer to the
object or function designated by its operand. If the operand has type
`` type ,'' the result has type ``pointer to type .''
The unary * operator denotes indirection. If the operand points to
a function, the result is a function designator; if it points to an
object, the result is an lvalue designating the object. If the
operand has type ``pointer to type ,'' the result has type `` type .''
If an invalid value has been assigned to the pointer, the behavior of
the unary * operator is undefined./34/
Forward references: storage-class specifiers ($3.5.1), structure and
union specifiers ($3.5.2.1).
3.3.3.3 Unary arithmetic operators
Constraints
The operand of the unary + or - operator shall have arithmetic
type; of the ~ operator, integral type; of the ! operator, scalar
type.
Semantics
The result of the unary + operator is the value of its operand.
The integral promotion is performed on the operand, and the result has
the promoted type.
The result of the unary - operator is the negative of its operand.
The integral promotion is performed on the operand, and the result has
the promoted type.
The result of the ~ operator is the bitwise complement of its
operand (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if the
corresponding bit in the converted operand is not set). The integral
promotion is performed on the operand, and the result has the promoted
type. The expression ~E is equivalent to (ULONG_MAX-E) if E is
promoted to type unsigned long , to (UINT_MAX-E) if E is promoted to
type unsigned int . (The constants ULONG_MAX and UINT_MAX are defined
in the header <limits.h> .)
The result of the logical negation operator ! is 0 if the value of
its operand compares unequal to 0, 1 if the value of its operand
compares equal to 0. The result has type int . The expression !E is
equivalent to (0==E) .
Forward references: limits <float.h> and <limits.h> ($4.1.4).
3.3.3.4 The sizeof operator
Constraints
The sizeof operator shall not be applied to an expression that has
function type or an incomplete type, to the parenthesized name of such
a type, or to an lvalue that designates a bit-field object.
Semantics
The sizeof operator yields the size (in bytes) of its operand,
which may be an expression or the parenthesized name of a type. The
size is determined from the type of the operand, which is not itself
evaluated. The result is an integer constant.
When applied to an operand that has type char , unsigned char , or
signed char , (or a qualified version thereof) the result is 1. When
applied to an operand that has array type, the result is the total
number of bytes in the array./35/ When applied to an operand that has
structure or union type, the result is the total number of bytes in
such an object, including internal and trailing padding.
The value of the result is implementation-defined, and its type (an
unsigned integral type) is size_t defined in the <stddef.h> header.
Examples
A principal use of the sizeof operator is in communication with
routines such as storage allocators and I/O systems. A
storage-allocation function might accept a size (in bytes) of an
object to allocate and return a pointer to void. For example:
extern void *alloc();
double *dp = alloc(sizeof *dp);
The implementation of the alloc function should ensure that its return
value is aligned suitably for conversion to a pointer to double.
Another use of the sizeof operator is to compute the number of
members in an array:
sizeof array / sizeof array[0]
Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5),
declarations ($3.5), structure and union specifiers ($3.5.2.1), type
names ($3.5.5).
3.3.4 Cast operators
Syntax
cast-expression:
unary-expression
( type-name ) cast-expression
Constraints
Unless the type name specifies void type, the type name shall
specify qualified or unqualified scalar type and the operand shall
have scalar type.
Semantics
Preceding an expression by a parenthesized type name converts the
value of the expression to the named type. This construction is
called a cast. /36/ A cast that specifies an implicit conversion or no
conversion has no effect on the type or value of an expression.
Conversions that involve pointers (other than as permitted by the
constraints of $3.3.16.1) shall be specified by means of an explicit
cast; they have implementation-defined aspects: A pointer may be
converted to an integral type. The size of integer required and the
result are implementation-defined. If the space provided is not long
enough, the behavior is undefined. An arbitrary integer may be
converted to a pointer. The result is implementation-defined./37/ A
pointer to an object or incomplete type may be converted to a pointer
to a different object type or a different incomplete type. The
resulting pointer might not be valid if it is improperly aligned for
the type pointed to. It is guaranteed, however, that a pointer to an
object of a given alignment may be converted to a pointer to an object
of the same alignment or a less strict alignment and back again; the
result shall compare equal to the original pointer. (An object that
has character type has the least strict alignment.) A pointer to a
function of one type may be converted to a pointer to a function of
another type and back again; the result shall compare equal to the
original pointer. If a converted pointer is used to call a function
that has a type that is not compatible with the type of the called
function, the behavior is undefined.
Forward references: equality operators ($3.3.9), function declarators
(including prototypes) ($3.5.4.3), simple assignment ($3.3.16.1), type
names ($3.5.5).
3.3.5 Multiplicative operators
Syntax
multiplicative-expression:
cast-expression
multiplicative-expression * cast-expression
multiplicative-expression / cast-expression
multiplicative-expression % cast-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have arithmetic type. The operands of
the % operator shall have integral type.
Semantics
The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands.
The result of the binary * operator is the product of the operands.
The result of the / operator is the quotient from the division of
the first operand by the second; the result of the % operator is the
remainder. In both operations, if the value of the second operand is
zero, the behavior is undefined.
When integers are divided and the division is inexact, if both
operands are positive the result of the / operator is the largest
integer less than the algebraic quotient and the result of the %
operator is positive. If either operand is negative, whether the
result of the / operator is the largest integer less than the
algebraic quotient or the smallest integer greater than the algebraic
quotient is implementation-defined, as is the sign of the result of
the % operator. If the quotient a/b is representable, the expression
(a/b)*b + a%b shall equal a .
3.3.6 Additive operators
Syntax
additive-expression:
multiplicative-expression
additive-expression + multiplicative-expression
additive-expression - multiplicative-expression
Constraints
For addition, either both operands shall have arithmetic type, or
one operand shall be a pointer to an object type and the other shall
have integral type. (Incrementing is equivalent to adding 1.)
For subtraction, one of the following shall hold:
* both operands have arithmetic type;
* both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of
compatible object types; or
* the left operand is a pointer to an object type and the right
operand has integral type. (Decrementing is equivalent to subtracting 1.)
Semantics
If both operands have arithmetic type, the usual arithmetic
conversions are performed on them.
The result of the binary + operator is the sum of the operands.
The result of the binary - operator is the difference resulting
from the subtraction of the second operand from the first.
When an expression that has integral type is added to or subtracted
from a pointer, the integral value is first multiplied by the size of
the object pointed to. The result has the type of the pointer
operand. If the pointer operand points to a member of an array
object, and the array object is large enough, the result points to a
member of the same array object, appropriately offset from the
original member. Thus if P points to a member of an array object, the
expression P+1 points to the next member of the array object. Unless
both the pointer operand and the result point to a member of the same
array object, or one past the last member of the array object, the
behavior is undefined. Unless both the pointer operand and the result
point to a member of the same array object, or the pointer operand
points one past the last member of an array object and the result
points to a member of the same array object, the behavior is undefined
if the result is used as the operand of a unary * operator.
When two pointers to members of the same array object are
subtracted, the difference is divided by the size of a member. The
result represents the difference of the subscripts of the two array
members. The size of the result is implementation-defined, and its
type (a signed integral type) is ptrdiff_t defined in the <stddef.h>
header. As with any other arithmetic overflow, if the result does not
fit in the space provided, the behavior is undefined. If two pointers
that do not point to members of the same array object are subtracted,
the behavior is undefined. However, if P points either to a member of
an array object or one past the last member of an array object, and Q
points to the last member of the same array object, the expression
(Q+1) - P has the same value as (Q-P) + 1 , even though Q+1 does not
point to a member of the array object.
Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5).
3.3.7 Bitwise shift operators
Syntax
shift-expression:
additive-expression
shift-expression << additive-expression
shift-expression >> additive-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have integral type.
Semantics
The integral promotions are performed on each of the operands. The
type of the result is that of the promoted left operand. If the value
of the right operand is negative or is greater than or equal to the
width in bits of the promoted left operand, the behavior is undefined.
The result of E1 << E2 is E1 left-shifted E2 bit positions; vacated
bits are filled with zeros. If E1 has an unsigned type, the value of
the result is E1 multiplied by the quantity, 2 raised to the power E2,
reduced modulo ULONG_MAX+1 if E1 has type unsigned long, UINT_MAX+1
otherwise. (The constants ULONG_MAX and UINT_MAX are defined in the
header <limits.h> .)
The result of E1 >> E2 is E1 right-shifted E2 bit positions. If E1
has an unsigned type or if E1 has a signed type and a nonnegative
value, the value of the result is the integral part of the quotient of
E1 divided by the quantity, 2 raised to the power E2 . If E1 has a
signed type and a negative value, the resulting value is
implementation-defined.
3.3.8 Relational operators
Syntax
relational-expression:
shift-expression
relational-expression < shift-expression
relational-expression > shift-expression
relational-expression <= shift-expression
relational-expression >= shift-expression
Constraints
One of the following shall hold:
* both operands have arithmetic type;
* both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of
compatible object types; or
* both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of
compatible incomplete types.
Semantics
If both of the operands have arithmetic type, the usual arithmetic
conversions are performed.
When two pointers are compared, the result depends on the relative
locations in the address space of the objects pointed to. If the
objects pointed to are members of the same aggregate object, pointers
to structure members declared later compare higher than pointers to
members declared earlier in the structure, and pointers to array
elements with larger subscript values compare higher than pointers to
elements of the same array with lower subscript values. All pointers
to members of the same union object compare equal. If the objects
pointed to are not members of the same aggregate or union object, the
result is undefined, with the following exception. If P points to the
last member of an array object and Q points to a member of the same
array object, the pointer expression P+1 compares higher than Q , even
though P+1 does not point to a member of the array object.
Each of the operators < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less
than or equal to), and >= (greater than or equal to) shall yield 1 if
the specified relation is true and 0 if it is false./38/ The result
has type int.
3.3.9 Equality operators
Syntax
equality-expression:
relational-expression
equality-expression == relational-expression
equality-expression != relational-expression
Constraints
One of the following shall hold:
* both operands have arithmetic type;
* both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of
compatible types;
* one operand is a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the
other is a qualified or unqualified version of void ; or
* one operand is a pointer and the other is a null pointer constant.
Semantics
The == (equal to) and the != (not equal to) operators are analogous
to the relational operators except for their lower precedence./39/
If two pointers to object or incomplete types compare equal, they
point to the same object. If two pointers to functions compare equal,
they point to the same function. If two pointers point to the same
object or function, they compare equal./40/ If one of the operands is
a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the other has type
pointer to a qualified or unqualified version of void , the pointer to
an object or incomplete type is converted to the type of the other
operand.
3.3.10 Bitwise AND operator
Syntax
AND-expression:
equality-expression
AND-expression & equality-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have integral type.
Semantics
The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands.
The result of the binary & operator is the bitwise AND of the
operands (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if each
of the corresponding bits in the converted operands is set).
3.3.11 Bitwise exclusive OR operator
Syntax
exclusive-OR-expression:
AND-expression
exclusive-OR-expression ^ AND-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have integral type.
Semantics
The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands.
The result of the ^ operator is the bitwise exclusive OR of the
operands (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if
exactly one of the corresponding bits in the converted operands is
set).
3.3.12 Bitwise inclusive OR operator
Syntax
inclusive-OR-expression:
exclusive-OR-expression
inclusive-OR-expression | exclusive-OR-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have integral type.
Semantics
The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands.
The result of the | operator is the bitwise inclusive OR of the
operands (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if at
least one of the corresponding bits in the converted operands is set).
3.3.13 Logical AND operator
Syntax
logical-AND-expression:
inclusive-OR-expression
logical-AND-expression && inclusive-OR-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have scalar type.
Semantics
The && operator shall yield 1 if both of its operands compare
unequal to 0, otherwise it yields 0. The result has type int.
Unlike the bitwise binary & operator, the && operator guarantees
left-to-right evaluation; there is a sequence point after the
evaluation of the first operand. If the first operand compares equal
to 0, the second operand is not evaluated.
3.3.14 Logical OR operator
Syntax
logical-OR-expression:
logical-AND-expression
logical-OR-expression || logical-AND-expression
Constraints
Each of the operands shall have scalar type.
Semantics
The || operator shall yield 1 if either of its operands compare
unequal to 0, otherwise it yields 0. The result has type int.
Unlike the bitwise | operator, the || operator guarantees
left-to-right evaluation; there is a sequence point after the
evaluation of the first operand. If the first operand compares
unequal to 0, the second operand is not evaluated.
3.3.15 Conditional operator
Syntax
conditional-expression:
logical-OR-expression
logical-OR-expression ? expression : conditional-expression
Constraints
The first operand shall have scalar type.
One of the following shall hold for the second and third operands:
* both operands have arithmetic type;
* both operands have compatible structure or union types;
* both operands have void type;
* both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of
compatible types;
* one operand is a pointer and the other is a null pointer constant; or
* one operand is a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the
other is a pointer to a qualified or unqualified version of void .
Semantics
The first operand is evaluated; there is a sequence point after its
evaluation. The second operand is evaluated only if the first
compares unequal to 0; the third operand is evaluated only if the
first compares equal to 0; the value of the second or third operand
(whichever is evaluated) is the result./41/
If both the second and third operands have arithmetic type, the
usual arithmetic conversions are performed to bring them to a common
type and the result has that type. If both the operands have
structure or union type, the result has that type. If both operands
have void type, the result has void type.
If both the second and third operands are pointers or one is a null
pointer constant and the other is a pointer, the result type is a
pointer to a type qualified with all the type qualifiers of the types
pointed-to by both operands. Furthermore, if both operands are
pointers to compatible types or differently qualified versions of a
compatible type, the result has the composite type; if one operand is
a null pointer constant, the result has the type of the other operand;
otherwise, one operand is a pointer to void or a qualified version of
void, in which case the other operand is converted to type pointer to
void, and the result has that type.
3.3.16 Assignment operators
Syntax
assignment-expression:
conditional-expression
unary-expression assignment-operator assignment-expression
assignment-operator: one of
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
Constraints
An assignment operator shall have a modifiable lvalue as its left operand.
Semantics
An assignment operator stores a value in the object designated by
the left operand. An assignment expression has the value of the left
operand after the assignment, but is not an lvalue. The type of an
assignment expression is the type of the left operand unless the left
operand has qualified type, in which case it is the unqualified
version of the type of the left operand. The side effect of updating
the stored value of the left operand shall occur between the previous
and the next sequence point.
The order of evaluation of the operands is unspecified.
3.3.16.1 Simple assignment
Constraints
One of the following shall hold:/42/
* the left operand has qualified or unqualified arithmetic type and
the right has arithmetic type;
* the left operand has a qualified or unqualified version of a
structure or union type compatible with the type of the right;
* both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of
compatible types, and the type pointed to by the left has all the
qualifiers of the type pointed to by the right;
* one operand is a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the
other is a pointer to a qualified or unqualified version of void, and
the type pointed to by the left has all the qualifiers of the type
pointed to by the right; or
* the left operand is a pointer and the right is a null pointer constant.
Semantics
In simple assignment ( = ), the value of the right operand is
converted to the type of the assignment expression and replaces the
value stored in the object designated by the left operand.
If the value being stored in an object is accessed from another
object that overlaps in any way the storage of the first object, then
the overlap shall be exact and the two objects shall have qualified or
unqualified versions of a compatible type; otherwise the behavior is
undefined.
Example
In the program fragment
int f(void);
char c;
/*...*/
/*...*/ ((c = f()) == -1) /*...*/
the int value returned by the function may be truncated when stored in
the char, and then converted back to int width prior to the
comparison. In an implementation in which ``plain'' char has the same
range of values as unsigned char (and char is narrower than int ), the
result of the conversion cannot be negative, so the operands of the
comparison can never compare equal. Therefore, for full portability
the variable c should be declared as int.
3.3.16.2 Compound assignment
Constraints
For the operators += and -= only, either the left operand shall be
a pointer to an object type and the right shall have integral type, or
the left operand shall have qualified or unqualified arithmetic type
and the right shall have arithmetic type.
For the other operators, each operand shall have arithmetic type
consistent with those allowed by the corresponding binary operator.
Semantics
A compound assignment of the form E1 op = E2 differs from the
simple assignment expression E1 = E1 op (E2) only in that the lvalue
E1 is evaluated only once.
3.3.17 Comma operator
Syntax
expression:
assignment-expression
expression , assignment-expression
Semantics
The left operand of a comma operator is evaluated as a void
expression; there is a sequence point after its evaluation. Then the
right operand is evaluated; the result has its type and value./43/
Example
As indicated by the syntax, in contexts where a comma is a
punctuator (in lists of arguments to functions and lists of
initializers) the comma operator as described in this section cannot
appear. On the other hand, it can be used within a parenthesized
expression or within the second expression of a conditional operator
in such contexts. In the function call
f(a, (t=3, t+2), c)
the function has three arguments, the second of which has the value 5.
Forward references: initialization ($3.5.7).
3.4 CONSTANT EXPRESSIONS
Syntax
constant-expression:
conditional-expression
Description
A constant expression can be evaluated during translation rather
than runtime, and accordingly may be used in any place that a constant
may be.
Constraints
Constant expressions shall not contain assignment, increment,
decrement, function-call, or comma operators, except when they are
contained within the operand of a sizeof operator./44/
Each constant expression shall evaluate to a constant that is in
the range of representable values for its type.
Semantics
An expression that evaluates to a constant is required in several
contexts./45/ If the expression is evaluated in the translation
environment, the arithmetic precision and range shall be at least as
great as if the expression were being evaluated in the execution
environment.
An integral constant expression shall have integral type and shall
only have operands that are integer constants, enumeration constants,
character constants, sizeof expressions, and floating constants that
are the immediate operands of casts. Cast operators in an integral
constant expression shall only convert arithmetic types to integral
types, except as part of an operand to the sizeof operator.
More latitude is permitted for constant expressions in
initializers. Such a constant expression shall evaluate to one of the
following:
* an arithmetic constant expression,
* an address constant, or
* an address constant for an object type plus or minus an integral
constant expression.
An arithmetic constant expression shall have arithmetic type and
shall only have operands that are integer constants, floating
constants, enumeration constants, character constants, and sizeof
expressions. Cast operators in an arithmetic constant expression
shall only convert arithmetic types to arithmetic types, except as
part of an operand to the sizeof operator.
An address constant is a pointer to an lvalue designating an object
of static storage duration, or to a function designator; it shall be
created explicitly, using the unary & operator, or implicitly, by the
use of an expression of array or function type. The array-subscript
[] and member-access . and -> operators, the address & and
indirection * unary operators, and pointer casts may be used in the
creation an address constant, but the value of an object shall not be
accessed by use of these operators.
The semantic rules for the evaluation of a constant expression are
the same as for non-constant expressions./46/
Forward references: initialization ($3.5.7).
3.5 DECLARATIONS
Syntax
declaration:
declaration-specifiers init-declarator-list<opt> ;
declaration-specifiers:
storage-class-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt>
type-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt>
type-qualifier declaration-specifiers<opt>
init-declarator-list:
init-declarator
init-declarator-list , init-declarator
init-declarator:
declarator
declarator = initializer
Constraints
A declaration shall declare at least a declarator, a tag, or the
members of an enumeration.
If an identifier has no linkage, there shall be no more than one
declaration of the identifier (in a declarator or type specifier) with
the same scope and in the same name space, except for tags as
specified in $3.5.2.3.
All declarations in the same scope that refer to the same object or
function shall specify compatible types.
Semantics
A declaration specifies the interpretation and attributes of a set
of identifiers. A declaration that also causes storage to be reserved
for an object or function named by an identifier is a definition ./47/
The declaration specifiers consist of a sequence of specifiers that
indicate the linkage, storage duration, and part of the type of the
entities that the declarators denote. The init-declarator-list is a
comma-separated sequence of declarators, each of which may have
additional type information, or an initializer, or both. The
declarators contain the identifiers (if any) being declared.
If an identifier for an object is declared with no linkage, the
type for the object shall be complete by the end of its declarator, or
by the end of its init-declarator if it has an initializer.
Forward references: declarators ($3.5.4), enumeration specifiers
($3.5.2.2), initialization ($3.5.7), tags ($3.5.2.3).
3.5.1 Storage-class specifiers
Syntax
storage-class-specifier:
typedef
extern
static
auto
register
Constraints
At most one storage-class specifier may be given in the declaration
specifiers in a declaration./48/
Semantics
The typedef specifier is called a ``storage-class specifier'' for
syntactic convenience only; it is discussed in $3.5.6. The meanings
of the various linkages and storage durations were discussed in
$3.1.2.2 and $3.1.2.4.
A declaration of an identifier for an object with storage-class
specifier register suggests that access to the object be as fast as
possible. The extent to which such suggestions are effective is
implementation-defined./49/
The declaration of an identifier for a function that has block
scope shall have no explicit storage-class specifier other than extern.
Forward references: type definitions ($3.5.6).
3.5.2 Type specifiers
Syntax
type-specifier:
void
char
short
int
long
float
double
signed
unsigned
struct-or-union-specifier
enum-specifier
typedef-name
Constraints
Each list of type specifiers shall be one of the following sets; the
type specifiers may occur in any order, possibly intermixed with the
other declaration specifiers.
* void
* char
* signed char
* unsigned char
* short , signed short , short int , or signed short int
* unsigned short , or unsigned short int
* int , signed , signed int , or no type specifiers
* unsigned , or unsigned int
* long , signed long , long int , or signed long int
* unsigned long , or unsigned long int
* float
* double
* long double
* struct-or-union specifier
* enum-specifier
* typedef-name
Semantics
Specifiers for structures, unions, and enumerations are discussed
in $3.5.2.1 through $3.5.2.3. Declarations of typedef names are
discussed in $3.5.6. The characteristics of the other types are
discussed in $3.1.2.5.
Each of the above comma-separated lists designates the same type,
except that for bit-field declarations, signed int (or signed ) may
differ from int (or no type specifiers).
Forward references: enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2), structure and
union specifiers ($3.5.2.1), tags ($3.5.2.3), type definitions ($3.5.6).
3.5.2.1 Structure and union specifiers
Syntax
struct-or-union-specifier:
struct-or-union identifier<opt> { struct-declaration-list }
struct-or-union identifier
struct-or-union:
struct
union
struct-declaration-list:
struct-declaration
struct-declaration-list struct-declaration
struct-declaration:
specifier-qualifier-list struct-declarator-list ;
specifier-qualifier-list:
type-specifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt>
type-qualifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt>
struct-declarator-list:
struct-declarator
struct-declarator-list , struct-declarator
struct-declarator:
declarator
declarator<opt> : constant-expression
Constraints
A structure or union shall not contain a member with incomplete or
function type. Hence it shall not contain an instance of itself (but
may contain a pointer to an instance of itself).
The expression that specifies the width of a bit-field shall be an
integral constant expression that has nonnegative value that shall not
exceed the number of bits in an ordinary object of compatible type.
If the value is zero, the declaration shall have no declarator.
Semantics
As discussed in $3.1.2.5, a structure is a type consisting of a
sequence of named members, whose storage is allocated in an ordered
sequence, and a union is a type consisting of a sequence of named
members, whose storage overlap.
Structure and union specifiers have the same form.
The presence of a struct-declaration-list in a
struct-or-union-specifier declares a new type, within a translation
unit. The struct-declaration-list is a sequence of declarations for
the members of the structure or union. The type is incomplete until
after the } that terminates the list.
A member of a structure or union may have any object type. In
addition, a member may be declared to consist of a specified number of
bits (including a sign bit, if any). Such a member is called a
bit-field ;/50/ its width is preceded by a colon.
A bit-field may have type int , unsigned int , or signed int .
Whether the high-order bit position of a ``plain'' int bit-field is
treated as a sign bit is implementation-defined. A bit-field is
interpreted as an integral type consisting of the specified number of
bits.
An implementation may allocate any addressable storage unit large
enough to hold a bit-field. If enough space remains, a bit-field that
immediately follows another bit-field in a structure shall be packed
into adjacent bits of the same unit. If insufficient space remains,
whether a bit-field that does not fit is put into the next unit or
overlaps adjacent units is implementation-defined. The order of
allocation of bit-fields within a unit (high-order to low-order or
low-order to high-order) is implementation-defined. The alignment of
the addressable storage unit is unspecified.
A bit-field declaration with no declarator, but only a colon and a
width, indicates an unnamed bit-field./51/ As a special case of this,
a bit-field with a width of 0 indicates that no further bit-field is
to be packed into the unit in which the previous bit-field, if any,
was placed.
Each non-bit-field member of a structure or union object is aligned
in an implementation-defined manner appropriate to its type.
Within a structure object, the non-bit-field members and the units
in which bit-fields reside have addresses that increase in the order
in which they are declared. A pointer to a structure object, suitably
cast, points to its initial member (or if that member is a bit-field,
then to the unit in which it resides), and vice versa. There may
therefore be unnamed holes within a structure object, but not at its
beginning, as necessary to achieve the appropriate alignment.
The size of a union is sufficient to contain the largest of its
members. The value of at most one of the members can be stored in a
union object at any time. A pointer to a union object, suitably cast,
points to each of its members (or if a member is a bit-field, then to
the unit in which it resides), and vice versa.
There may also be unnamed padding at the end of a structure or
union, as necessary to achieve the appropriate alignment were the
structure or union to be a member of an array.
3.5.2.2 Enumeration specifiers
Syntax
enum-specifier:
enum identifier<opt> { enumerator-list }
enum identifier
enumerator-list:
enumerator
enumerator-list , enumerator
enumerator:
enumeration-constant
enumeration-constant = constant-expression
Constraints
The expression that defines the value of an enumeration constant
shall be an integral constant expression that has a value
representable as an int.
Semantics
The identifiers in an enumerator list are declared as constants
that have type int and may appear wherever such are permitted./52/ An
enumerator with = defines its enumeration constant as the value of the
constant expression. If the first enumerator has no = , the value of
its enumeration constant is 0. Each subsequent enumerator with no =
defines its enumeration constant as the value of the constant
expression obtained by adding 1 to the value of the previous
enumeration constant. (A combination of both forms of enumerators may
produce enumeration constants with values that duplicate other values
in the same enumeration.) The enumerators of an enumeration are also
known as its members.
Each enumerated type shall be compatible with an integer type; the
choice of type is implementation-defined.
Example
enum hue { chartreuse, burgundy, claret=20, winedark };
/*...*/
enum hue col, *cp;
/*...*/
col = claret;
cp = &col;
/*...*/
/*...*/ (*cp != burgundy) /*...*/
makes hue the tag of an enumeration, and then declares col as an
object that has that type and cp as a pointer to an object that has
that type. The enumerated values are in the set {0, 1, 20, 21}.
3.5.2.3 Tags
A type specifier of the form
struct-or-union identifier { struct-declaration-list }
enum identifier { enumerator-list }
declares the identifier to be the tag of the structure, union, or
enumeration specified by the list. The list defines the structure
content ,union content ,or enumeration content .If this declaration of
the tag is visible, a subsequent declaration that uses the tag and
that omits the bracketed list specifies the declared structure, union,
or enumerated type. Subsequent declarations in the same scope shall
omit the bracketed list.
If a type specifier of the form
struct-or-union identifier
occurs prior to the declaration that defines the content, the
structure or union is an incomplete type./53/ It declares a tag that
specifies a type that may be used only when the size of an object of
the specified type is not needed./54/ If the type is to be completed,
another declaration of the tag in the same scope (but not in an
enclosed block, which declares a new type known only within that
block) shall define the content. A declaration of the form
struct-or-union identifier ;
specifies a structure or union type and declares a tag, both visible
only within the scope in which the declaration occurs. It specifies a
new type distinct from any type with the same tag in an enclosing
scope (if any).
A type specifier of the form
struct-or-union { struct-declaration-list }
enum { enumerator-list }
specifies a new structure, union, or enumerated type, within the
translation unit, that can only be referred to by the declaration of
which it is a part./55/
Examples
This mechanism allows declaration of a self-referential structure.
struct tnode {
int count;
struct tnode *left, *right;
};
specifies a structure that contains an integer and two pointers to
objects of the same type. Once this declaration has been given, the
declaration
struct tnode s, *sp;
declares s to be an object of the given type and sp to be a pointer to
an object of the given type. With these declarations, the expression
sp->left refers to the left struct tnode pointer of the object to
which sp points; the expression s.right->count designates the count
member of the right struct tnode pointed to from s .
The following alternative formulation uses the typedef mechanism:
typedef struct tnode TNODE;
struct tnode {
int count;
TNODE *left, *right;
};
TNODE s, *sp;
To illustrate the use of prior declaration of a tag to specify a
pair of mutually-referential structures, the declarations
struct s1 { struct s2 *s2p; /*...*/ }; /* D1 */
struct s2 { struct s1 *s1p; /*...*/ }; /* D2 */
specify a pair of structures that contain pointers to each other.
Note, however, that if s2 were already declared as a tag in an
enclosing scope, the declaration D1 would refer to it, not to the tag
s2 declared in D2 . To eliminate this context sensitivity, the
otherwise vacuous declaration
struct s2;
may be inserted ahead of D1. This declares a new tag s2 in the inner
scope; the declaration D2 then completes the specification of the new type.
Forward references: type definitions ($3.5.6).
3.5.3 Type qualifiers
Syntax
type-qualifier:
const
volatile
Constraints
The same type qualifier shall not appear more than once in the same
specifier list or qualifier list, either directly or via one or more
typedef s.
Semantics
The properties associated with qualified types are meaningful only
for expressions that are lvalues./56/
If an attempt is made to modify an object defined with a
const-qualified type through use of an lvalue with non-const-qualified
type, the behavior is undefined. If an attempt is made to refer to an
object defined with a volatile-qualified type through use of an lvalue
with non-volatile-qualified type, the behavior is undefined./57/
An object that has volatile-qualified type may be modified in ways
unknown to the implementation or have other unknown side effects.
Therefore any expression referring to such an object shall be
evaluated strictly according to the rules of the abstract machine, as
described in $2.1.2.3. Furthermore, at every sequence point the value
last stored in the object shall agree with that prescribed by the
abstract machine, except as modified by the unknown factors mentioned
previously./58/ What constitutes an access to an object that has
volatile-qualified type is implementation-defined.
If the specification of an array type includes any type qualifiers,
the element type is so-qualified, not the array type. If the
specification of a function type includes any type qualifiers, the
behavior is undefined./59/
For two qualified types to be compatible, both shall have the
identically qualified version of a compatible type; the order of type
qualifiers within a list of specifiers or qualifiers does not affect
the specified type.
Examples
An object declared
extern const volatile int real_time_clock;
may be modifiable by hardware, but cannot be assigned to, incremented,
or decremented.
The following declarations and expressions illustrate the behavior
when type qualifiers modify an aggregate type:
const struct s { int mem; } cs = { 1 };
struct s ncs; /* the object ncs is modifiable */
typedef int A[2][3];
const A a = {{4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}}; /* array of array of const int */
int *pi;
const int *pci;
ncs = cs; /* valid */
cs = ncs; /* violates modifiable lvalue constraint for = */
pi = &ncs.mem; /* valid */
pi = &cs.mem; /* violates type constraints for = */
pci = &cs.mem; /* valid */
pi = a[0]; /* invalid: a[0] has type ``const int * '' */
3.5.4 Declarators
Syntax
declarator:
pointer<opt> direct-declarator
direct-declarator:
identifier
( declarator )
direct-declarator [ constant-expression<opt> ]
direct-declarator ( parameter-type-list )
direct-declarator ( identifier-list<opt> )
pointer:
* type-qualifier-list<opt>
* type-qualifier-list<opt> pointer
type-qualifier-list:
type-qualifier
type-qualifier-list type-qualifier
parameter-type-list:
parameter-list
parameter-list , ...
parameter-list:
parameter-declaration
parameter-list , parameter-declaration
parameter-declaration:
declaration-specifiers declarator
declaration-specifiers abstract-declarator<opt>
identifier-list:
identifier
identifier-list , identifier
Semantics
Each declarator declares one identifier, and asserts that when an
operand of the same form as the declarator appears in an expression,
it designates a function or object with the scope, storage duration,
and type indicated by the declaration specifiers.
In the following subsections, consider a declaration
T D1
where T contains the declaration specifiers that specify a type T
(such as int) and D1 is a declarator that contains an identifier
ident . The type specified for the identifier ident in the various
forms of declarator is described inductively using this notation.
If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form
identifier
then the type specified for ident is T .
If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form
( D )
then ident has the type specified by the declaration `` T D .'' Thus,
a declarator in parentheses is identical to the unparenthesized
declarator, but the binding of complex declarators may be altered by
parentheses.
"Implementation limits"
The implementation shall allow the specification of types that have
at least 12 pointer, array, and function declarators (in any valid
combinations) modifying an arithmetic, a structure, a union, or an
incomplete type, either directly or via one or more typedef s.
Forward references: type definitions ($3.5.6).
3.5.4.1 Pointer declarators
Semantics
If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form
* type-qualifier-list<opt> D
and the type specified for ident in the declaration `` T D '' is ``
"derived-declarator-type-list T" ,'' then the type specified for ident
is `` "derived-declarator-type-list type-qualifier-list" pointer to T.''
For each type qualifier in the list, ident is a so-qualified pointer.
For two pointer types to be compatible, both shall be identically
qualified and both shall be pointers to compatible types.
Examples
The following pair of declarations demonstrates the difference
between a ``variable pointer to a constant value'' and a ``constant
pointer to a variable value.''
const int *ptr_to_constant;
int *const constant_ptr;
The contents of the const int pointed to by ptr_to_constant shall not
be modified, but ptr_to_constant itself may be changed to point to
another const int . Similarly, the contents of the int pointed to by
constant_ptr may be modified, but constant_ptr itself shall always
point to the same location.
The declaration of the constant pointer constant_ptr may be
clarified by including a definition for the type ``pointer to int .''
typedef int *int_ptr;
const int_ptr constant_ptr;
declares constant_ptr as an object that has type ``const-qualified
pointer to int .''
3.5.4.2 Array declarators
Constraints
The expression that specifies the size of an array shall be an
integral constant expression that has a value greater than zero.
Semantics
If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form
D[ constant-expression<opt>]
and the type specified for ident in the declaration `` T D '' is ``
"derived-declarator-type-list T" ,'' then the type specified for ident
is `` derived-declarator-type-list array of T .''/60/ If the size is
not present, the array type is an incomplete type.
For two array types to be compatible, both shall have compatible
element types, and if both size specifiers are present, they shall
have the same value.
Examples
float fa[11], *afp[17];
declares an array of float numbers and an array of pointers to float
numbers.
Note the distinction between the declarations
extern int *x;
extern int y[];
The first declares x to be a pointer to int ; the second declares y to
be an array of int of unspecified size (an incomplete type), the
storage for which is defined elsewhere.
Forward references: function definitions ($3.7.1), initialization ($3.5.7).
3.5.4.3 Function declarators (including prototypes)
Constraints
A function declarator shall not specify a return type that is a
function type or an array type.
The only storage-class specifier that shall occur in a parameter
declaration is register.
An identifier list in a function declarator that is not part of a
function definition shall be empty.
Semantics
If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form
D( parameter-type-list)
D( identifier-list<opt>)
and the type specified for ident in the declaration `` T D '' is ``
"derived-declarator-type-list T" ,'' then the type specified for ident
is `` derived-declarator-type-list function returning T .''
A parameter type list specifies the types of, and may declare
identifiers for, the parameters of the function. If the list
terminates with an ellipsis ( , ... ), no information about the number
or types of the parameters after the comma is supplied./61/ The
special case of void as the only item in the list specifies that the
function has no parameters.
In a parameter declaration, a single typedef name in parentheses is
taken to be an abstract declarator that specifies a function with a
single parameter, not as redundant parentheses around the identifier
for a declarator.
The storage-class specifier in the declaration specifiers for a
parameter declaration, if present, is ignored unless the declared
parameter is one of the members of the parameter type list for a
function definition.
An identifier list declares only the identifiers of the parameters
of the function. An empty list in a function declarator that is part
of a function definition specifies that the function has no
parameters. The empty list in a function declarator that is not part
of a function definition specifies that no information about the
number or types of the parameters is supplied./62/
For two function types to be compatible, both shall specify
compatible return types./63/ Moreover, the parameter type lists, if
both are present, shall agree in the number of parameters and in use
of the ellipsis terminator; corresponding parameters shall have
compatible types. If one type has a parameter type list and the other
type is specified by a function declarator that is not part of a
function definition and that contains an empty identifier list, the
parameter list shall not have an ellipsis terminator and the type of
each parameter shall be compatible with the type that results from the
application of the default argument promotions. If one type has a
parameter type list and the other type is specified by a function
definition that contains a (possibly empty) identifier list, both
shall agree in the number of parameters, and the type of each
prototype parameter shall be compatible with the type that results
from the application of the default argument promotions to the type of
the corresponding identifier. (For each parameter declared with
function or array type, its type for these comparisons is the one that
results from conversion to a pointer type, as in $3.7.1. For each
parameter declared with qualified type, its type for these comparisons
is the unqualified version of its declared type.)
Examples
The declaration
int f(void), *fip(), (*pfi)();
declares a function f with no parameters returning an int , a function
fip with no parameter specification returning a pointer to an int ,
and a pointer pfi to a function with no parameter specification
returning an int . It is especially useful to compare the last two.
The binding of *fip() is *(fip()) , so that the declaration suggests,
and the same construction in an expression requires, the calling of a
function fip , and then using indirection through the pointer result
to yield an int . In the declarator (*pfi)() , the extra parentheses
are necessary to indicate that indirection through a pointer to a
function yields a function designator, which is then used to call the
function; it returns an int.
If the declaration occurs outside of any function, the identifiers
have file scope and external linkage. If the declaration occurs
inside a function, the identifiers of the functions f and fip have
block scope and external linkage, and the identifier of the pointer
pfi has block scope and no linkage.
Here are two more intricate examples.
int (*apfi[3])(int *x, int *y);
declares an array apfi of three pointers to functions returning int .
Each of these functions has two parameters that are pointers to int .
The identifiers x and y are declared for descriptive purposes only and
go out of scope at the end of the declaration of apfi . The
declaration
int (*fpfi(int (*)(long), int))(int, ...);
declares a function fpfi that returns a pointer to a function
returning an int. The function fpfi has two parameters: a pointer to
a function returning an int (with one parameter of type long ), and an
int . The pointer returned by fpfi points to a function that has at
least one parameter, which has type int .
Forward references: function definitions ($3.7.1), type names ($3.5.5).
3.5.5 Type names
Syntax
type-name:
specifier-qualifier-list abstract-declarator<opt>
abstract-declarator:
pointer
pointer<opt> direct-abstract-declarator
direct-abstract-declarator:
( abstract-declarator )
direct-abstract-declarator<opt> [ constant-expression<opt> ]
direct-abstract-declarator<opt> ( parameter-type-list<opt> )
Semantics
In several contexts it is desired to specify a type. This is
accomplished using a type name, which is syntactically a declaration
for a function or an object of that type that omits the
identifier./64/
Examples
The constructions
(a) int
(b) int *
(c) int *[3]
(d) int (*)[3]
(e) int *()
(f) int (*)(void)
(g) int (*const [])(unsigned int, ...)
name respectively the types (a) int , (b) pointer to int , (c) array
of three pointers to int , (d) pointer to an array of three int's, (e)
function with no parameter specification returning a pointer to int ,
(f) pointer to function with no parameters returning an int , and (g)
array of an unspecified number of constant pointers to functions, each
with one parameter that has type unsigned int and an unspecified
number of other parameters, returning an int .
3.5.6 Type definitions
Syntax
typedef-name:
identifier
Semantics
In a declaration whose storage-class specifier is typedef , each
declarator defines an identifier to be a typedef name that specifies
the type specified for the identifier in the way described in $3.5.4.
A typedef declaration does not introduce a new type, only a synonym
for the type so specified. That is, in the following declarations:
typedef T type_ident;
type_ident D;
type_ident is defined as a typedef name with the type specified by the
declaration specifiers in T (known as T ), and the identifier in D has
the type `` "derived-declarator-type-list T" '' where the
derived-declarator-type-list is specified by the declarators of D . A
typedef name shares the same name space as other identifiers declared
in ordinary declarators. If the identifier is redeclared in an inner
scope or is declared as a member of a structure or union in the same
or an inner scope, the type specifiers shall not be omitted in the
inner declaration.
Examples
After
typedef int MILES, KLICKSP();
typedef struct { double re, im; } complex;
the constructions
MILES distance;
extern KLICKSP *metricp;
complex x;
complex z, *zp;
are all valid declarations. The type of distance is int , that of
metricp is ``pointer to function with no parameter specification
returning int ,'' and that of x and z is the specified structure; zp
is a pointer to such a structure. The object distance has a type
compatible with any other int object.
After the declarations
typedef struct s1 { int x; } t1, *tp1;
typedef struct s2 { int x; } t2, *tp2;
type t1 and the type pointed to by tp1 are compatible. Type t1 is
also compatible with type struct s1 , but not compatible with the
types struct s2 , t2 , the type pointed to by tp2 , and int .
The following constructions
typedef signed int t;
typedef int plain;
struct tag {
unsigned t:4;
const t:5;
plain r:5;
};
declare a typedef name t with type signed int , a typedef name plain
with type int , and a structure with three bit-field members, one
named t that contains values in the range [0,15], an unnamed
const-qualified bit-field which (if it could be accessed) would
contain values in at least the range [-15,+15], and one named r that
contains values in the range [0,31] or values in at least the range
[-15,+15]. (The choice of range is implementation-defined.) If these
declarations are followed in an inner scope by
t f(t (t));
long t;
then a function f is declared with type ``function returning signed
int with one unnamed parameter with type pointer to function returning
signed int with one unnamed parameter with type signed int ,'' and an
identifier t with type long .
3.5.7 Initialization
Syntax
initializer:
assignment-expression
{ initializer-list }
{ initializer-list , }
initializer-list:
initializer
initializer-list , initializer
Constraints
There shall be no more initializers in an initializer list than
there are objects to be initialized.
The type of the entity to be initialized shall be an object type or
an array of unknown size.
All the expressions in an initializer for an object that has static
storage duration or in an initializer list for an object that has
aggregate or union type shall be constant expressions.
If the declaration of an identifier has block scope, and the
identifier has external or internal linkage, there shall be no
initializer for the identifier.
Semantics
An initializer specifies the initial value stored in an object.
All unnamed structure or union members are ignored during initialization.
If an object that has static storage duration is not initialized
explicitly, it is initialized implicitly as if every member that has
arithmetic type were assigned 0 and every member that has pointer type
were assigned a null pointer constant. If an object that has
automatic storage duration is not initialized explicitly, its value is
indeterminate./65/
The initializer for a scalar shall be a single expression,
optionally enclosed in braces. The initial value of the object is
that of the expression; the same type constraints and conversions as
for simple assignment apply.
A brace-enclosed initializer for a union object initializes the
member that appears first in the declaration list of the union type.
The initializer for a structure or union object that has automatic
storage duration either shall be an initializer list as described
below, or shall be a single expression that has compatible structure
or union type. In the latter case, the initial value of the object is
that of the expression.
The rest of this section deals with initializers for objects that
have aggregate or union type.
An array of character type may be initialized by a character string
literal, optionally enclosed in braces. Successive characters of the
character string literal (including the terminating null character if
there is room or if the array is of unknown size) initialize the
members of the array.
An array with element type compatible with wchar_t may be
initialized by a wide string literal, optionally enclosed in braces.
Successive codes of the wide string literal (including the terminating
zero-valued code if there is room or if the array is of unknown size)
initialize the members of the array.
Otherwise, the initializer for an object that has aggregate type
shall be a brace-enclosed list of initializers for the members of the
aggregate, written in increasing subscript or member order; and the
initializer for an object that has union type shall be a
brace-enclosed initializer for the first member of the union.
If the aggregate contains members that are aggregates or unions, or
if the first member of a union is an aggregate or union, the rules
apply recursively to the subaggregates or contained unions. If the
initializer of a subaggregate or contained union begins with a left
brace, the initializers enclosed by that brace and its matching right
brace initialize the members of the subaggregate or the first member
of the contained union. Otherwise, only enough initializers from the
list are taken to account for the members of the first subaggregate or
the first member of the contained union; any remaining initializers
are left to initialize the next member of the aggregate of which the
current subaggregate or contained union is a part.
If there are fewer initializers in a list than there are members of
an aggregate, the remainder of the aggregate shall be initialized
implicitly the same as objects that have static storage duration.
If an array of unknown size is initialized, its size is determined
by the number of initializers provided for its members. At the end of
its initializer list, the array no longer has incomplete type.
Examples
The declaration
int x[] = { 1, 3, 5 };
defines and initializes x as a one-dimensional array object that has
three members, as no size was specified and there are three
initializers.
float y[4][3] = {
{ 1, 3, 5 },
{ 2, 4, 6 },
{ 3, 5, 7 },
};
is a definition with a fully bracketed initialization: 1, 3, and 5
initialize the first row of the array object y[0] , namely y[0][0] ,
y[0][1] , and y[0][2] . Likewise the next two lines initialize y[1]
and y[2] . The initializer ends early, so y[3] is initialized with
zeros. Precisely the same effect could have been achieved by
float y[4][3] = {
1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, 3, 5, 7
};
The initializer for y[0] does not begin with a left brace, so three
items from the list are used. Likewise the next three are taken
successively for y[1] and y[2] . Also,
float z[4][3] = {
{ 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, { 4 }
};
initializes the first column of z as specified and initializes the
rest with zeros.
struct { int a[3], b; } w[] = { { 1 }, 2 };
is a definition with an inconsistently bracketed initialization. It
defines an array with two member structures: w[0].a[0] is 1 and
w[1].a[0] is 2; all the other elements are zero.
The declaration
short q[4][3][2] = {
{ 1 },
{ 2, 3 },
{ 4, 5, 6 }
};
contains an incompletely but consistently bracketed initialization.
It defines a three-dimensional array object: q[0][0][0] is 1,
q[1][0][0] is 2, q[1][0][1] is 3, and 4, 5, and 6 initialize
q[2][0][0] , q[2][0][1] , and q[2][1][0] , respectively; all the rest
are zero. The initializer for q[0][0][0] does not begin with a left
brace, so up to six items from the current list may be used. There is
only one, so the values for the remaining five members are initialized
with zero. Likewise, the initializers for q[1][0][0] and q[2][0][0]
do not begin with a left brace, so each uses up to six items,
initializing their respective two-dimensional subaggregates. If there
had been more than six items in any of the lists, a diagnostic message
would occur. The same initialization result could have been achieved
by:
short q[4][3][2] = {
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
2, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0,
4, 5, 6
};
or by:
short q[4][3][2] = {
{
{ 1 },
},
{
{ 2, 3 },
},
{
{ 4, 5 },
{ 6 },
}
};
in a fully-bracketed form.
Note that the fully-bracketed and minimally-bracketed forms of
initialization are, in general, less likely to cause confusion.
Finally, the declaration
char s[] = "abc", t[3] = "abc";
defines ``plain'' char array objects s and t whose members are
initialized with character string literals. This declaration is
identical to
char s[] = { 'a', 'b', 'c', '\0' },
t[] = { 'a', 'b', 'c' };
The contents of the arrays are modifiable. On the other hand, the
declaration
char *p = "abc";
defines p with type ``pointer to char '' that is initialized to point
to an object with type ``array of char '' whose members are
initialized with a character string literal. If an attempt is made to
use p to modify the contents of the array, the behavior is undefined.
Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5).
3.6 STATEMENTS
Syntax
statement:
labeled-statement
compound-statement
expression-statement
selection-statement
iteration-statement
jump-statement
Semantics
A statement specifies an action to be performed. Except as
indicated, statements are executed in sequence.
A full expression is an expression that is not part of another
expression. Each of the following is a full expression: an
initializer; the expression in an expression statement; the
controlling expression of a selection statement ( if or switch ); the
controlling expression of a while or do statement; each of the three
expressions of a for statement; the expression in a return statement.
The end of a full expression is a sequence point.
Forward references: expression and null statements ($3.6.3), selection
statements ($3.6.4), iteration statements ($3.6.5), the return
statement ($3.6.6.4).
3.6.1 Labeled statements
Syntax
labeled-statement:
identifier : statement
case constant-expression : statement
default : statement
Constraints
A case or default label shall appear only in a switch statement.
Further constraints on such labels are discussed under the switch
statement.
Semantics
Any statement may be preceded by a prefix that declares an
identifier as a label name. Labels in themselves do not alter the
flow of control, which continues unimpeded across them.
Forward references: the goto statement ($3.6.6.1), the switch
statement ($3.6.4.2).
3.6.2 Compound statement, or block
Syntax
compound-statement:
{ declaration-list<opt> statement-list<opt> }
declaration-list:
declaration
declaration-list declaration
statement-list:
statement
statement-list statement
Semantics
A compound statement (also called a block )allows a set of
statements to be grouped into one syntactic unit, which may have its
own set of declarations and initializations (as discussed in
$3.1.2.4). The initializers of objects that have automatic storage
duration are evaluated and the values are stored in the objects in the
order their declarators appear in the translation unit.
3.6.3 Expression and null statements
Syntax
expression-statement:
expression<opt> ;
Semantics
The expression in an expression statement is evaluated as a void
expression for its side effects./66/
A null statement (consisting of just a semicolon) performs no
operations.
Examples
If a function call is evaluated as an expression statement for its
side effects only, the discarding of its value may be made explicit by
converting the expression to a void expression by means of a cast:
int p(int);
/*...*/
(void)p(0);
In the program fragment
char *s;
/*...*/
while (*s++ != '\0')
;
a null statement is used to supply an empty loop body to the iteration
statement.
A null statement may also be used to carry a label just before the
closing } of a compound statement.
while (loop1) {
/*...*/
while (loop2) {
/*...*/
if (want_out)
goto end_loop1;
/*...*/
}
/*...*/
end_loop1: ;
}
Forward references: iteration statements ($3.6.5).
3.6.4 Selection statements
Syntax
selection-statement:
if ( expression ) statement
if ( expression ) statement else statement
switch ( expression ) statement
Semantics
A selection statement selects among a set of statements depending
on the value of a controlling expression.
3.6.4.1 The if statement
Constraints
The controlling expression of an if statement shall have scalar type.
Semantics
In both forms, the first substatement is executed if the expression
compares unequal to 0. In the else form, the second substatement is
executed if the expression compares equal to 0. If the first
substatement is reached via a label, the second substatement is not
executed.
An else is associated with the lexically immediately preceding else
-less if that is in the same block (but not in an enclosed block).
3.6.4.2 The switch statement
Constraints
The controlling expression of a switch statement shall have
integral type. The expression of each case label shall be an integral
constant expression. No two of the case constant expressions in the
same switch statement shall have the same value after conversion.
There may be at most one default label in a switch statement. (Any
enclosed switch statement may have a default label or case constant
expressions with values that duplicate case constant expressions in
the enclosing switch statement.)
Semantics
A switch statement causes control to jump to, into, or past the
statement that is the switch body, depending on the value of a
controlling expression, and on the presence of a default label and the
values of any case labels on or in the switch body. A case or default
label is accessible only within the closest enclosing switch
statement.
The integral promotions are performed on the controlling
expression. The constant expression in each case label is converted
to the promoted type of the controlling expression. If a converted
value matches that of the promoted controlling expression, control
jumps to the statement following the matched case label. Otherwise,
if there is a default label, control jumps to the labeled statement.
If no converted case constant expression matches and there is no
default label, no part of the switch body is executed.
"Implementation limits"
As discussed previously ($2.2.4.1), the implementation may limit
the number of case values in a switch statement.
3.6.5 Iteration statements
Syntax
iteration-statement:
while ( expression ) statement
do statement while ( expression ) ;
for ( expression<opt> ; expression<opt> ;
expression<opt> ) statement
Constraints
The controlling expression of an iteration statement shall have scalar type.
Semantics
An iteration statement causes a statement called the loop body to
be executed repeatedly until the controlling expression compares equal
to 0.
3.6.5.1 The while statement
The evaluation of the controlling expression takes place before
each execution of the loop body.
3.6.5.2 The do statement
The evaluation of the controlling expression takes place after each
execution of the loop body.
3.6.5.3 The for statement
Except for the behavior of a continue statement in the loop body,
the statement
for ( expression-1 ; expression-2 ; expression-3 ) statement
and the sequence of statements
expression-1 ;
while ( expression-2) {
statement
expression-3 ;
}
are equivalent./67/ expression-1 expression-2 , expression-3
Both expression-1 and expression-3 may be omitted. Each is
evaluated as a void expression. An omitted expression-2 is replaced
by a nonzero constant.
Forward references: the continue statement ($3.6.6.2).
3.6.6 Jump statements
Syntax
jump-statement:
goto identifier ;
continue ;
break ;
return expression<opt> ;
Semantics
A jump statement causes an unconditional jump to another place.
3.6.6.1 The goto statement
Constraints
The identifier in a goto statement shall name a label located
somewhere in the current function.
Semantics
A goto statement causes an unconditional jump to the statement
prefixed by the named label in the current function.
3.6.6.2 The continue statement
Constraints
A continue statement shall appear only in or as a loop body.
Semantics
A continue statement causes a jump to the loop-continuation portion
of the smallest enclosing iteration statement; that is, to the end of
the loop body. More precisely, in each of the statements
while (/*...*/) { do { for (/*...*/) {
/*...*/ /*...*/ /*...*/
continue; continue; continue;
/*...*/ /*...*/ /*...*/
contin: ; contin: ; contin: ;
} } while (/*...*/); }
unless the continue statement shown is in an enclosed iteration
statement (in which case it is interpreted within that statement), it
is equivalent to goto contin; ./68/
3.6.6.3 The break statement
Constraints
A break statement shall appear only in or as a switch body or loop body.
Semantics
A break statement terminates execution of the smallest enclosing
switch or iteration statement.
3.6.6.4 The return statement
Constraints
A return statement with an expression shall not appear in a
function whose return type is void .
Semantics
A return statement terminates execution of the current function and
returns control to its caller. A function may have any number of
return statements, with and without expressions.
If a return statement with an expression is executed, the value of
the expression is returned to the caller as the value of the function
call expression. If the expression has a type different from that of
the function in which it appears, it is converted as if it were
assigned to an object of that type.
If a return statement without an expression is executed, and the
value of the function call is used by the caller, the behavior is
undefined. Reaching the } that terminates a function is equivalent to
executing a return statement without an expression.
3.7 EXTERNAL DEFINITIONS
Syntax
translation-unit:
external-declaration
translation-unit external-declaration
external-declaration:
function-definition
declaration
Constraints
The storage-class specifiers auto and register shall not appear in
the declaration specifiers in an external declaration.
There shall be no more than one external definition for each
identifier declared with internal linkage in a translation unit.
Moreover, if an identifier declared with internal linkage is used in
an expression (other than as a part of the operand of a sizeof
operator), there shall be exactly one external definition for the
identifier in the translation unit.
Semantics
As discussed in $2.1.1.1, the unit of program text after
preprocessing is a translation unit, which consists of a sequence of
external declarations. These are described as ``external'' because
they appear outside any function (and hence have file scope). As
discussed in $3.5, a declaration that also causes storage to be
reserved for an object or a function named by the identifier is a
definition.
An external definition is an external declaration that is also a
definition of a function or an object. If an identifier declared with
external linkage is used in an expression (other than as part of the
operand of a sizeof operator), somewhere in the entire program there
shall be exactly one external definition for the identifier./69/
3.7.1 Function definitions
Syntax
function-definition:
declaration-specifiers<opt> declarator
declaration-list<opt> compound-statement
Constraints
The identifier declared in a function definition (which is the name
of the function) shall have a function type, as specified by the
declarator portion of the function definition./70/
The return type of a function shall be void or an object type other
than array.
The storage-class specifier, if any, in the declaration specifiers
shall be either extern or static .
If the declarator includes a parameter type list, the declaration
of each parameter shall include an identifier (except for the special
case of a parameter list consisting of a single parameter of type void,
in which there shall not be an identifier). No declaration list
shall follow.
If the declarator includes an identifier list, only the identifiers
it names shall be declared in the declaration list. An identifier
declared as a typedef name shall not be redeclared as a parameter.
The declarations in the declaration list shall contain no
storage-class specifier other than register and no initializations.
Semantics
The declarator in a function definition specifies the name of the
function being defined and the identifiers of its parameters. If the
declarator includes a parameter type list, the list also specifies the
types of all the parameters; such a declarator also serves as a
function prototype for later calls to the same function in the same
translation unit. If the declarator includes an identifier list,/71/
the types of the parameters may be declared in a following declaration
list. Any parameter that is not declared has type int .
If a function that accepts a variable number of arguments is
defined without a parameter type list that ends with the ellipsis
notation, the behavior is undefined.
On entry to the function the value of each argument expression
shall be converted to the type of its corresponding parameter, as if
by assignment to the parameter. Array expressions and function
designators as arguments are converted to pointers before the call. A
declaration of a parameter as ``array of type '' shall be adjusted to
``pointer to type ,'' and a declaration of a parameter as ``function
returning type '' shall be adjusted to ``pointer to function returning
type ,'' as in $3.2.2.1. The resulting parameter type shall be an
object type.
Each parameter has automatic storage duration. Its identifier is
an lvalue./72/ The layout of the storage for parameters is
unspecified.
Examples
extern int max(int a, int b)
{
return a > b ? a : b;
}
Here extern is the storage-class specifier and int is the type
specifier (each of which may be omitted as those are the defaults);
max(int a, int b) is the function declarator; and
{ return a > b ? a : b; }
is the function body. The following similar definition uses the
identifier-list form for the parameter declarations:
extern int max(a, b)
int a, b;
{
return a > b ? a : b;
}
Here int a, b; is the declaration list for the parameters, which may
be omitted because those are the defaults. The difference between
these two definitions is that the first form acts as a prototype
declaration that forces conversion of the arguments of subsequent
calls to the function, whereas the second form may not.
To pass one function to another, one might say
int f(void);
/*...*/
g(f);
Note that f must be declared explicitly in the calling function, as
its appearance in the expression g(f) was not followed by ( . Then
the definition of g might read
g(int (*funcp)(void))
{
/*...*/ (*funcp)() /* or funcp() ... */
}
or, equivalently,
g(int func(void))
{
/*...*/ func() /* or (*func)() ... */
}
3.7.2 External object definitions
Semantics
If the declaration of an identifier for an object has file scope
and an initializer, the declaration is an external definition for the
identifier.
A declaration of an identifier for an object that has file scope
without an initializer, and without a storage-class specifier or with
the storage-class specifier static , constitutes a tentative
definition. If a translation unit contains one or more tentative
definitions for an identifier, and the translation unit contains no
external definition for that identifier, then the behavior is exactly
as if the translation unit contains a file scope declaration of that
identifier, with the composite type as of the end of the translation
unit, with an initializer equal to 0.
If the declaration of an identifier for an object is a tentative
definition and has internal linkage, the declared type shall not be an
incomplete type.
Examples
int i1 = 1; /* definition, external linkage */
static int i2 = 2; /* definition, internal linkage */
extern int i3 = 3; /* definition, external linkage */
int i4; /* tentative definition, external linkage */
static int i5; /* tentative definition, internal linkage */
int i1; /* valid tentative definition, refers to previous */
int i2; /* $3.1.2.2 renders undefined, linkage disagreement */
int i3; /* valid tentative definition, refers to previous */
int i4; /* valid tentative definition, refers to previous */
int i5; /* $3.1.2.2 renders undefined, linkage disagreement */
extern int i1; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is external */
extern int i2; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is internal */
extern int i3; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is external */
extern int i4; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is external */
extern int i5; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is internal */
3.8 PREPROCESSING DIRECTIVES
Syntax
preprocessing-file:
group<opt>
group:
group-part
group group-part
group-part:
pp-tokens<opt> new-line
if-section
control-line
if-section:
if-group elif-groups<opt> else-group<opt> endif-line
if-group:
# if constant-expression new-line group<opt>
# ifdef identifier new-line group<opt>
# ifndef identifier new-line group<opt>
elif-groups:
elif-group
elif-groups elif-group
elif-group:
# elif constant-expression new-line group<opt>
else-group:
# else new-line group<opt>
endif-line:
# endif new-line
control-line:
# include pp-tokens new-line
# define identifier replacement-list new-line
# define identifier lparen identifier-list<opt> )
replacement-list new-line
# undef identifier new-line
# line pp-tokens new-line
# error pp-tokens<opt> new-line
# pragma pp-tokens<opt> new-line
# new-line
lparen:
the left-parenthesis character without preceding white-space
replacement-list:
pp-tokens<opt>
pp-tokens:
preprocessing-token
pp-tokens preprocessing-token
new-line:
the new-line character
Description
A preprocessing directive consists of a sequence of preprocessing
tokens that begins with a # preprocessing token that is either the
first character in the source file (optionally after white space
containing no new-line characters) or that follows white space
containing at least one new-line character, and is ended by the next
new-line character./73/
Constraints
The only white-space characters that shall appear between
preprocessing tokens within a preprocessing directive (from just after
the introducing # preprocessing token through just before the
terminating new-line character) are space and horizontal-tab
(including spaces that have replaced comments in translation phase 3).
Semantics
The implementation can process and skip sections of source files
conditionally, include other source files, and replace macros. These
capabilities are called preprocessing , because conceptually they
occur before translation of the resulting translation unit.
The preprocessing tokens within a preprocessing directive are not
subject to macro expansion unless otherwise stated.
3.8.1 Conditional inclusion
Constraints
The expression that controls conditional inclusion shall be an
integral constant expression except that: it shall not contain a cast;
identifiers (including those lexically identical to keywords) are
interpreted as described below;/74/ and it may contain unary operator
expressions of the form
defined identifier
defined ( identifier )
which evaluate to 1 if the identifier is currently defined as a macro
name (that is, if it is predefined or if it has been the subject of a
#define preprocessing directive without an intervening #undef
directive with the same subject identifier), 0 if it is not.
Each preprocessing token that remains after all macro replacements
have occurred shall be in the lexical form of a token.
Semantics
Preprocessing directives of the forms
# if constant-expression new-line group<opt>
# elif constant-expression new-line group<opt>
check whether the controlling constant expression evaluates to
nonzero.
Prior to evaluation, macro invocations in the list of preprocessing
tokens that will become the controlling constant expression are
replaced (except for those macro names modified by the defined unary
operator), just as in normal text. If the token defined is generated
as a result of this replacement process, the behavior is undefined.
After all replacements are finished, the resulting preprocessing
tokens are converted into tokens, and then all remaining identifiers
are replaced with 0 . The resulting tokens comprise the controlling
constant expression which is evaluated according to the rules of $3.4
using arithmetic that has at least the ranges specified in $2.2.4.2,
except that int and unsigned int act as if they have the same
representation as, respectively, long and unsigned long . This
includes interpreting character constants, which may involve
converting escape sequences into execution character set members.
Whether the numeric value for these character constants matches the
value obtained when an identical character constant occurs in an
expression (other than within a #if or #elif directive) is
implementation-defined./75/ Also, whether a single-character character
constant may have a negative value is implementation-defined.
Preprocessing directives of the forms
# ifdef identifier new-line group<opt>
# ifndef identifier new-line group<opt>
check whether the identifier is or is not currently defined as a macro
name. Their conditions are equivalent to #if defined identifier and
#if !defined identifier respectively.
Each directive's condition is checked in order. If it evaluates to
false (zero), the group that it controls is skipped: directives are
processed only through the name that determines the directive in order
to keep track of the level of nested conditionals; the rest of the
directives' preprocessing tokens are ignored, as are the other
preprocessing tokens in the group. Only the first group whose control
condition evaluates to true (nonzero) is processed. If none of the
conditions evaluates to true, and there is a #else directive, the
group controlled by the #else is processed; lacking a #else directive,
all the groups until the #endif are skipped./76/
Forward references: macro replacement ($3.8.3), source file inclusion
($3.8.2).
3.8.2 Source file inclusion
Constraints
A #include directive shall identify a header or source file that
can be processed by the implementation.
Semantics
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include <h-char-sequence> new-line
searches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a header
identified uniquely by the specified sequence between the < and >
delimiters, and causes the replacement of that directive by the entire
contents of the header. How the places are specified or the header
identified is implementation-defined.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include "q-char-sequence" new-line
causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the
source file identified by the specified sequence between the
delimiters. The named source file is searched for in an
implementation-defined manner. If this search is not supported, or if
the search fails, the directive is reprocessed as if it read
# include <h-char-sequence> new-line
with the identical contained sequence (including > characters, if any)
from the original directive.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include pp-tokens new-line
(that does not match one of the two previous forms) is permitted. The
preprocessing tokens after include in the directive are processed just
as in normal text. (Each identifier currently defined as a macro name
is replaced by its replacement list of preprocessing tokens.) The
directive resulting after all replacements shall match one of the two
previous forms./77/ The method by which a sequence of preprocessing
tokens between a < and a > preprocessing token pair or a pair of
characters is combined into a single header name preprocessing token
is implementation-defined.
There shall be an implementation-defined mapping between the
delimited sequence and the external source file name. The
implementation shall provide unique mappings for sequences consisting
of one or more letters (as defined in $2.2.1) followed by a period (.)
and a single letter. The implementation may ignore the distinctions
of alphabetical case and restrict the mapping to six significant
characters before the period.
A #include preprocessing directive may appear in a source file that
has been read because of a #include directive in another file, up to
an implementation-defined nesting limit (see $2.2.4.1).
Examples
The most common uses of #include preprocessing directives are as in
the following:
#include <stdio.h>
#include "myprog.h"
This example illustrates a macro-replaced #include directive:
#if VERSION == 1
#define INCFILE "vers1.h"
#elif VERSION == 2
#define INCFILE "vers2.h"
/* and so on */
#else
#define INCFILE "versN.h"
#endif
/*...*/
#include INCFILE
Forward references: macro replacement ($3.8.3).
3.8.3 Macro replacement
Constraints
Two replacement lists are identical if and only if the
preprocessing tokens in both have the same number, ordering, spelling,
and white-space separation, where all white-space separations are
considered identical.
An identifier currently defined as a macro without use of lparen
(an object-like macro) may be redefined by another #define
preprocessing directive provided that the second definition is an
object-like macro definition and the two replacement lists are
identical.
An identifier currently defined as a macro using lparen (a
function-like macro) may be redefined by another #define preprocessing
directive provided that the second definition is a function-like macro
definition that has the same number and spelling of parameters, and
the two replacement lists are identical.
The number of arguments in an invocation of a function-like macro
shall agree with the number of parameters in the macro definition, and
there shall exist a ) preprocessing token that terminates the
invocation.
A parameter identifier in a function-like macro shall be uniquely
declared within its scope.
Semantics
The identifier immediately following the define is called the macro
name. Any white-space characters preceding or following the
replacement list of preprocessing tokens are not considered part of
the replacement list for either form of macro.
If a # preprocessing token, followed by an identifier, occurs
lexically at the point at which a preprocessing directive could begin,
the identifier is not subject to macro replacement.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# define identifier replacement-list new-line
defines an object-like macro that causes each subsequent instance of
the macro name/78/ to be replaced by the replacement list of
preprocessing tokens that constitute the remainder of the directive.
The replacement list is then rescanned for more macro names as
specified below.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# define identifier lparen identifier-list<opt> )
replacement-list new-line
defines a function-like macro with arguments, similar syntactically to
a function call. The parameters are specified by the optional list of
identifiers, whose scope extends from their declaration in the
identifier list until the new-line character that terminates the
#define preprocessing directive. Each subsequent instance of the
function-like macro name followed by a ( as the next preprocessing
token introduces the sequence of preprocessing tokens that is replaced
by the replacement list in the definition (an invocation of the
macro). The replaced sequence of preprocessing tokens is terminated
by the matching ) preprocessing token, skipping intervening matched
pairs of left and right parenthesis preprocessing tokens. Within the
sequence of preprocessing tokens making up an invocation of a
function-like macro, new-line is considered a normal white-space
character.
The sequence of preprocessing tokens bounded by the outside-most
matching parentheses forms the list of arguments for the function-like
macro. The individual arguments within the list are separated by
comma preprocessing tokens, but comma preprocessing tokens bounded by
nested parentheses do not separate arguments. If (before argument
substitution) any argument consists of no preprocessing tokens, the
behavior is undefined. If there are sequences of preprocessing tokens
within the list of arguments that would otherwise act as preprocessing
directives, the behavior is undefined.
3.8.3.1 Argument substitution
After the arguments for the invocation of a function-like macro
have been identified, argument substitution takes place. A parameter
in the replacement list, unless preceded by a # or ## preprocessing
token or followed by a ## preprocessing token (see below), is replaced
by the corresponding argument after all macros contained therein have
been expanded. Before being substituted, each argument's
preprocessing tokens are completely macro replaced as if they formed
the rest of the source file; no other preprocessing tokens are
available.
3.8.3.2 The # operator
Constraints
Each # preprocessing token in the replacement list for a
function-like macro shall be followed by a parameter as the next
preprocessing token in the replacement list.
Semantics
If, in the replacement list, a parameter is immediately preceded by
a # preprocessing token, both are replaced by a single character
string literal preprocessing token that contains the spelling of the
preprocessing token sequence for the corresponding argument. Each
occurrence of white space between the argument's preprocessing tokens
becomes a single space character in the character string literal.
White space before the first preprocessing token and after the last
preprocessing token comprising the argument is deleted. Otherwise,
the original spelling of each preprocessing token in the argument is
retained in the character string literal, except for special handling
for producing the spelling of string literals and character constants:
a \ character is inserted before each and \ character of a character
constant or string literal (including the delimiting characters). If
the replacement that results is not a valid character string literal,
the behavior is undefined. The order of evaluation of # and ##
operators is unspecified.
3.8.3.3 The ## operator
Constraints
A ## preprocessing token shall not occur at the beginning or at the
end of a replacement list for either form of macro definition.
Semantics
If, in the replacement list, a parameter is immediately preceded or
followed by a ## preprocessing token, the parameter is replaced by the
corresponding argument's preprocessing token sequence.
For both object-like and function-like macro invocations, before
the replacement list is reexamined for more macro names to replace,
each instance of a ## preprocessing token in the replacement list (not
from an argument) is deleted and the preceding preprocessing token is
concatenated with the following preprocessing token. If the result is
not a valid preprocessing token, the behavior is undefined. The
resulting token is available for further macro replacement. The order
of evaluation of ## operators is unspecified.
3.8.3.4 Rescanning and further replacement
After all parameters in the replacement list have been substituted,
the resulting preprocessing token sequence is rescanned with the rest
of the source file's preprocessing tokens for more macro names to
replace.
If the name of the macro being replaced is found during this scan
of the replacement list (not including the rest of the source file's
preprocessing tokens), it is not replaced. Further, if any nested
replacements encounter the name of the macro being replaced, it is not
replaced. These nonreplaced macro name preprocessing tokens are no
longer available for further replacement even if they are later
(re)examined in contexts in which that macro name preprocessing token
would otherwise have been replaced.
The resulting completely macro-replaced preprocessing token
sequence is not processed as a preprocessing directive even if it
resembles one.
3.8.3.5 Scope of macro definitions
A macro definition lasts (independent of block structure) until a
corresponding #undef directive is encountered or (if none is
encountered) until the end of the translation unit.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# undef identifier new-line
causes the specified identifier no longer to be defined as a macro
name. It is ignored if the specified identifier is not currently
defined as a macro name.
Examples
The simplest use of this facility is to define a ``manifest
constant,'' as in
#define TABSIZE 100
int table[TABSIZE];
The following defines a function-like macro whose value is the
maximum of its arguments. It has the advantages of working for any
compatible types of the arguments and of generating in-line code
without the overhead of function calling. It has the disadvantages of
evaluating one or the other of its arguments a second time (including
side effects) and of generating more code than a function if invoked
several times.
#define max(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
The parentheses ensure that the arguments and the resulting expression
are bound properly.
To illustrate the rules for redefinition and reexamination, the
sequence
#define x 3
#define f(a) f(x * (a))
#undef x
#define x 2
#define g f
#define z z[0]
#define h g(~
#define m(a) a(w)
#define w 0,1
#define t(a) a
f(y+1) + f(f(z)) % t(t(g)(0) + t)(1);
g(x+(3,4)-w) | h 5) & m
(f)^m(m);
results in
f(2 * (y+1)) + f(2 * (f(2 * (z[0])))) % f(2 * (0)) + t(1);
f(2 * (2+(3,4)-0,1)) | f(2 * (~ 5)) & f(2 * (0,1))^m(0,1);
To illustrate the rules for creating character string literals and
concatenating tokens, the sequence
#define str(s) # s
#define xstr(s) str(s)
#define debug(s, t) printf("x" # s "= %d, x" # t "= %s", \
x ## s, x ## t)
#define INCFILE(n) vers ## n /* from previous #include example */
#define glue(a, b) a ## b
#define xglue(a, b) glue(a, b)
#define HIGHLOW "hello"
#define LOW LOW ", world"
debug(1, 2);
fputs(str(strncmp("abc\0d", "abc", '\4') /* this goes away */
== 0) str(: @\n), s);
#include xstr(INCFILE(2).h)
glue(HIGH, LOW);
xglue(HIGH, LOW)
results in
printf("x" "1" "= %d, x" "2" "= %s", x1, x2);
fputs("strncmp(\"abc\\0d\", \"abc\", '\\4') == 0" ": @\n", s);
#include "vers2.h" (after macro replacement, before file access)
"hello";
"hello" ", world"
or, after concatenation of the character string literals,
printf("x1= %d, x2= %s", x1, x2);
fputs("strncmp(\"abc\\0d\", \"abc\", '\\4') == 0: @\n", s);
#include "vers2.h" (after macro replacement, before file access)
"hello";
"hello, world"
Space around the # and ## tokens in the macro definition is optional.
And finally, to demonstrate the redefinition rules, the following
sequence is valid.
#define OBJ_LIKE (1-1)
#define OBJ_LIKE /* white space */ (1-1) /* other */
#define FTN_LIKE(a) ( a )
#define FTN_LIKE( a )( /* note the white space */ \
a /* other stuff on this line
*/ )
But the following redefinitions are invalid:
#define OBJ_LIKE (0) /* different token sequence */
#define OBJ_LIKE (1 - 1) /* different white space */
#define FTN_LIKE(b) ( a ) /* different parameter usage */
#define FTN_LIKE(b) ( b ) /* different parameter spelling */
3.8.4 Line control
Constraints
The string literal of a #line directive, if present, shall be a
character string literal.
Semantics
The line number of the current source line is one greater than the
number of new-line characters read or introduced in translation phase
1 ($2.1.1.2) while processing the source file to the current token.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# line digit-sequence new-line
causes the implementation to behave as if the following sequence of
source lines begins with a source line that has a line number as
specified by the digit sequence (interpreted as a decimal integer).
A preprocessing directive of the form
# line digit-sequence " s-char-sequence<opt>" new-line
sets the line number similarly and changes the presumed name of the
source file to be the contents of the character string literal.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# line pp-tokens new-line
(that does not match one of the two previous forms) is permitted. The
preprocessing tokens after line on the directive are processed just as
in normal text (each identifier currently defined as a macro name is
replaced by its replacement list of preprocessing tokens). The
directive resulting after all replacements shall match one of the two
previous forms and is then processed as appropriate.
3.8.5 Error directive
Semantics
A preprocessing directive of the form
# error pp-tokens<opt> new-line
causes the implementation to produce a diagnostic message that
includes the specified sequence of preprocessing tokens.
3.8.6 Pragma directive
Semantics
A preprocessing directive of the form
# pragma pp-tokens<opt> new-line
causes the implementation to behave in an implementation-defined
manner. Any pragma that is not recognized by the implementation is
ignored.
3.8.7 Null directive
Semantics
A preprocessing directive of the form
# new-line
has no effect.
3.8.8 Predefined macro names
The following macro names shall be defined by the implementation:
The line number of the current source line (a decimal constant). The
presumed name of the source file (a character string literal). The
date of translation of the source file (a character string literal of
the form Mmm dd yyyy , where the names of the months are the same as
those generated by the asctime function, and the first character of dd
is a space character if the value is less than 10). If the date of
translation is not available, an implementation-defined valid date
shall be supplied. The time of translation of the source file (a
character string literal of the form hh:mm:ss as in the time generated
by the asctime function). If the time of translation is not
available, an implementation-defined valid time shall be supplied.
the decimal constant 1./79/
The values of the predefined macros (except for __LINE__ and
__FILE__ ) remain constant throughout the translation unit.
None of these macro names, nor the identifier defined , shall be
the subject of a #define or a #undef preprocessing directive. All
predefined macro names shall begin with a leading underscore followed
by an upper-case letter or a second underscore.
Forward references: the asctime function ($4.12.3.1).
3.9 FUTURE LANGUAGE DIRECTIONS
3.9.1 External names
Restriction of the significance of an external name to fewer than
31 characters or to only one case is an obsolescent feature that is a
concession to existing implementations.
3.9.2 Character escape sequences
Lower-case letters as escape sequences are reserved for future
standardization. Other characters may be used in extensions.
3.9.3 Storage-class specifiers
The placement of a storage-class specifier other than at the
beginning of the declaration specifiers in a declaration is an
obsolescent feature.
3.9.4 Function declarators
The use of function declarators with empty parentheses (not
prototype-format parameter type declarators) is an obsolescent
feature.
3.9.5 Function definitions
The use of function definitions with separate parameter identifier
and declaration lists (not prototype-format parameter type and
identifier declarators) is an obsolescent feature.
4. LIBRARY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Definitions of terms
A string is a contiguous sequence of characters terminated by and
including the first null character. It is represented by a pointer to
its initial (lowest addressed) character and its length is the number
of characters preceding the null character.
A letter is a printing character in the execution character set
corresponding to any of the 52 required lower-case and upper-case
letters in the source character set, listed in $2.2.1.
The decimal-point character is the character used by functions that
convert floating-point numbers to or from character sequences to
denote the beginning of the fractional part of such character
sequences./80/ It is represented in the text and examples by a period,
but may be changed by the setlocale function.
Forward references: character handling ($4.3), the setlocale function
($4.4.1.1).
4.1.2 Standard headers
Each library function is declared in a header, /81/ whose contents
are made available by the #include preprocessing directive. The
header declares a set of related functions, plus any necessary types
and additional macros needed to facilitate their use. Each header
declares and defines only those identifiers listed in its associated
section. All external identifiers declared in any of the headers are
reserved, whether or not the associated header is included. All
external identifiers that begin with an underscore are reserved. All
other identifiers that begin with an underscore and either an
upper-case letter or another underscore are reserved. If the program
defines an external identifier with the same name as a reserved
external identifier, even in a semantically equivalent form, the
behavior is undefined./82/
The standard headers are
<assert.h> <locale.h> <stddef.h>
<ctype.h> <math.h> <stdio.h>
<errno.h> <setjmp.h> <stdlib.h>
<float.h> <signal.h> <string.h>
<limits.h> <stdarg.h> <time.h>
If a file with the same name as one of the above < and > delimited
sequences, not provided as part of the implementation, is placed in
any of the standard places for a source file to be included, the
behavior is undefined.
Headers may be included in any order; each may be included more
than once in a given scope, with no effect different from being
included only once, except that the effect of including <assert.h>
depends on the definition of NDEBUG . If used, a header shall be
included outside of any external declaration or definition, and it
shall first be included before the first reference to any of the
functions or objects it declares, or to any of the types or macros it
defines. Furthermore, the program shall not have any macros with
names lexically identical to keywords currently defined prior to the
inclusion.
Forward references: diagnostics ($4.2).
4.1.3 Errors <errno.h>
The header <errno.h> defines several macros, all relating to the
reporting of error conditions.
The macros are
EDOM
ERANGE
which expand to distinct nonzero integral constant expressions; and
errno
which expands to a modifiable lvalue/83/ that has type int , the value
of which is set to a positive error number by several library
functions. It is unspecified whether errno is a macro or an
identifier declared with external linkage. If a macro definition is
suppressed in order to access an actual object, or a program defines
an external identifier with the name errno , the behavior is
undefined.
The value of errno is zero at program startup, but is never set to
zero by any library function./84/ The value of errno may be set to
nonzero by a library function call whether or not there is an error,
provided the use of errno is not documented in the description of the
function in the Standard.
Additional macro definitions, beginning with E and a digit or E and
an upper-case letter,/85/ may also be specified by the implementation.
4.1.4 Limits <float.h> and <limits.h>
The headers <float.h> and <limits.h> define several macros that
expand to various limits and parameters.
The macros, their meanings, and their minimum magnitudes are listed
in $2.2.4.2.
4.1.5 Common definitions <stddef.h>
The following types and macros are defined in the standard header
<stddef.h> . Some are also defined in other headers, as noted in
their respective sections.
The types are
ptrdiff_t
which is the signed integral type of the result of subtracting two
pointers;
size_t
which is the unsigned integral type of the result of the sizeof
operator; and
wchar_t
which is an integral type whose range of values can represent distinct
codes for all members of the largest extended character set specified
among the supported locales; the null character shall have the code
value zero and each member of the basic character set defined in
$2.2.1 shall have a code value equal to its value when used as the
lone character in an integer character constant.
The macros are
NULL
which expands to an implementation-defined null pointer constant; and
offsetof( type, member-designator)
which expands to an integral constant expression that has type size_t,
the value of which is the offset in bytes, to the structure member
(designated by member-designator ), from the beginning of its
structure (designated by type ). The member-designator shall be such
that given
static type t;
then the expression &(t. member-designator ) evaluates to an address
constant. (If the specified member is a bit-field, the behavior is
undefined.)
Forward references: localization ($4.4).
4.1.6 Use of library functions
Each of the following statements applies unless explicitly stated
otherwise in the detailed descriptions that follow. If an argument to
a function has an invalid value (such as a value outside the domain of
the function, or a pointer outside the address space of the program,
or a null pointer), the behavior is undefined. Any function declared
in a header may be implemented as a macro defined in the header, so a
library function should not be declared explicitly if its header is
included. Any macro definition of a function can be suppressed
locally by enclosing the name of the function in parentheses, because
the name is then not followed by the left parenthesis that indicates
expansion of a macro function name. For the same syntactic reason, it
is permitted to take the address of a library function even if it is
also defined as a macro./86/ The use of #undef to remove any macro
definition will also ensure that an actual function is referred to.
Any invocation of a library function that is implemented as a macro
will expand to code that evaluates each of its arguments exactly once,
fully protected by parentheses where necessary, so it is generally
safe to use arbitrary expressions as arguments. Likewise, those
function-like macros described in the following sections may be
invoked in an expression anywhere a function with a compatible return
type could be called./87/
Provided that a library function can be declared without reference
to any type defined in a header, it is also permissible to declare the
function, either explicitly or implicitly, and use it without
including its associated header. If a function that accepts a
variable number of arguments is not declared (explicitly or by
including its associated header), the behavior is undefined.
Examples
The function atoi may be used in any of several ways:
* by use of its associated header (possibly generating a macro expansion)
#include <stdlib.h>
const char *str;
/*...*/
i = atoi(str);
* by use of its associated header (assuredly generating a true
function reference)
#include <stdlib.h>
#undef atoi
const char *str;
/*...*/
i = atoi(str);
or
#include <stdlib.h>
const char *str;
/*...*/
i = (atoi)(str);
* by explicit declaration
extern int atoi(const char *);
const char *str;
/*...*/
i = atoi(str);
* by implicit declaration
const char *str;
/*...*/
i = atoi(str);
4.2 DIAGNOSTICS <assert.h>
The header <assert.h> defines the assert macro and refers to
another macro,
NDEBUG
which is not defined by <assert.h> . If NDEBUG is defined as a macro
name at the point in the source file where <assert.h> is included, the
assert macro is defined simply as
#define assert(ignore) ((void)0)
The assert macro shall be implemented as a macro, not as an actual
function. If the macro definition is suppressed in order to access an
actual function, the behavior is undefined.
4.2.1 Program diagnostics
4.2.1.1 The assert macro
Synopsis
#include <assert.h>
void assert(int expression);
Description
The assert macro puts diagnostics into programs. When it is
executed, if expression is false (that is, compares equal to 0), the
assert macro writes information about the particular call that failed
(including the text of the argument, the name of the source file, and
the source line number EM the latter are respectively the values of
the preprocessing macros __FILE__ and __LINE__ ) on the standard error
file in an implementation-defined format./88/
expression , xyz , nnn It then calls the abort function.
Returns
The assert macro returns no value.
Forward references: the abort function ($4.10.4.1).
4.3 CHARACTER HANDLING <ctype.h>
The header <ctype.h> declares several functions useful for testing
and mapping characters./89/ In all cases the argument is an int , the
value of which shall be representable as an unsigned char or shall
equal the value of the macro EOF . If the argument has any other
value, the behavior is undefined.
The behavior of these functions is affected by the current locale.
Those functions that have no implementation-defined aspects in the C
locale are noted below.
The term printing character refers to a member of an
implementation-defined set of characters, each of which occupies one
printing position on a display device; the term control character
refers to a member of an implementation-defined set of characters that
are not printing characters./90/
Forward references: EOF ($4.9.1), localization ($4.4).
4.3.1 Character testing functions
The functions in this section return nonzero (true) if and only if
the value of the argument c conforms to that in the description of the
function.
4.3.1.1 The isalnum function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isalnum(int c);
Description
The isalnum function tests for any character for which isalpha or
isdigit is true.
4.3.1.2 The isalpha function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isalpha(int c);
Description
The isalpha function tests for any character for which isupper or
islower is true, or any of an implementation-defined set of characters
for which none of iscntrl , isdigit , ispunct , or isspace is true.
In the C locale, isalpha returns true only for the characters for
which isupper or islower is true.
4.3.1.3 The iscntrl function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int iscntrl(int c);
Description
The iscntrl function tests for any control character.
4.3.1.4 The isdigit function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isdigit(int c);
Description
The isdigit function tests for any decimal-digit character (as
defined in $2.2.1).
4.3.1.5 The isgraph function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isgraph(int c);
Description
The isgraph function tests for any printing character except space (' ').
4.3.1.6 The islower function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int islower(int c);
Description
The islower function tests for any lower-case letter or any of an
implementation-defined set of characters for which none of iscntrl ,
isdigit , ispunct , or isspace is true. In the C locale, islower
returns true only for the characters defined as lower-case letters (as
defined in $2.2.1).
4.3.1.7 The isprint function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isprint(int c);
Description
The isprint function tests for any printing character including
space (' ').
4.3.1.8 The ispunct function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int ispunct(int c);
Description
The ispunct function tests for any printing character except space
(' ') or a character for which isalnum is true.
4.3.1.9 The isspace function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isspace(int c);
Description
The isspace function tests for the standard white-space characters
or for any of an implementation-defined set of characters for which
isalnum is false. The standard white-space characters are the
following: space (' '), form feed ('\f'), new-line ('\n'), carriage
return ('\r'), horizontal tab ('\t'), and vertical tab ('\v'). In the
C locale, isspace returns true only for the standard white-space
characters.
4.3.1.10 The isupper function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isupper(int c);
Description
The isupper function tests for any upper-case letter or any of an
implementation-defined set of characters for which none of iscntrl ,
isdigit , ispunct , or isspace is true. In the C locale, isupper
returns true only for the characters defined as upper-case letters (as
defined in $2.2.1).
4.3.1.11 The isxdigit function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int isxdigit(int c);
Description
The isxdigit function tests for any hexadecimal-digit character (as
defined in $3.1.3.2).
4.3.2 Character case mapping functions
4.3.2.1 The tolower function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int tolower(int c);
Description
The tolower function converts an upper-case letter to the
corresponding lower-case letter.
Returns
If the argument is an upper-case letter, the tolower function
returns the corresponding lower-case letter if there is one; otherwise
the argument is returned unchanged. In the C locale, tolower maps
only the characters for which isupper is true to the corresponding
characters for which islower is true.
4.3.2.2 The toupper function
Synopsis
#include <ctype.h>
int toupper(int c);
Description
The toupper function converts a lower-case letter to the corresponding upper-case letter.
Returns
If the argument is a lower-case letter, the toupper function
returns the corresponding upper-case letter if there is one; otherwise
the argument is returned unchanged. In the C locale, toupper maps
only the characters for which islower is true to the corresponding
characters for which isupper is true.
4.4 LOCALIZATION <locale.h>
The header <locale.h> declares two functions, one type, and defines
several macros.
The type is
struct lconv
which contains members related to the formatting of numeric values.
The structure shall contain at least the following members, in any
order. The semantics of the members and their normal ranges is
explained in $4.4.2.1. In the C locale, the members shall have the
values specified in the comments.
char *decimal_point; /* "." */
char *thousands_sep; /* "" */
char *grouping; /* "" */
char *int_curr_symbol; /* "" */
char *currency_symbol; /* "" */
char *mon_decimal_point; /* "" */
char *mon_thousands_sep; /* "" */
char *mon_grouping; /* "" */
char *positive_sign; /* "" */
char *negative_sign; /* "" */
char int_frac_digits; /* CHAR_MAX */
char frac_digits; /* CHAR_MAX */
char p_cs_precedes; /* CHAR_MAX */
char p_sep_by_space; /* CHAR_MAX */
char n_cs_precedes; /* CHAR_MAX */
char n_sep_by_space; /* CHAR_MAX */
char p_sign_posn; /* CHAR_MAX */
char n_sign_posn; /* CHAR_MAX */
The macros defined are NULL (described in $4.1.5); and
LC_ALL
LC_COLLATE
LC_CTYPE
LC_MONETARY
LC_NUMERIC
LC_TIME
which expand to distinct integral constant expressions, suitable for
use as the first argument to the setlocale function. Additional macro
definitions, beginning with the characters LC_ and an upper-case
letter,/91/ may also be specified by the implementation.
4.4.1 Locale control
4.4.1.1 The setlocale function
Synopsis
#include <locale.h>
char *setlocale(int category, const char *locale);
Description
The setlocale function selects the appropriate portion of the
program's locale as specified by the category and locale arguments.
The setlocale function may be used to change or query the program's
entire current locale or portions thereof. The value LC_ALL for
category names the program's entire locale; the other values for
category name only a portion of the program's locale. LC_COLLATE
affects the behavior of the strcoll and strxfrm functions. LC_CTYPE
affects the behavior of the character handling functions/92/ and the
multibyte functions. LC_MONETARY affects the monetary formatting
information returned by the localeconv function. LC_NUMERIC affects
the decimal-point character for the formatted input/output functions
and the string conversion functions, as well as the non-monetary
formatting information returned by the localeconv function. LC_TIME
affects the behavior of the strftime function.
A value of "C" for locale specifies the minimal environment for C
translation; a value of "" for locale specifies the implementation-defined
native environment. Other implementation-defined strings may be passed
as the second argument to setlocale .
At program startup, the equivalent of
setlocale(LC_ALL, "C");
is executed.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
setlocale function.
Returns
If a pointer to a string is given for locale and the selection can
be honored, the setlocale function returns the string associated with
the specified category for the new locale. If the selection cannot be
honored, the setlocale function returns a null pointer and the
program's locale is not changed.
A null pointer for locale causes the setlocale function to return
the string associated with the category for the program's current
locale; the program's locale is not changed.
The string returned by the setlocale function is such that a
subsequent call with that string and its associated category will
restore that part of the program's locale. The string returned shall
not be modified by the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequent
call to the setlocale function.
Forward references: formatted input/output functions ($4.9.6), the
multibyte character functions ($4.10.7), the multibyte string
functions ($4.10.8), string conversion functions ($4.10.1), the
strcoll function ($4.11.4.3), the strftime function ($4.12.3.5), the
strxfrm function ($4.11.4.5).
4.4.2 Numeric formatting convention inquiry
4.4.2.1 The localeconv function
Synopsis
#include <locale.h>
struct lconv *localeconv(void);
Description
The localeconv function sets the components of an object with type
struct lconv with values appropriate for the formatting of numeric
quantities (monetary and otherwise) according to the rules of the
current locale.
The members of the structure with type char * are strings, any of
which (except decimal_point ) can point to , to indicate that the
value is not available in the current locale or is of zero length.
The members with type char are nonnegative numbers, any of which can
be CHAR_MAX to indicate that the value is not available in the current
locale. The members include the following: The decimal-point
character used to format non-monetary quantities. The character used
to separate groups of digits to the left of the decimal-point
character in formatted non-monetary quantities. A string whose
elements indicate the size of each group of digits in formatted
non-monetary quantities. The international currency symbol applicable
to the current locale. The first three characters contain the
alphabetic international currency symbol in accordance with those
specified in ISO 4217 Codes for the Representation of Currency and
Funds .The fourth character (immediately preceding the null character)
is the character used to separate the international currency symbol
from the monetary quantity. The local currency symbol applicable to
the current locale. The decimal-point used to format monetary
quantities. The separator for groups of digits to the left of the
decimal-point in formatted monetary quantities. A string whose
elements indicate the size of each group of digits in formatted
monetary quantities. The string used to indicate a nonnegative-valued
formatted monetary quantity. The string used to indicate a
negative-valued formatted monetary quantity. The number of fractional
digits (those to the right of the decimal-point) to be displayed in a
internationally formatted monetary quantity. The number of fractional
digits (those to the right of the decimal-point) to be displayed in a
formatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if the currency_symbol
respectively precedes or succeeds the value for a nonnegative
formatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if the currency_symbol
respectively is or is not separated by a space from the value for a
nonnegative formatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if the
currency_symbol respectively precedes or succeeds the value for a
negative formatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if the
currency_symbol respectively is or is not separated by a space from
the value for a negative formatted monetary quantity. Set to a value
indicating the positioning of the positive_sign for a nonnegative
formatted monetary quantity. Set to a value indicating the
positioning of the negative_sign for a negative formatted monetary
quantity.
The elements of grouping and mon_grouping are interpreted according
to the following: No further grouping is to be performed. The
previous element is to be repeatedly used for the remainder of the
digits. The value is the number of digits that comprise the current
group. The next element is examined to determine the size of the next
group of digits to the left of the current group.
The value of p_sign_posn and n_sign_posn is interpreted according
to the following: Parentheses surround the quantity and
currency_symbol. The sign string precedes the quantity and
currency_symbol. The sign string succeeds the quantity and
currency_symbol. The sign string immediately precedes the
currency_symbol. The sign string immediately succeeds the
currency_symbol.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
localeconv function.
Returns
The localeconv function returns a pointer to the filled-in object.
The structure pointed to by the return value shall not be modified by
the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequent call to the
localeconv function. In addition, calls to the setlocale function
with categories LC_ALL , LC_MONETARY , or LC_NUMERIC may overwrite the
contents of the structure.
Examples
The following table illustrates the rules used by four countries to
format monetary quantities.
Country Positive format Negative format International format
Italy L.1.234 -L.1.234 ITL.1.234
Netherlands F 1.234,56 F -1.234,56 NLG 1.234,56
Norway kr1.234,56 kr1.234,56- NOK 1.234,56
Switzerland SFrs.1,234.56 SFrs.1,234.56C CHF 1,234.56
For these four countries, the respective values for the monetary
members of the structure returned by localeconv are:
Italy Netherlands Norway Switzerland
int_curr_symbol "ITL." "NLG " "NOK " "CHF "
currency_symbol "L." "F" "kr" "SFrs."
mon_decimal_point "" "," "," "."
mon_thousands_sep "." "." "." ","
mon_grouping "\3" "\3" "\3" "\3"
positive_sign "" "" "" ""
negative_sign "-" "-" "-" "C"
int_frac_digits 0 2 2 2
frac_digits 0 2 2 2
p_cs_precedes 1 1 1 1
p_sep_by_space 0 1 0 0
n_cs_precedes 1 1 1 1
n_sep_by_space 0 1 0 0
p_sign_posn 1 1 1 1
n_sign_posn 1 4 2 2
4.5 MATHEMATICS <math.h>
The header <math.h> declares several mathematical functions and
defines one macro. The functions take double-precision arguments and
return double-precision values./93/ Integer arithmetic functions and
conversion functions are discussed later.
The macro defined is
HUGE_VAL
which expands to a positive double expression, not necessarily
representable as a float .
Forward references: integer arithmetic functions ($4.10.6), the atof
function ($4.10.1.1), the strtod function ($4.10.1.4).
4.5.1 Treatment of error conditions
The behavior of each of these functions is defined for all
representable values of its input arguments. Each function shall
execute as if it were a single operation, without generating any
externally visible exceptions.
For all functions, a domain error occurs if an input argument is
outside the domain over which the mathematical function is defined.
The description of each function lists any required domain errors; an
implementation may define additional domain errors, provided that such
errors are consistent with the mathematical definition of the
function./94/ On a domain error, the function returns an
implementation-defined value; the value of the macro EDOM is stored in
errno .
Similarly, a range error occurs if the result of the function
cannot be represented as a double value. If the result overflows (the
magnitude of the result is so large that it cannot be represented in
an object of the specified type), the function returns the value of
the macro HUGE_VAL , with the same sign as the correct value of the
function; the value of the macro ERANGE is stored in errno . If the
result underflows (the magnitude of the result is so small that it
cannot be represented in an object of the specified type), the
function returns zero; whether the integer expression errno acquires
the value of the macro ERANGE is implementation-defined.
4.5.2 Trigonometric functions
4.5.2.1 The acos function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double acos(double x);
Description
The acos function computes the principal value of the arc cosine of x.
A domain error occurs for arguments not in the range [-1, +1].
Returns
The acos function returns the arc cosine in the range [0, PI] radians.
4.5.2.2 The asin function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double asin(double x);
Description
The asin function computes the principal value of the arc sine of x.
A domain error occurs for arguments not in the range [-1, +1].
Returns
The asin function returns the arc sine in the range [-PI/2, +PI/2]
radians.
4.5.2.3 The atan function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double atan(double x);
Description
The atan function computes the principal value of the arc tangent of x.
Returns
The atan function returns the arc tangent in the range [-PI/2, +PI/2]
radians.
4.5.2.4 The atan2 function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double atan2(double y, double x);
Description
The atan2 function computes the principal value of the arc tangent
of y/x , using the signs of both arguments to determine the quadrant
of the return value. A domain error may occur if both arguments are
zero.
Returns
The atan2 function returns the arc tangent of y/x , in the range
[-PI, +PI] radians.
4.5.2.5 The cos function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double cos(double x);
Description
The cos function computes the cosine of x (measured in radians). A
large magnitude argument may yield a result with little or no
significance.
Returns
The cos function returns the cosine value.
4.5.2.6 The sin function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double sin(double x);
Description
The sin function computes the sine of x (measured in radians). A
large magnitude argument may yield a result with little or no
significance.
Returns
The sin function returns the sine value.
4.5.2.7 The tan function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double tan(double x);
Description
The tan function returns the tangent of x (measured in radians). A large magnitude argument may yield a result with little or no significance.
Returns
The tan function returns the tangent value.
4.5.3 Hyperbolic functions
4.5.3.1 The cosh function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double cosh(double x);
Description
The cosh function computes the hyperbolic cosine of x. A range
error occurs if the magnitude of x is too large.
Returns
The cosh function returns the hyperbolic cosine value.
4.5.3.2 The sinh function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double sinh(double x);
Description
The sinh function computes the hyperbolic sine of x . A range error occurs if the magnitude of x is too large.
Returns
The sinh function returns the hyperbolic sine value.
4.5.3.3 The tanh function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double tanh(double x);
Description
The tanh function computes the hyperbolic tangent of x .
Returns
The tanh function returns the hyperbolic tangent value.
4.5.4 Exponential and logarithmic functions
4.5.4.1 The exp function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double exp(double x);
Description
The exp function computes the exponential function of x . A range
error occurs if the magnitude of x is too large.
Returns
The exp function returns the exponential value.
4.5.4.2 The frexp function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double frexp(double value, int *exp);
Description
The frexp function breaks a floating-point number into a normalized
fraction and an integral power of 2. It stores the integer in the int
object pointed to by exp .
Returns
The frexp function returns the value x , such that x is a double
with magnitude in the interval [1/2, 1) or zero, and value equals x
times 2 raised to the power *exp . If value is zero, both parts of
the result are zero.
4.5.4.3 The ldexp function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double ldexp(double x, int exp);
Description
The ldexp function multiplies a floating-point number by an
integral power of 2. A range error may occur.
Returns
The ldexp function returns the value of x times 2 raised to the
power exp .
4.5.4.4 The log function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double log(double x);
Description
The log function computes the natural logarithm of x. A domain
error occurs if the argument is negative. A range error occurs if the
argument is zero and the logarithm of zero cannot be represented.
Returns
The log function returns the natural logarithm.
4.5.4.5 The log10 function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double log10(double x);
Description
The log10 function computes the base-ten logarithm of x . A domain
error occurs if the argument is negative. A range error occurs if the
argument is zero and the logarithm of zero cannot be represented.
Returns
The log10 function returns the base-ten logarithm.
4.5.4.6 The modf function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double modf(double value, double *iptr);
Description
The modf function breaks the argument value into integral and
fractional parts, each of which has the same sign as the argument. It
stores the integral part as a double in the object pointed to by iptr.
Returns
The modf function returns the signed fractional part of value .
4.5.5 Power functions
4.5.5.1 The pow function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double pow(double x, double y);
Description
The pow function computes x raised to the power y . A domain error
occurs if x is negative and y is not an integer. A domain error
occurs if the result cannot be represented when x is zero and y is
less than or equal to zero. A range error may occur.
Returns
The pow function returns the value of x raised to the power y .
4.5.5.2 The sqrt function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double sqrt(double x);
Description
The sqrt function computes the nonnegative square root of x . A
domain error occurs if the argument is negative.
Returns
The sqrt function returns the value of the square root.
4.5.6 Nearest integer, absolute value, and remainder functions
4.5.6.1 The ceil function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double ceil(double x);
Description
The ceil function computes the smallest integral value not less than x .
Returns
The ceil function returns the smallest integral value not less than
x , expressed as a double.
4.5.6.2 The fabs function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double fabs(double x);
Description
The fabs function computes the absolute value of a floating-point
number x .
Returns
The fabs function returns the absolute value of x.
4.5.6.3 The floor function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double floor(double x);
Description
The floor function computes the largest integral value not greater
than x .
Returns
The floor function returns the largest integral value not greater
than x , expressed as a double.
4.5.6.4 The fmod function
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double fmod(double x, double y);
Description
The fmod function computes the floating-point remainder of x/y .
Returns
The fmod function returns the value x i y , for some integer i such
that, if y is nonzero, the result has the same sign as x and magnitude
less than the magnitude of y . If y is zero, whether a domain error
occurs or the fmod function returns zero is implementation-defined.
4.6 NON-LOCAL JUMPS <setjmp.h>
The header <setjmp.h> defines the macro setjmp , and declares one
function and one type, for bypassing the normal function call and
return discipline./95/
The type declared is
jmp_buf
which is an array type suitable for holding the information needed to
restore a calling environment.
It is unspecified whether setjmp is a macro or an identifier
declared with external linkage. If a macro definition is suppressed
in order to access an actual function, or a program defines an
external identifier with the name setjmp , the behavior is undefined.
4.6.1 Save calling environment
4.6.1.1 The setjmp macro
Synopsis
#include <setjmp.h>
int setjmp(jmp_buf env);
Description
The setjmp macro saves its calling environment in its jmp_buf
argument for later use by the longjmp function.
Returns
If the return is from a direct invocation, the setjmp macro returns
the value zero. If the return is from a call to the longjmp function,
the setjmp macro returns a nonzero value.
"Environmental constraint"
An invocation of the setjmp macro shall appear only in one of the
following contexts:
* the entire controlling expression of a selection or iteration statement;
* one operand of a relational or equality operator with the other
operand an integral constant expression, with the resulting expression
being the entire controlling expression of a selection or iteration
statement;
* the operand of a unary ! operator with the resulting expression
being the entire controlling expression of a selection or iteration
statement; or
* the entire expression of an expression statement (possibly cast to void).
4.6.2 Restore calling environment
4.6.2.1 The longjmp function
Synopsis
#include <setjmp.h>
void longjmp(jmp_buf env, int val);
Description
The longjmp function restores the environment saved by the most
recent invocation of the setjmp macro in the same invocation of the
program, with the corresponding jmp_buf argument. If there has been
no such invocation, or if the function containing the invocation of
the setjmp macro has terminated execution/96/ in the interim, the
behavior is undefined.
All accessible objects have values as of the time longjmp was
called, except that the values of objects of automatic storage
duration that do not have volatile type and have been changed between
the setjmp invocation and longjmp call are indeterminate.
As it bypasses the usual function call and return mechanisms, the
longjmp function shall execute correctly in contexts of interrupts,
signals and any of their associated functions. However, if the
longjmp function is invoked from a nested signal handler (that is,
from a function invoked as a result of a signal raised during the
handling of another signal), the behavior is undefined.
Returns
After longjmp is completed, program execution continues as if the
corresponding invocation of the setjmp macro had just returned the
value specified by val . The longjmp function cannot cause the setjmp
macro to return the value 0; if val is 0, the setjmp macro returns the
value 1.
4.7 SIGNAL HANDLING <signal.h>
The header <signal.h> declares a type and two functions and defines
several macros, for handling various signals (conditions that may be
reported during program execution).
The type defined is
sig_atomic_t
which is the integral type of an object that can be accessed as an
atomic entity, even in the presence of asynchronous interrupts.
The macros defined are
SIG_DFL
SIG_ERR
SIG_IGN
which expand to distinct constant expressions that have type
compatible with the second argument to and the return value of the
signal function, and whose value compares unequal to the address of
any declarable function; and the following, each of which expands to a
positive integral constant expression that is the signal number
corresponding to the specified condition:
SIGABRT abnormal termination, such as is initiated by the abort function
SIGFPE an erroneous arithmetic operation, such as zero divide or an
operation resulting in overflow
SIGILL detection of an invalid function image, such as an illegal
instruction
SIGINT receipt of an interactive attention signal
SIGSEGV an invalid access to storage
SIGTERM a termination request sent to the program
An implementation need not generate any of these signals, except as
a result of explicit calls to the raise function. Additional signals
and pointers to undeclarable functions, with macro definitions
beginning, respectively, with the letters SIG and an upper-case letter
or with SIG_ and an upper-case letter,/97/ may also be specified by
the implementation. The complete set of signals, their semantics, and
their default handling is implementation-defined; all signal values
shall be positive.
4.7.1 Specify signal handling
4.7.1.1 The signal function
Synopsis
#include <signal.h>
void (*signal(int sig, void (*func)(int)))(int);
Description
The signal function chooses one of three ways in which receipt of
the signal number sig is to be subsequently handled. If the value of
func is SIG_DFL , default handling for that signal will occur. If the
value of func is SIG_IGN , the signal will be ignored. Otherwise,
func shall point to a function to be called when that signal occurs.
Such a function is called a signal handler .
When a signal occurs, if func points to a function, first the
equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is executed or an
implementation-defined blocking of the signal is performed. (If the
value of sig is SIGILL, whether the reset to SIG_DFL occurs is
implementation-defined.) Next the equivalent of (*func)(sig); is
executed. The function func may terminate by executing a return
statement or by calling the abort , exit , or longjmp function. If
func executes a return statement and the value of sig was SIGFPE or
any other implementation-defined value corresponding to a
computational exception, the behavior is undefined. Otherwise, the
program will resume execution at the point it was interrupted.
If the signal occurs other than as the result of calling the abort
or raise function, the behavior is undefined if the signal handler
calls any function in the standard library other than the signal
function itself or refers to any object with static storage duration
other than by assigning a value to a static storage duration variable
of type volatile sig_atomic_t . Furthermore, if such a call to the
signal function results in a SIG_ERR return, the value of errno is
indeterminate.
At program startup, the equivalent of
signal(sig, SIG_IGN);
may be executed for some signals selected in an implementation-defined
manner; the equivalent of
signal(sig, SIG_DFL);
is executed for all other signals defined by the implementation.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
signal function.
Returns
If the request can be honored, the signal function returns the
value of func for the most recent call to signal for the specified
signal sig . Otherwise, a value of SIG_ERR is returned and a positive
value is stored in errno .
Forward references: the abort function ($4.10.4.1).
4.7.2 Send signal
4.7.2.1 The raise function
Synopsis
#include <signal.h>
int raise(int sig);
Description
The raise function sends the signal sig to the executing program.
Returns
The raise function returns zero if successful, nonzero if unsuccessful.
4.8 VARIABLE ARGUMENTS <stdarg.h>
The header <stdarg.h> declares a type and defines three macros, for
advancing through a list of arguments whose number and types are not
known to the called function when it is translated.
A function may be called with a variable number of arguments of
varying types. As described in $3.7.1, its parameter list contains
one or more parameters. The rightmost parameter plays a special role
in the access mechanism, and will be designated parmN in this
description.
The type declared is
va_list
which is a type suitable for holding information needed by the macros
va_start , va_arg , and va_end . If access to the varying arguments
is desired, the called function shall declare an object (referred to
as ap in this section) having type va_list . The object ap may be
passed as an argument to another function; if that function invokes
the va_arg macro with parameter ap , the value of ap in the calling
function is indeterminate and shall be passed to the va_end macro
prior to any further reference to ap .
4.8.1 Variable argument list access macros
The va_start and va_arg macros described in this section shall be
implemented as macros, not as actual functions. It is unspecified
whether va_end is a macro or an identifier declared with external
linkage. If a macro definition is suppressed in order to access an
actual function, or a program defines an external identifier with the
name va_end , the behavior is undefined. The va_start and va_end
macros shall be invoked in the function accepting a varying number of
arguments, if access to the varying arguments is desired.
4.8.1.1 The va_start macro
Synopsis
#include <stdarg.h>
void va_start(va_list ap, parmN);
Description
The va_start macro shall be invoked before any access to the
unnamed arguments.
The va_start macro initializes ap for subsequent use by va_arg and
va_end .
The parameter parmN is the identifier of the rightmost parameter in
the variable parameter list in the function definition (the one just
before the , ... ). If the parameter parmN is declared with the
register storage class, with a function or array type, or with a type
that is not compatible with the type that results after application of
the default argument promotions, the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The va_start macro returns no value.
4.8.1.2 The va_arg macro
Synopsis
#include <stdarg.h>
type va_arg(va_list ap, type);
Description
The va_arg macro expands to an expression that has the type and
value of the next argument in the call. The parameter ap shall be the
same as the va_list ap initialized by va_start . Each invocation of
va_arg modifies ap so that the values of successive arguments are
returned in turn. The parameter type is a type name specified such
that the type of a pointer to an object that has the specified type
can be obtained simply by postfixing a * to type . If there is no
actual next argument, or if type is not compatible with the type of
the actual next argument (as promoted according to the default
argument promotions), the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The first invocation of the va_arg macro after that of the va_start
macro returns the value of the argument after that specified by parmN.
Successive invocations return the values of the remaining arguments
in succession.
4.8.1.3 The va_end macro
Synopsis
#include <stdarg.h>
void va_end(va_list ap);
Description
The va_end macro facilitates a normal return from the function
whose variable argument list was referred to by the expansion of
va_start that initialized the va_list ap . The va_end macro may
modify ap so that it is no longer usable (without an intervening
invocation of va_start ). If there is no corresponding invocation of
the va_start macro, or if the va_end macro is not invoked before the
return, the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The va_end macro returns no value.
Example
The function f1 gathers into an array a list of arguments that are
pointers to strings (but not more than MAXARGS arguments), then passes
the array as a single argument to function f2 . The number of
pointers is specified by the first argument to f1 .
#include <stdarg.h>
#define MAXARGS 31
void f1(int n_ptrs, ...)
{
va_list ap;
char *array[MAXARGS];
int ptr_no = 0;
if (n_ptrs > MAXARGS)
n_ptrs = MAXARGS;
va_start(ap, n_ptrs);
while (ptr_no < n_ptrs)
array[ptr_no++] = va_arg(ap, char *);
va_end(ap);
f2(n_ptrs, array);
}
Each call to f1 shall have visible the definition of the function or a
declaration such as
void f1(int, ...);
4.9 INPUT/OUTPUT <stdio.h>
4.9.1 Introduction
The header <stdio.h> declares three types, several macros, and many
functions for performing input and output.
The types declared are size_t (described in $4.1.5);
FILE
which is an object type capable of recording all the information
needed to control a stream, including its file position indicator, a
pointer to its associated buffer, an error indicator that records
whether a read/write error has occurred, and an end-of-file indicator
that records whether the end of the file has been reached; and
fpos_t
which is an object type capable of recording all the information
needed to specify uniquely every position within a file.
The macros are NULL (described in $4.1.5);
_IOFBF
_IOLBF
_IONBF
which expand to distinct integral constant expressions, suitable for
use as the third argument to the setvbuf function;
BUFSIZ
which expands to an integral constant expression, which is the size of
the buffer used by the setbuf function;
EOF
which expands to a negative integral constant expression that is
returned by several functions to indicate end-of-file ,that is, no
more input from a stream;
FOPEN_MAX
which expands to an integral constant expression that is the minimum
number of files that the implementation guarantees can be open
simultaneously;
FILENAME_MAX
which expands to an integral constant expression that is the maximum
length for a file name string that the implementation guarantees can
be opened;/98/
L_tmpnam
which expands to an integral constant expression that is the size of
an array of char large enough to hold a temporary file name string
generated by the tmpnam function;
SEEK_CUR
SEEK_END
SEEK_SET
which expand to distinct integral constant expressions, suitable for
use as the third argument to the fseek function;
TMP_MAX
which expands to an integral constant expression that is the minimum
number of unique file names that shall be generated by the tmpnam
function;
stderr
stdin
stdout
which are expressions of type ``pointer to FILE '' that point to the
FILE objects associated, respectively, with the standard error, input,
and output streams.
Forward references: files ($4.9.3), the fseek function ($4.9.9.2),
streams ($4.9.2), the tmpnam function ($4.9.4.4).
4.9.2 Streams
Input and output, whether to or from physical devices such as
terminals and tape drives, or whether to or from files supported on
structured storage devices, are mapped into logical data streams
,whose properties are more uniform than their various inputs and
outputs. Two forms of mapping are supported, for text streams and for
binary streams ./99/
A text stream is an ordered sequence of characters composed into
lines , each line consisting of zero or more characters plus a
terminating new-line character. Whether the last line requires a
terminating new-line character is implementation-defined. Characters
may have to be added, altered, or deleted on input and output to
conform to differing conventions for representing text in the host
environment. Thus, there need not be a one-to-one correspondence
between the characters in a stream and those in the external
representation. Data read in from a text stream will necessarily
compare equal to the data that were earlier written out to that stream
only if: the data consist only of printable characters and the control
characters horizontal tab and new-line; no new-line character is
immediately preceded by space characters; and the last character is a
new-line character. Whether space characters that are written out
immediately before a new-line character appear when read in is
implementation-defined.
A binary stream is an ordered sequence of characters that can
transparently record internal data. Data read in from a binary stream
shall compare equal to the data that were earlier written out to that
stream, under the same implementation. Such a stream may, however,
have an implementation-defined number of null characters appended.
"Environmental limits"
An implementation shall support text files with lines containing at
least 254 characters, including the terminating new-line character.
The value of the macro BUFSIZ shall be at least 256.
4.9.3 Files
A stream is associated with an external file (which may be a
physical device) by opening a file, which may involve creating a new
file. Creating an existing file causes its former contents to be
discarded, if necessary, so that it appears as if newly created. If a
file can support positioning requests (such as a disk file, as opposed
to a terminal), then a file position indicator /100/ associated with
the stream is positioned at the start (character number zero) of the
file, unless the file is opened with append mode in which case it is
implementation-defined whether the file position indicator is
positioned at the beginning or the end of the file. The file position
indicator is maintained by subsequent reads, writes, and positioning
requests, to facilitate an orderly progression through the file. All
input takes place as if characters were read by successive calls to the
fgetc function; all output takes place as if characters were written by
successive calls to the fputc function.
Binary files are not truncated, except as defined in $4.9.5.3.
Whether a write on a text stream causes the associated file to be
truncated beyond that point is implementation-defined.
When a stream is unbuffered, characters are intended to appear
from the source or at the destination as soon as possible. Otherwise
characters may be accumulated and transmitted to or from the host
environment as a block. When a stream is fully buffered, characters
are intended to be transmitted to or from the host environment as a
block when a buffer is filled. When a stream is line buffered,
characters are intended to be transmitted to or from the host
environment as a block when a new-line character is encountered.
Furthermore, characters are intended to be transmitted as a block to
the host environment when a buffer is filled, when input is requested
on an unbuffered stream, or when input is requested on a line buffered
stream that requires the transmission of characters from the host
environment. Support for these characteristics is
implementation-defined, and may be affected via the setbuf and setvbuf
functions.
A file may be disassociated from its controlling stream by closing
the file. Output streams are flushed (any unwritten buffer contents
are transmitted to the host environment) before the stream is
disassociated from the file. The value of a pointer to a FILE object
is indeterminate after the associated file is closed (including the
standard text streams). Whether a file of zero length (on which no
characters have been written by an output stream) actually exists is
implementation-defined.
The file may be subsequently reopened, by the same or another
program execution, and its contents reclaimed or modified (if it can
be repositioned at its start). If the main function returns to its
original caller, or if the exit function is called, all open files are
closed (hence all output streams are flushed) before program
termination. Other paths to program termination, such as calling the
abort function, need not close all files properly.
The address of the FILE object used to control a stream may be
significant; a copy of a FILE object may not necessarily serve in
place of the original.
At program startup, three text streams are predefined and need not
be opened explicitly --- standard input (for reading conventional
input), standard output (for writing conventional output), and
standard error (for writing diagnostic output). When opened, the
standard error stream is not fully buffered; the standard input and
standard output streams are fully buffered if and only if the stream
can be determined not to refer to an interactive device.
Functions that open additional (nontemporary) files require a file
name, which is a string. The rules for composing valid file names are
implementation-defined. Whether the same file can be simultaneously
open multiple times is also implementation-defined.
"Environmental limits"
The value of the macro FOPEN_MAX shall be at least eight, including
the three standard text streams.
Forward references: the exit function ($4.10.4.3), the fgetc function
($4.9.7.1), the fopen function ($4.9.5.3), the fputc function
($4.9.7.3), the setbuf function ($4.9.5.5), the setvbuf function
($4.9.5.6).
4.9.4 Operations on files
4.9.4.1 The remove function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int remove(const char *filename);
Description
The remove function causes the file whose name is the string
pointed to by filename to be no longer accessible by that name. A
subsequent attempt to open that file using that name will fail, unless
it is created anew. If the file is open, the behavior of the remove
function is implementation-defined.
Returns
The remove function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzero
if it fails.
4.9.4.2 The rename function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int rename(const char *old, const char *new);
Description
The rename function causes the file whose name is the string
pointed to by old to be henceforth known by the name given by the
string pointed to by new . The file named old is effectively removed.
If a file named by the string pointed to by new exists prior to the
call to the rename function, the behavior is implementation-defined.
Returns
The rename function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzero
if it fails,/101/ in which case if the file existed previously it is
still known by its original name.
4.9.4.3 The tmpfile function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *tmpfile(void);
Description
The tmpfile function creates a temporary binary file that will
automatically be removed when it is closed or at program termination.
If the program terminates abnormally, whether an open temporary file
is removed is implementation-defined. The file is opened for update
with wb+ mode.
Returns
The tmpfile function returns a pointer to the stream of the file
that it created. If the file cannot be created, the tmpfile function
returns a null pointer.
Forward references: the fopen function ($4.9.5.3).
4.9.4.4 The tmpnam function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
char *tmpnam(char *s);
Description
The tmpnam function generates a string that is a valid file name
and that is not the same as the name of an existing file./102/
The tmpnam function generates a different string each time it is
called, up to TMP_MAX times. If it is called more than TMP_MAX times,
the behavior is implementation-defined.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
tmpnam function.
Returns
If the argument is a null pointer, the tmpnam function leaves its
result in an internal static object and returns a pointer to that
object. Subsequent calls to the tmpnam function may modify the same
object. If the argument is not a null pointer, it is assumed to point
to an array of at least L_tmpnam char s; the tmpnam function writes
its result in that array and returns the argument as its value.
"Environmental limits"
The value of the macro TMP_MAX shall be at least 25.
4.9.5 File access functions
4.9.5.1 The fclose function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fclose(FILE *stream);
Description
The fclose function causes the stream pointed to by stream to be
flushed and the associated file to be closed. Any unwritten buffered
data for the stream are delivered to the host environment to be
written to the file; any unread buffered data are discarded. The
stream is disassociated from the file. If the associated buffer was
automatically allocated, it is deallocated.
Returns
The fclose function returns zero if the stream was successfully
closed, or EOF if any errors were detected.
4.9.5.2 The fflush function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fflush(FILE *stream);
Description
If stream points to an output stream or an update stream in which
the most recent operation was output, the fflush function causes any
unwritten data for that stream to be delivered to the host environment
to be written to the file; otherwise, the behavior is undefined.
If stream is a null pointer, the fflush function performs this
flushing action on all streams for which the behavior is defined
above.
Returns
The fflush function returns EOF if a write error occurs, otherwise zero.
Forward references: the ungetc function ($4.9.7.11).
4.9.5.3 The fopen function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
Description
The fopen function opens the file whose name is the string pointed
to by filename , and associates a stream with it.
The argument mode points to a string beginning with one of the
following sequences:/103/
"r" open text file for reading
"w" truncate to zero length or create text file for writing
"a" append; open or create text file for writing at end-of-file
"rb" open binary file for reading
"wb" truncate to zero length or create binary file for writing
"ab" append; open or create binary file for writing at end-of-file
"r+" open text file for update (reading and writing)
"w+" truncate to zero length or create text file for update
"a+" append; open or create text file for update, writing at
end-of-file
"r+b" or "rb+" open binary file for update (reading and writing)
"w+b" or "wb+" truncate to zero length or create binary file for update
"a+b" or "ab+" append; open or create binary file for update, writing at
end-of-file
Opening a file with read mode ('r' as the first character in the
mode argument) fails if the file does not exist or cannot be read.
Opening a file with append mode ('a' as the first character in the
mode argument) causes all subsequent writes to the file to be forced
to the then current end-of-file, regardless of intervening calls to
the fseek function. In some implementations, opening a binary file
with append mode ('b' as the second or third character in the mode
argument) may initially position the file position indicator for the
stream beyond the last data written, because of null character
padding.
When a file is opened with update mode ('+' as the second or third
character in the mode argument), both input and output may be
performed on the associated stream. However, output may not be
directly followed by input without an intervening call to the fflush
function or to a file positioning function ( fseek , fsetpos , or
rewind ), and input may not be directly followed by output without an
intervening call to a file positioning function, unless the input
operation encounters end-of-file. Opening a file with update mode may
open or create a binary stream in some implementations.
When opened, a stream is fully buffered if and only if it can be
determined not to refer to an interactive device. The error and
end-of-file indicators for the stream are cleared.
Returns
The fopen function returns a pointer to the object controlling the
stream. If the open operation fails, fopen returns a null pointer.
Forward references: file positioning functions ($4.9.9).
4.9.5.4 The freopen function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode,
FILE *stream);
Description
The freopen function opens the file whose name is the string
pointed to by filename and associates the stream pointed to by stream
with it. The mode argument is used just as in the fopen
function./104/
The freopen function first attempts to close any file that is
associated with the specified stream. Failure to close the file
successfully is ignored. The error and end-of-file indicators for the
stream are cleared.
Returns
The freopen function returns a null pointer if the open operation
fails. Otherwise, freopen returns the value of stream .
4.9.5.5 The setbuf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf);
Description
Except that it returns no value, the setbuf function is equivalent
to the setvbuf function invoked with the values _IOFBF for mode and
BUFSIZ for size , or (if buf is a null pointer), with the value _IONBF
for mode .
Returns
The setbuf function returns no value.
Forward references: the setvbuf function ($4.9.5.6).
4.9.5.6 The setvbuf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size);
Description
The setvbuf function may be used after the stream pointed to by
stream has been associated with an open file but before any other
operation is performed on the stream. The argument mode determines
how stream will be buffered, as follows: _IOFBF causes input/output to
be fully buffered; _IOLBF causes output to be line buffered; _IONBF
causes input/output to be unbuffered. If buf is not a null pointer,
the array it points to may be used instead of a buffer allocated by
the setvbuf function./105/ The argument size specifies the size of the
array. The contents of the array at any time are indeterminate.
Returns
The setvbuf function returns zero on success, or nonzero if an
invalid value is given for mode or if the request cannot be honored.
4.9.6 Formatted input/output functions
4.9.6.1 The fprintf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);
Description
The fprintf function writes output to the stream pointed to by
stream , under control of the string pointed to by format that
specifies how subsequent arguments are converted for output. If there
are insufficient arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined.
If the format is exhausted while arguments remain, the excess
arguments are evaluated (as always) but are otherwise ignored. The
fprintf function returns when the end of the format string is
encountered.
The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and
ending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero or
more directives: ordinary multibyte characters (not % ), which are
copied unchanged to the output stream; and conversion specifications,
each of which results in fetching zero or more subsequent arguments.
Each conversion specification is introduced by the character % .
After the % , the following appear in sequence:
* Zero or more flags that modify the meaning of the conversion
specification.
* An optional decimal integer specifying a minimum field width ./106/
If the converted value has fewer characters than the field width, it
will be padded with spaces on the left (or right, if the left
adjustment flag, described later, has been given) to the field width.
* An optional precision that gives the minimum number of digits to
appear for the d , i , o , u , x , and X conversions, the number of
digits to appear after the decimal-point character for e , E , and f
conversions, the maximum number of significant digits for the g and G
conversions, or the maximum number of characters to be written from a
string in s conversion. The precision takes the form of a period (.)
followed by an optional decimal integer; if the integer is
omitted, it is treated as zero.
* An optional h specifying that a following d , i , o , u , x , or X
conversion specifier applies to a short int or unsigned short int
argument (the argument will have been promoted according to the
integral promotions, and its value shall be converted to short int or
unsigned short int before printing); an optional h specifying that a
following n conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a short int
argument; an optional l (ell) specifying that a following d , i , o ,
u , x , or X conversion specifier applies to a long int or unsigned
long int argument; an optional l specifying that a following n
conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a long int argument; or
an optional L specifying that a following e , E , f , g , or G
conversion specifier applies to a long double argument. If an h , l ,
or L appears with any other conversion specifier, the behavior is
undefined.
* A character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied.
A field width or precision, or both, may be indicated by an
asterisk * instead of a digit string. In this case, an int argument
supplies the field width or precision. The arguments specifying field
width or precision, or both, shall appear (in that order) before the
argument (if any) to be converted. A negative field width argument is
taken as a - flag followed by a positive field width. A negative
precision argument is taken as if it were missing.
The flag characters and their meanings are
- The result of the conversion will be left-justified within the field.
+ The result of a signed conversion will always begin with a plus or
minus sign.
space If the first character of a signed conversion is not a sign,
or if a signed conversion results in no characters, a space will be
prepended to the result. If the space and + flags both appear, the
space flag will be ignored.
# The result is to be converted to an ``alternate form.'' For
o conversion, it increases the precision to force the first digit of
the result to be a zero. For x (or X ) conversion, a nonzero result
will have 0x (or 0X ) prepended to it. For e , E , f , g , and G
conversions, the result will always contain a decimal-point character,
even if no digits follow it (normally, a decimal-point character
appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows
it). For g and G conversions, trailing zeros will not be removed from
the result. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined.
0 For d, i, o, u, x, X, e, E, f, g and G conversions, leading zeros
(following any indication of sign or base) are used to pad to the
field width; no space padding is performed. If the 0 and - flags
both appear, the 0 flag will be ignored. For d, i, o, u, x and X
conversions, if a precision is specified, the 0 flag will be
ignored. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined.
The conversion specifiers and their meanings are
d, i, o, u, x, X The int argument is converted to signed decimal ( d
or i ), unsigned octal ( o ), unsigned decimal ( u ), or unsigned
hexadecimal notation ( x or X ); the letters abcdef are used for x
conversion and the letters ABCDEF for X conversion. The precision
specifies the minimum number of digits to appear; if the value being
converted can be represented in fewer digits, it will be expanded with
leading zeros. The default precision is 1. The result of converting
a zero value with an explicit precision of zero is no characters.
f The double argument is converted to decimal notation in the style
[-]ddd.ddd , where the number of digits after the decimal-point
character is equal to the precision specification. If the precision
is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is explicitly zero, no
decimal-point character appears. If a decimal-point character
appears, at least one digit appears before it. The value is rounded
to the appropriate number of digits.
e, E The double argument is converted in the style [-]d.ddde+- dd ,
where there is one digit before the decimal-point character (which is
nonzero if the argument is nonzero) and the number of digits after it
is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing, it is taken as
6; if the precision is zero, no decimal-point character appears. The
value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits. The E
conversion specifier will produce a number with E instead of e
introducing the exponent. The exponent always contains at least two
digits. If the value is zero, the exponent is zero.
g, G The double argument is converted in style f or e (or in style E
in the case of a G conversion specifier), with the precision
specifying the number of significant digits. If an explicit precision
is zero, it is taken as 1. The style used depends on the value
converted; style e will be used only if the exponent resulting from
such a conversion is less than -4 or greater than or equal to the
precision. Trailing zeros are removed from the fractional portion of
the result; a decimal-point character appears only if it is followed
by a digit.
c The int argument is converted to an unsigned char , and the resulting
character is written.
s The argument shall be a pointer to an array of character type./107/
Characters from the array are written up to (but not including) a
terminating null character; if the precision is specified, no more
than that many characters are written. If the precision is not
specified or is greater than the size of the array, the array shall
contain a null character.
p The argument shall be a pointer to void . The value of the pointer
is converted to a sequence of printable characters, in an
implementation-defined manner.
n The argument shall be a pointer to an integer into which is written
the number of characters written to the output stream so far by this
call to fprintf . No argument is converted.
% A % is written. No argument is converted. The complete conversion
specification shall be %% .
If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior is
undefined./108/
If any argument is, or points to, a union or an aggregate (except
for an array of character type using %s conversion, or a pointer cast
to be a pointer to void using %p conversion), the behavior is
undefined.
In no case does a nonexistent or small field width cause truncation
of a field; if the result of a conversion is wider than the field
width, the field is expanded to contain the conversion result.
Returns
The fprintf function returns the number of characters transmitted,
or a negative value if an output error occurred.
"Environmental limit"
The minimum value for the maximum number of characters produced by
any single conversion shall be 509.
Examples
To print a date and time in the form ``Sunday, July 3, 10:02,''
where weekday and month are pointers to strings:
#include <stdio.h>
fprintf(stdout, "%s, %s %d, %.2d:%.2d\n",
weekday, month, day, hour, min);
To print PI to five decimal places:
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
fprintf(stdout, "pi = %.5f\n", 4 * atan(1.0));
4.9.6.2 The fscanf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);
Description
The fscanf function reads input from the stream pointed to by
stream , under control of the string pointed to by format that
specifies the admissible input sequences and how they are to be
converted for assignment, using subsequent arguments as pointers to
the objects to receive the converted input. If there are insufficient
arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined. If the format is
exhausted while arguments remain, the excess arguments are evaluated
(as always) but are otherwise ignored.
The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and
ending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero or
more directives: one or more white-space characters; an ordinary
multibyte character (not % ); or a conversion specification. Each
conversion specification is introduced by the character % . After the %,
the following appear in sequence:
* An optional assignment-suppressing character * .
* An optional decimal integer that specifies the maximum field width.
* An optional h , l (ell) or L indicating the size of the receiving
object. The conversion specifiers d , i , and n shall be preceded by
h if the corresponding argument is a pointer to short int rather than
a pointer to int , or by l if it is a pointer to long int .
Similarly, the conversion specifiers o , u , and x shall be preceded
by h if the corresponding argument is a pointer to unsigned short int
rather than a pointer to unsigned int , or by l if it is a pointer to
unsigned long int . Finally, the conversion specifiers e , f , and g
shall be preceded by l if the corresponding argument is a pointer to
double rather than a pointer to float , or by L if it is a pointer to
long double . If an h , l , or L appears with any other conversion
specifier, the behavior is undefined.
* A character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied.
The valid conversion specifiers are described below.
The fscanf function executes each directive of the format in turn.
If a directive fails, as detailed below, the fscanf function returns.
Failures are described as input failures (due to the unavailability of
input characters), or matching failures (due to inappropriate input).
A directive composed of white space is executed by reading input up
to the first non-white-space character (which remains unread), or
until no more characters can be read.
A directive that is an ordinary multibyte character is executed by
reading the next characters of the stream. If one of the characters
differs from one comprising the directive, the directive fails, and
the differing and subsequent characters remain unread.
A directive that is a conversion specification defines a set of
matching input sequences, as described below for each specifier. A
conversion specification is executed in the following steps:
Input white-space characters (as specified by the isspace function)
are skipped, unless the specification includes a [ , c , or n
specifier.
An input item is read from the stream, unless the specification
includes an n specifier. An input item is defined as the longest
sequence of input characters (up to any specified maximum field width)
which is an initial subsequence of a matching sequence. The first
character, if any, after the input item remains unread. If the length
of the input item is zero, the execution of the directive fails: this
condition is a matching failure, unless an error prevented input from
the stream, in which case it is an input failure.
Except in the case of a % specifier, the input item (or, in the
case of a %n directive, the count of input characters) is converted to
a type appropriate to the conversion specifier. If the input item is
not a matching sequence, the execution of the directive fails: this
condition is a matching failure. Unless assignment suppression was
indicated by a * , the result of the conversion is placed in the
object pointed to by the first argument following the format argument
that has not already received a conversion result. If this object
does not have an appropriate type, or if the result of the conversion
cannot be represented in the space provided, the behavior is
undefined.
The following conversion specifiers are valid:
d Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the
same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtol function with
the value 10 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall
be a pointer to integer.
i Matches an optionally signed integer, whose format is the same as
expected for the subject sequence of the strtol function with the
value 0 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a
pointer to integer.
o Matches an optionally signed octal integer, whose format is the same
as expected for the subject sequence of the strtoul function with the
value 8 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a
pointer to unsigned integer.
u Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same
as expected for the subject sequence of the strtoul function with the
value 10 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a
pointer to unsigned integer.
x Matches an optionally signed hexadecimal integer, whose format is the
same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtoul function with
the value 16 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall
be a pointer to unsigned integer.
e,f,g Matches an optionally signed floating-point number, whose format is
the same as expected for the subject string of the strtod function.
The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to floating.
s Matches a sequence of non-white-space characters. The corresponding
argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large
enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which
will be added automatically.
[ Matches a nonempty sequence of characters from a set of expected
characters (the scanset ). The corresponding argument shall be a
pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept
the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added
automatically. The conversion specifier includes all subsequent
characters in the format string, up to and including the matching
right bracket ( ] ). The characters between the brackets (the
scanlist ) comprise the scanset, unless the character after the left
bracket is a circumflex ( ^ ), in which case the scanset contains all
characters that do not appear in the scanlist between the circumflex
and the right bracket. As a special case, if the conversion specifier
begins with [] or [^] , the right bracket character is in the scanlist
and the next right bracket character is the matching right bracket
that ends the specification. If a - character is in the scanlist and
is not the first, nor the second where the first character is a ^ ,
nor the last character, the behavior is implementation-defined.
c Matches a sequence of characters of the number specified by the
field width (1 if no field width is present in the directive). The
corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of
an array large enough to accept the sequence. No null character is
added.
p Matches an implementation-defined set of sequences, which should be
the same as the set of sequences that may be produced by the %p
conversion of the fprintf function. The corresponding argument shall
be a pointer to a pointer to void . The interpretation of the input
item is implementation-defined; however, for any input item other than
a value converted earlier during the same program execution, the
behavior of the %p conversion is undefined.
n No input is consumed. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer
to integer into which is to be written the number of characters read
from the input stream so far by this call to the fscanf function.
Execution of a %n directive does not increment the assignment count
returned at the completion of execution of the fscanf function.
% Matches a single % ; no conversion or assignment occurs. The complete
conversion specification shall be %% .
If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior is
undefined./110/
The conversion specifiers E , G , and X are also valid and behave
the same as, respectively, e , g , and x .
If end-of-file is encountered during input, conversion is
terminated. If end-of-file occurs before any characters matching the
current directive have been read (other than leading white space,
where permitted), execution of the current directive terminates with
an input failure; otherwise, unless execution of the current directive
is terminated with a matching failure, execution of the following
directive (if any) is terminated with an input failure.
If conversion terminates on a conflicting input character, the
offending input character is left unread in the input stream.
Trailing white space (including new-line characters) is left unread
unless matched by a directive. The success of literal matches and
suppressed assignments is not directly determinable other than via the
%n directive.
Returns
The fscanf function returns the value of the macro EOF if an input
failure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the fscanf function
returns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer than
provided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure.
Examples
The call:
#include <stdio.h>
int n, i; float x; char name[50];
n = fscanf(stdin, "%d%f%s", &i, &x, name);
with the input line:
25 54.32E-1 thompson
will assign to n the value 3, to i the value 25, to x the value 5.432,
and name will contain thompson\0 . Or:
#include <stdio.h>
int i; float x; char name[50];
fscanf(stdin, "%2d%f%*d %[0123456789]", &i, &x, name);
with input:
56789 0123 56a72
will assign to i the value 56 and to x the value 789.0, will skip
0123, and name will contain 56\0 . The next character read from the
input stream will be a .
To accept repeatedly from stdin a quantity, a unit of measure and
an item name:
#include <stdio.h>
int count; float quant; char units[21], item[21];
while (!feof(stdin) && !ferror(stdin)) {
count = fscanf(stdin, "%f%20s of %20s",
&quant, units, item);
fscanf(stdin,"%*[^\n]");
}
If the stdin stream contains the following lines:
2 quarts of oil
-12.8degrees Celsius
lots of luck
10.0LBS of fertilizer
100ergs of energy
the execution of the above example will be equivalent to the following
assignments:
quant = 2; strcpy(units, "quarts"); strcpy(item, "oil");
count = 3;
quant = -12.8; strcpy(units, "degrees");
count = 2; /* "C" fails to match "o" */
count = 0; /* "l" fails to match "%f" */
quant = 10.0; strcpy(units, "LBS"); strcpy(item, "fertilizer");
count = 3;
count = 0; /* "100e" fails to match "%f" */
count = EOF;
Forward references: the strtod function ($4.10.1.4), the strtol
function ($4.10.1.5), the strtoul function ($4.10.1.6).
4.9.6.3 The printf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int printf(const char *format, ...);
Description
The printf function is equivalent to fprintf with the argument
stdout interposed before the arguments to printf .
Returns
The printf function returns the number of characters transmitted,
or a negative value if an output error occurred.
4.9.6.4 The scanf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int scanf(const char *format, ...);
Description
The scanf function is equivalent to fscanf with the argument stdin
interposed before the arguments to scanf .
Returns
The scanf function returns the value of the macro EOF if an input
failure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the scanf function
returns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer than
provided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure.
4.9.6.5 The sprintf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int sprintf(char *s, const char *format, ...);
Description
The sprintf function is equivalent to fprintf , except that the
argument s specifies an array into which the generated output is to be
written, rather than to a stream. A null character is written at the
end of the characters written; it is not counted as part of the
returned sum. If copying takes place between objects that overlap,
the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The sprintf function returns the number of characters written in
the array, not counting the terminating null character.
4.9.6.6 The sscanf function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int sscanf(const char *s, const char *format, ...);
Description
The sscanf function is equivalent to fscanf , except that the
argument s specifies a string from which the input is to be obtained,
rather than from a stream. Reaching the end of the string is
equivalent to encountering end-of-file for the fscanf function. If
copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is
undefined.
Returns
The sscanf function returns the value of the macro EOF if an input
failure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the sscanf function
returns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer than
provided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure.
4.9.6.7 The vfprintf function
Synopsis
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int vfprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, va_list arg);
Description
The vfprintf function is equivalent to fprintf , with the variable
argument list replaced by arg , which has been initialized by the
va_start macro (and possibly subsequent va_arg calls). The vfprintf
function does not invoke the va_end macro.
Returns
The vfprintf function returns the number of characters transmitted,
or a negative value if an output error occurred.
Example
The following shows the use of the vfprintf function in a general
error-reporting routine.
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void error(char *function_name, char *format, ...)
{
va_list args;
va_start(args, format);
/* print out name of function causing error */
fprintf(stderr, "ERROR in %s: ", function_name);
/* print out remainder of message */
vfprintf(stderr, format, args);
va_end(args);
}
4.9.6.8 The vprintf function
Synopsis
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int vprintf(const char *format, va_list arg);
Description
The vprintf function is equivalent to printf , with the variable
argument list replaced by arg , which has been initialized by the
va_start macro (and possibly subsequent va_arg calls). The vprintf
function does not invoke the va_end macro.rN
Returns
The vprintf function returns the number of characters transmitted,
or a negative value if an output error occurred.
4.9.6.9 The vsprintf function
Synopsis
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int vsprintf(char *s, const char *format, va_list arg);
Description
The vsprintf function is equivalent to sprintf , with the variable
argument list replaced by arg , which has been initialized by the
va_start macro (and possibly subsequent va_arg calls). The vsprintf
function does not invoke the va_end macro.rN If copying takes place
between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The vsprintf function returns the number of characters written in
the array, not counting the terminating null character.
4.9.7 Character input/output functions
4.9.7.1 The fgetc function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fgetc(FILE *stream);
Description
The fgetc function obtains the next character (if present) as an
unsigned char converted to an int , from the input stream pointed to
by stream , and advances the associated file position indicator for
the stream (if defined).
Returns
The fgetc function returns the next character from the input stream
pointed to by stream . If the stream is at end-of-file, the
end-of-file indicator for the stream is set and fgetc returns EOF .
If a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and
fgetc returns EOF ./112/
4.9.7.2 The fgets function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream);
Description
The fgets function reads at most one less than the number of
characters specified by n from the stream pointed to by stream into
the array pointed to by s . No additional characters are read after a
new-line character (which is retained) or after end-of-file. A null
character is written immediately after the last character read into
the array.
Returns
The fgets function returns s if successful. If end-of-file is
encountered and no characters have been read into the array, the
contents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned.
If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents are
indeterminate and a null pointer is returned.
4.9.7.3 The fputc function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fputc(int c, FILE *stream);
Description
The fputc function writes the character specified by c (converted
to an unsigned char ) to the output stream pointed to by stream , at
the position indicated by the associated file position indicator for
the stream (if defined), and advances the indicator appropriately. If
the file cannot support positioning requests, or if the stream was
opened with append mode, the character is appended to the output
stream.
Returns
The fputc function returns the character written. If a write error
occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and fputc returns EOF.
4.9.7.4 The fputs function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream);
Description
The fputs function writes the string pointed to by s to the stream
pointed to by stream . The terminating null character is not written.
Returns
The fputs function returns EOF if a write error occurs; otherwise
it returns a nonnegative value.
4.9.7.5 The getc function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int getc(FILE *stream);
Description
The getc function is equivalent to fgetc , except that if it is
implemented as a macro, it may evaluate stream more than once, so the
argument should never be an expression with side effects.
Returns
The getc function returns the next character from the input stream
pointed to by stream . If the stream is at end-of-file, the
end-of-file indicator for the stream is set and getc returns EOF . If
a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and
getc returns EOF .
4.9.7.6 The getchar function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int getchar(void);
Description
The getchar function is equivalent to getc with the argument stdin .
Returns
The getchar function returns the next character from the input
stream pointed to by stdin . If the stream is at end-of-file, the
end-of-file indicator for the stream is set and getchar returns EOF .
If a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and
getchar returns EOF .
4.9.7.7 The gets function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
char *gets(char *s);
Description
The gets function reads characters from the input stream pointed to
by stdin , into the array pointed to by s , until end-of-file is
encountered or a new-line character is read. Any new-line character
is discarded, and a null character is written immediately after the
last character read into the array.
Returns
The gets function returns s if successful. If end-of-file is
encountered and no characters have been read into the array, the
contents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned.
If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents are
indeterminate and a null pointer is returned.
4.9.7.8 The putc function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int putc(int c, FILE *stream);
Description
The putc function is equivalent to fputc , except that if it is
implemented as a macro, it may evaluate stream more than once, so the
argument should never be an expression with side effects.
Returns
The putc function returns the character written. If a write error
occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and putc returns EOF.
4.9.7.9 The putchar function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int putchar(int c);
Description
The putchar function is equivalent to putc with the second argument
stdout.
Returns
The putchar function returns the character written. If a write
error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and putchar
returns EOF.
4.9.7.10 The puts function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int puts(const char *s);
Description
The puts function writes the string pointed to by s to the stream
pointed to by stdout , and appends a new-line character to the output.
The terminating null character is not written.
Returns
The puts function returns EOF if a write error occurs; otherwise it
returns a nonnegative value.
4.9.7.11 The ungetc function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream);
Description
The ungetc function pushes the character specified by c (converted
to an unsigned char ) back onto the input stream pointed to by stream.
The pushed-back characters will be returned by subsequent reads on
that stream in the reverse order of their pushing. A successful
intervening call (with the stream pointed to by stream ) to a file
positioning function ( fseek , fsetpos , or rewind ) discards any
pushed-back characters for the stream. The external storage
corresponding to the stream is unchanged.
One character of pushback is guaranteed. If the ungetc function is
called too many times on the same stream without an intervening read
or file positioning operation on that stream, the operation may fail.
If the value of c equals that of the macro EOF , the operation
fails and the input stream is unchanged.
A successful call to the ungetc function clears the end-of-file
indicator for the stream. The value of the file position indicator
for the stream after reading or discarding all pushed-back characters
shall be the same as it was before the characters were pushed back.
For a text stream, the value of its file position indicator after a
successful call to the ungetc function is unspecified until all
pushed-back characters are read or discarded. For a binary stream,
its file position indicator is decremented by each successful call to
the ungetc function; if its value was zero before a call, it is
indeterminate after the call.
Returns
The ungetc function returns the character pushed back after
conversion, or EOF if the operation fails.
Forward references: file positioning functions ($4.9.9).
4.9.8 Direct input/output functions
4.9.8.1 The fread function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,
FILE *stream);
Description
The fread function reads, into the array pointed to by ptr , up to
nmemb members whose size is specified by size , from the stream
pointed to by stream . The file position indicator for the stream (if
defined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully read.
If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicator
for the stream is indeterminate. If a partial member is read, its
value is indeterminate.
Returns
The fread function returns the number of members successfully read,
which may be less than nmemb if a read error or end-of-file is
encountered. If size or nmemb is zero, fread returns zero and the
contents of the array and the state of the stream remain unchanged.
4.9.8.2 The fwrite function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,
FILE *stream);
Description
The fwrite function writes, from the array pointed to by ptr , up
to nmemb members whose size is specified by size , to the stream
pointed to by stream . The file position indicator for the stream (if
defined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully written.
If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicator
for the stream is indeterminate.
Returns
The fwrite function returns the number of members successfully
written, which will be less than nmemb only if a write error is
encountered.
4.9.9 File positioning functions
4.9.9.1 The fgetpos function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos);
Description
The fgetpos function stores the current value of the file position
indicator for the stream pointed to by stream in the object pointed to
by pos . The value stored contains unspecified information usable by
the fsetpos function for repositioning the stream to its position at
the time of the call to the fgetpos function.
Returns
If successful, the fgetpos function returns zero; on failure, the
fgetpos function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-defined
positive value in errno .
Forward references: the fsetpos function ($4.9.9.3).
4.9.9.2 The fseek function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence);
Description
The fseek function sets the file position indicator for the stream
pointed to by stream .
For a binary stream, the new position, measured in characters from
the beginning of the file, is obtained by adding offset to the
position specified by whence. The specified point is the beginning
of the file for SEEK_SET, the current value of the file position
indicator for SEEK_CUR, or end-of-file for SEEK_END. A binary
stream need not meaningfully support fseek calls with a whence value
of SEEK_END.
For a text stream, either offset shall be zero, or offset shall be
a value returned by an earlier call to the ftell function on the same
stream and whence shall be SEEK_SET .
A successful call to the fseek function clears the end-of-file
indicator for the stream and undoes any effects of the ungetc function
on the same stream. After an fseek call, the next operation on an
update stream may be either input or output.
Returns
The fseek function returns nonzero only for a request that cannot
be satisfied.
Forward references: the ftell function ($4.9.9.4).
4.9.9.3 The fsetpos function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int fsetpos(FILE *stream, const fpos_t *pos);
Description
The fsetpos function sets the file position indicator for the
stream pointed to by stream according to the value of the object
pointed to by pos , which shall be a value returned by an earlier call
to the fgetpos function on the same stream.
A successful call to the fsetpos function clears the end-of-file
indicator for the stream and undoes any effects of the ungetc function
on the same stream. After an fsetpos call, the next operation on an
update stream may be either input or output.
Returns
If successful, the fsetpos function returns zero; on failure, the
fsetpos function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-defined
positive value in errno .
4.9.9.4 The ftell function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
long int ftell(FILE *stream);
Description
The ftell function obtains the current value of the file position
indicator for the stream pointed to by stream . For a binary stream,
the value is the number of characters from the beginning of the file.
For a text stream, its file position indicator contains unspecified
information, usable by the fseek function for returning the file
position indicator for the stream to its position at the time of the
ftell call; the difference between two such return values is not
necessarily a meaningful measure of the number of characters written
or read.
Returns
If successful, the ftell function returns the current value of the
file position indicator for the stream. On failure, the ftell
function returns -1L and stores an implementation-defined positive
value in errno .
4.9.9.5 The rewind function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
void rewind(FILE *stream);
Description
The rewind function sets the file position indicator for the stream
pointed to by stream to the beginning of the file. It is equivalent to
(void)fseek(stream, 0L, SEEK_SET)
except that the error indicator for the stream is also cleared.
Returns
The rewind function returns no value.
4.9.10 Error-handling functions
4.9.10.1 The clearerr function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
void clearerr(FILE *stream);
Description
The clearerr function clears the end-of-file and error indicators
for the stream pointed to by stream .
Returns
The clearerr function returns no value.
4.9.10.2 The feof function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int feof(FILE *stream);
Description
The feof function tests the end-of-file indicator for the stream
pointed to by stream .
Returns
The feof function returns nonzero if and only if the end-of-file
indicator is set for stream .
4.9.10.3 The ferror function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
int ferror(FILE *stream);
Description
The ferror function tests the error indicator for the stream
pointed to by stream .
Returns
The ferror function returns nonzero if and only if the error
indicator is set for stream .
4.9.10.4 The perror function
Synopsis
#include <stdio.h>
void perror(const char *s);
Description
The perror function maps the error number in the integer expression
errno to an error message. It writes a sequence of characters to the
standard error stream thus: first (if s is not a null pointer and the
character pointed to by s is not the null character), the string
pointed to by s followed by a colon and a space; then an appropriate
error message string followed by a new-line character. The contents
of the error message strings are the same as those returned by the
strerror function with argument errno , which are
implementation-defined.
Returns
The perror function returns no value.
Forward references: the strerror function ($4.11.6.2).
4.10 GENERAL UTILITIES <stdlib.h>
The header <stdlib.h> declares four types and several functions of
general utility, and defines several macros./113/
The types declared are size_t and wchar_t (both described in $4.1.5),
div_t
which is a structure type that is the type of the value returned by
the div function, and
ldiv_t
which is a structure type that is the type of the value returned by
the ldiv function.
The macros defined are NULL (described in $4.1.5);
EXIT_FAILURE
and
EXIT_SUCCESS
which expand to integral expressions that may be used as the argument
to the exit function to return unsuccessful or successful termination
status, respectively, to the host environment;
RAND_MAX
which expands to an integral constant expression, the value of which
is the maximum value returned by the rand function; and
MB_CUR_MAX
which expands to a positive integer expression whose value is the
maximum number of bytes in a multibyte character for the extended
character set specified by the current locale (category LC_CTYPE ),
and whose value is never greater than MB_LEN_MAX .
4.10.1 String conversion functions
The functions atof , atoi , and atol need not affect the value of
the integer expression errno on an error. If the value of the result
cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined.
4.10.1.1 The atof function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
double atof(const char *nptr);
Description
The atof function converts the initial portion of the string
pointed to by nptr to double representation. Except for the behavior
on error, it is equivalent to
strtod(nptr, (char **)NULL)
Returns
The atof function returns the converted value.
Forward references: the strtod function ($4.10.1.4).
4.10.1.2 The atoi function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int atoi(const char *nptr);
Description
The atoi function converts the initial portion of the string
pointed to by nptr to int representation. Except for the behavior on
error, it is equivalent to
(int)strtol(nptr, (char **)NULL, 10)
Returns
The atoi function returns the converted value.
Forward references: the strtol function ($4.10.1.5).
4.10.1.3 The atol function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
long int atol(const char *nptr);
Description
The atol function converts the initial portion of the string
pointed to by nptr to long int representation. Except for the
behavior on error, it is equivalent to
strtol(nptr, (char **)NULL, 10)
Returns
The atol function returns the converted value.
Forward references: the strtol function ($4.10.1.5).
4.10.1.4 The strtod function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
double strtod(const char *nptr, char **endptr);
Description
The strtod function converts the initial portion of the string
pointed to by nptr to double representation. First it decomposes the
input string into three parts: an initial, possibly empty, sequence of
white-space characters (as specified by the isspace function), a
subject sequence resembling a floating-point constant; and a final
string of one or more unrecognized characters, including the
terminating null character of the input string. Then it attempts to
convert the subject sequence to a floating-point number, and returns
the result.
The expected form of the subject sequence is an optional plus or
minus sign, then a nonempty sequence of digits optionally containing a
decimal-point character, then an optional exponent part as defined in
$3.1.3.1, but no floating suffix. The subject sequence is defined as
the longest subsequence of the input string, starting with the first
non-white-space character, that is an initial subsequence of a
sequence of the expected form. The subject sequence contains no
characters if the input string is empty or consists entirely of white
space, or if the first non-white-space character is other than a sign,
a digit, or a decimal-point character.
If the subject sequence has the expected form, the sequence of
characters starting with the first digit or the decimal-point
character (whichever occurs first) is interpreted as a floating
constant according to the rules of $3.1.3.1, except that the
decimal-point character is used in place of a period, and that if
neither an exponent part nor a decimal-point character appears, a
decimal point is assumed to follow the last digit in the string. If
the subject sequence begins with a minus sign, the value resulting
from the conversion is negated. A pointer to the final string is
stored in the object pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is
not a null pointer.
In other than the C locale, additional implementation-defined
subject sequence forms may be accepted.
If the subject sequence is empty or does not have the expected
form, no conversion is performed; the value of nptr is stored in the
object pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is not a null
pointer.
Returns
The strtod function returns the converted value, if any. If no
conversion could be performed, zero is returned. If the correct value
would cause overflow, plus or minus HUGE_VAL is returned (according to
the sign of the value), and the value of the macro ERANGE is stored in
errno . If the correct value would cause underflow, zero is returned
and the value of the macro ERANGE is stored in errno .
4.10.1.5 The strtol function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
long int strtol(const char *nptr, char **endptr, int base);
Description
The strtol function converts the initial portion of the string
pointed to by nptr to long int representation. First it decomposes
the input string into three parts: an initial, possibly empty,
sequence of white-space characters (as specified by the isspace
function), a subject sequence resembling an integer represented in
some radix determined by the value of base , and a final string of one
or more unrecognized characters, including the terminating null
character of the input string. Then it attempts to convert the
subject sequence to an integer, and returns the result.
If the value of base is zero, the expected form of the subject
sequence is that of an integer constant as described in $3.1.3.2,
optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including an
integer suffix. If the value of base is between 2 and 36, the
expected form of the subject sequence is a sequence of letters and
digits representing an integer with the radix specified by base ,
optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including an
integer suffix. The letters from a (or A ) through z (or Z ) are
ascribed the values 10 to 35; only letters whose ascribed values are
less than that of base are permitted. If the value of base is 16, the
characters 0x or 0X may optionally precede the sequence of letters and
digits, following the sign if present.
The subject sequence is defined as the longest subsequence of the
input string, starting with the first non-white-space character, that
is an initial subsequence of a sequence of the expected form. The
subject sequence contains no characters if the input string is empty
or consists entirely of white space, or if the first non-white-space
character is other than a sign or a permissible letter or digit.
If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of base
is zero, the sequence of characters starting with the first digit is
interpreted as an integer constant according to the rules of $3.1.3.2.
If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of base is
between 2 and 36, it is used as the base for conversion, ascribing to
each letter its value as given above. If the subject sequence begins
with a minus sign, the value resulting from the conversion is negated.
A pointer to the final string is stored in the object pointed to by
endptr , provided that endptr is not a null pointer.
In other than the C locale, additional implementation-defined
subject sequence forms may be accepted.
If the subject sequence is empty or does not have the expected
form, no conversion is performed; the value of nptr is stored in the
object pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is not a null
pointer.
Returns
The strtol function returns the converted value, if any. If no
conversion could be performed, zero is returned. If the correct value
would cause overflow, LONG_MAX or LONG_MIN is returned (according to
the sign of the value), and the value of the macro ERANGE is stored in
errno .
4.10.1.6 The strtoul function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
unsigned long int strtoul(const char *nptr, char **endptr,
int base);
Description
The strtoul function converts the initial portion of the string
pointed to by nptr to unsigned long int representation. First it
decomposes the input string into three parts: an initial, possibly
empty, sequence of white-space characters (as specified by the isspace
function), a subject sequence resembling an unsigned integer
represented in some radix determined by the value of base , and a
final string of one or more unrecognized characters, including the
terminating null character of the input string. Then it attempts to
convert the subject sequence to an unsigned integer, and returns the
result.
If the value of base is zero, the expected form of the subject
sequence is that of an integer constant as described in $3.1.3.2,
optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including an
integer suffix. If the value of base is between 2 and 36, the
expected form of the subject sequence is a sequence of letters and
digits representing an integer with the radix specified by base ,
optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including an
integer suffix. The letters from a (or A ) through z (or Z ) are
ascribed the values 10 to 35; only letters whose ascribed values are
less than that of base are permitted. If the value of base is 16, the
characters 0x or 0X may optionally precede the sequence of letters and
digits, following the sign if present.
The subject sequence is defined as the longest subsequence of the
input string, starting with the first non-white-space character, that
is an initial subsequence of a sequence of the expected form. The
subject sequence contains no characters if the input string is empty
or consists entirely of white space, or if the first non-white-space
character is other than a sign or a permissible letter or digit.
If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of base
is zero, the sequence of characters starting with the first digit is
interpreted as an integer constant according to the rules of $3.1.3.2.
If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of base is
between 2 and 36, it is used as the base for conversion, ascribing to
each letter its value as given above. If the subject sequence begins
with a minus sign, the value resulting from the conversion is negated.
A pointer to the final string is stored in the object pointed to by
endptr , provided that endptr is not a null pointer.
In other than the C locale, additional implementation-defined
subject sequence forms may be accepted.
If the subject sequence is empty or does not have the expected
form, no conversion is performed; the value of nptr is stored in the
object pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is not a null
pointer.
Returns
The strtoul function returns the converted value, if any. If no
conversion could be performed, zero is returned. If the correct value
would cause overflow, ULONG_MAX is returned, and the value of the
macro ERANGE is stored in errno .
4.10.2 Pseudo-random sequence generation functions
4.10.2.1 The rand function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int rand(void);
Description
The rand function computes a sequence of pseudo-random integers in
the range 0 to RAND_MAX .
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
rand function.
Returns
The rand function returns a pseudo-random integer.
"Environmental limit"
The value of the RAND_MAX macro shall be at least 32767.
4.10.2.2 The srand function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void srand(unsigned int seed);
Description
The srand function uses the argument as a seed for a new sequence
of pseudo-random numbers to be returned by subsequent calls to rand .
If srand is then called with the same seed value, the sequence of
pseudo-random numbers shall be repeated. If rand is called before any
calls to srand have been made, the same sequence shall be generated as
when srand is first called with a seed value of 1.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
srand function.
Returns
The srand function returns no value.
Example
The following functions define a portable implementation of rand
and srand. Specifying the semantics makes it possible to determine
reproducibly the behavior of programs that use pseudo-random
sequences. This facilitates the testing of portable applications in
different implementations.
static unsigned long int next = 1;
int rand(void) /* RAND_MAX assumed to be 32767 */
{
next = next * 1103515245 + 12345;
return (unsigned int)(next/65536) % 32768;
}
void srand(unsigned int seed)
{
next = seed;
}
4.10.3 Memory management functions
The order and contiguity of storage allocated by successive calls
to the calloc , malloc , and realloc functions is unspecified. The
pointer returned if the allocation succeeds is suitably aligned so
that it may be assigned to a pointer to any type of object and then
used to access such an object in the space allocated (until the space
is explicitly freed or reallocated). Each such allocation shall yield
a pointer to an object disjoint from any other object. The pointer
returned points to the start (lowest byte address) of the allocated
space. If the space cannot be allocated, a null pointer is returned.
If the size of the space requested is zero, the behavior is
implementation-defined; the value returned shall be either a null
pointer or a unique pointer. The value of a pointer that refers to
freed space is indeterminate.
4.10.3.1 The calloc function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void *calloc(size_t nmemb, size_t size);
Description
The calloc function allocates space for an array of nmemb objects,
each of whose size is size . The space is initialized to all bits
zero./114/
Returns
The calloc function returns either a null pointer or a pointer to
the allocated space.
4.10.3.2 The free function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void free(void *ptr);
Description
The free function causes the space pointed to by ptr to be
deallocated, that is, made available for further allocation. If ptr
is a null pointer, no action occurs. Otherwise, if the argument does
not match a pointer earlier returned by the calloc , malloc , or
realloc function, or if the space has been deallocated by a call to
free or realloc , the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The free function returns no value.
4.10.3.3 The malloc function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void *malloc(size_t size);
Description
The malloc function allocates space for an object whose size is
specified by size and whose value is indeterminate.
Returns
The malloc function returns either a null pointer or a pointer to
the allocated space.
4.10.3.4 The realloc function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t size);
Description
The realloc function changes the size of the object pointed to by
ptr to the size specified by size . The contents of the object shall
be unchanged up to the lesser of the new and old sizes. If the new
size is larger, the value of the newly allocated portion of the object
is indeterminate. If ptr is a null pointer, the realloc function
behaves like the malloc function for the specified size. Otherwise,
if ptr does not match a pointer earlier returned by the calloc ,
malloc , or realloc function, or if the space has been deallocated by
a call to the free or realloc function, the behavior is undefined. If
the space cannot be allocated, the object pointed to by ptr is
unchanged. If size is zero and ptr is not a null pointer, the object
it points to is freed.
Returns
The realloc function returns either a null pointer or a pointer to
the possibly moved allocated space.
4.10.4 Communication with the environment
4.10.4.1 The abort function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void abort(void);
Description
The abort function causes abnormal program termination to occur,
unless the signal SIGABRT is being caught and the signal handler does
not return. Whether open output streams are flushed or open streams
closed or temporary files removed is implementation-defined. An
implementation-defined form of the status unsuccessful termination is
returned to the host environment by means of the function call
raise(SIGABRT) .
Returns
The abort function cannot return to its caller.
4.10.4.2 The atexit function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int atexit(void (*func)(void));
Description
The atexit function registers the function pointed to by func , to
be called without arguments at normal program termination.
"Implementation limits"
The implementation shall support the registration of at least 32
functions.
Returns
The atexit function returns zero if the registration succeeds,
nonzero if it fails.
Forward references: the exit function ($4.10.4.3).
4.10.4.3 The exit function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void exit(int status);
Description
The exit function causes normal program termination to occur. If
more than one call to the exit function is executed by a program, the
behavior is undefined.
First, all functions registered by the atexit function are called,
in the reverse order of their registration./115/
Next, all open output streams are flushed, all open streams are
closed, and all files created by the tmpfile function are removed.
Finally, control is returned to the host environment. If the value
of status is zero or EXIT_SUCCESS , an implementation-defined form of
the status successful termination is returned. If the value of status
is EXIT_FAILURE , an implementation-defined form of the status
unsuccessful termination is returned. Otherwise the status returned
is implementation-defined.
Returns
The exit function cannot return to its caller.
4.10.4.4 The getenv function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
char *getenv(const char *name);
Description
The getenv function searches an environment list, provided by the
host environment, for a string that matches the string pointed to by
name . The set of environment names and the method for altering the
environment list are implementation-defined.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
getenv function.
Returns
The getenv function returns a pointer to a string associated with
the matched list member. The array pointed to shall not be modified
by the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequent call to the
getenv function. If the specified name cannot be found, a null
pointer is returned.
4.10.4.5 The system function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int system(const char *string);
Description
The system function passes the string pointed to by string to the
host environment to be executed by a command processor in an
implementation-defined manner. A null pointer may be used for string
to inquire whether a command processor exists.
Returns
If the argument is a null pointer, the system function returns
nonzero only if a command processor is available. If the argument is
not a null pointer, the system function returns an
implementation-defined value.
4.10.5 Searching and sorting utilities
4.10.5.1 The bsearch function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void *bsearch(const void *key, const void *base,
size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
Description
The bsearch function searches an array of nmemb objects, the
initial member of which is pointed to by base , for a member that
matches the object pointed to by key . The size of each member of the
array is specified by size .
The contents of the array shall be in ascending sorted order
according to a comparison function pointed to by compar ,/116/ induces
which is called with two arguments that point to the key object and to
an array member, in that order. The function shall return an integer
less than, equal to, or greater than zero if the key object is
considered, respectively, to be less than, to match, or to be greater
than the array member.
Returns
The bsearch function returns a pointer to a matching member of the
array, or a null pointer if no match is found. If two members compare
as equal, which member is matched is unspecified.
4.10.5.2 The qsort function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
Description
The qsort function sorts an array of nmemb objects, the initial
member of which is pointed to by base . The size of each object is
specified by size .
The contents of the array are sorted in ascending order according
to a comparison function pointed to by compar , which is called with
two arguments that point to the objects being compared. The function
shall return an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if
the first argument is considered to be respectively less than, equal
to, or greater than the second.
If two members compare as equal, their order in the sorted array is
unspecified.
Returns
The qsort function returns no value.
4.10.6 Integer arithmetic functions
4.10.6.1 The abs function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int abs(int j);
Description
The abs function computes the absolute value of an integer j . If
the result cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined./117/
Returns
The abs function returns the absolute value.
4.10.6.2 The div function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
div_t div(int numer, int denom);
Description
The div function computes the quotient and remainder of the
division of the numerator numer by the denominator denom . If the
division is inexact, the sign of the resulting quotient is that of the
algebraic quotient, and the magnitude of the resulting quotient is the
largest integer less than the magnitude of the algebraic quotient. If
the result cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined;
otherwise, quot * denom + rem shall equal numer .
Returns
The div function returns a structure of type div_t , comprising
both the quotient and the remainder. The structure shall contain the
following members, in either order.
int quot; /* quotient */
int rem; /* remainder */
4.10.6.3 The labs function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
long int labs(long int j);
Description
The labs function is similar to the abs function, except that the
argument and the returned value each have type long int .
4.10.6.4 The ldiv function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
ldiv_t ldiv(long int numer, long int denom);
Description
The ldiv function is similar to the div function, except that the
arguments and the members of the returned structure (which has type
ldiv_t ) all have type long int .
4.10.7 Multibyte character functions
The behavior of the multibyte character functions is affected by
the LC_CTYPE category of the current locale. For a state-dependent
encoding, each function is placed into its initial state by a call for
which its character pointer argument, s , is a null pointer.
Subsequent calls with s as other than a null pointer cause the
internal state of the function to be altered as necessary. A call
with s as a null pointer causes these functions to return a nonzero
value if encodings have state dependency, and zero otherwise. After
the LC_CTYPE category is changed, the shift state of these functions
is indeterminate.
4.10.7.1 The mblen function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int mblen(const char *s, size_t n);
Description
If s is not a null pointer, the mblen function determines the
number of bytes comprising the multibyte character pointed to by s .
Except that the shift state of the mbtowc function is not affected, it
is equivalent to
mbtowc((wchar_t *)0, s, n);
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
mblen function.
Returns
If s is a null pointer, the mblen function returns a nonzero or
zero value, if multibyte character encodings, respectively, do or do
not have state-dependent encodings. If s is not a null pointer, the
mblen function either returns 0 (if s points to the null character),
or returns the number of bytes that comprise the multibyte character
(if the next n or fewer bytes form a valid multibyte character), or
returns -1 (if they do not form a valid multibyte character).
Forward references: the mbtowc function ($4.10.7.2).
4.10.7.2 The mbtowc function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int mbtowc(wchar_t *pwc, const char *s, size_t n);
Description
If s is not a null pointer, the mbtowc function determines the
number of bytes that comprise the multibyte character pointed to by s.
It then determines the code for value of type wchar_t that
corresponds to that multibyte character. (The value of the code
corresponding to the null character is zero.) If the multibyte
character is valid and pwc is not a null pointer, the mbtowc function
stores the code in the object pointed to by pwc . At most n bytes of
the array pointed to by s will be examined.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
mbtowc function.
Returns
If s is a null pointer, the mbtowc function returns a nonzero or zero
value, if multibyte character encodings, respectively, do or do not
have state-dependent encodings. If s is not a null pointer, the
mbtowc function either returns 0 (if s points to the null character),
or returns the number of bytes that comprise the converted multibyte
character (if the next n or fewer bytes form a valid multibyte
character), or returns -1 (if they do not form a valid multibyte
character).
In no case will the value returned be greater than n or the value
of the MB_CUR_MAX macro.
4.10.7.3 The wctomb function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
int wctomb(char *s, wchar_t wchar);
Description
The wctomb function determines the number of bytes needed to
represent the multibyte character corresponding to the code whose
value is wchar (including any change in shift state). It stores the
multibyte character representation in the array object pointed to by s
(if s is not a null pointer). At most MB_CUR_MAX characters are
stored. If the value of wchar is zero, the wctomb function is left in
the initial shift state.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
wctomb function.
Returns
If s is a null pointer, the wctomb function returns a nonzero or
zero value, if multibyte character encodings, respectively, do or do
not have state-dependent encodings. If s is not a null pointer, the
wctomb function returns -1 if the value of wchar does not correspond
to a valid multibyte character, or returns the number of bytes that
comprise the multibyte character corresponding to the value of wchar .
In no case will the value returned be greater than the value of the
MB_CUR_MAX macro.
4.10.8 Multibyte string functions
The behavior of the multibyte string functions is affected by the
LC_CTYPE category of the current locale.
4.10.8.1 The mbstowcs function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
size_t mbstowcs(wchar_t *pwcs, const char *s, size_t n);
Description
The mbstowcs function converts a sequence of multibyte characters
that begins in the initial shift state from the array pointed to by s
into a sequence of corresponding codes and stores not more than n
codes into the array pointed to by pwcs . No multibyte characters
that follow a null character (which is converted into a code with
value zero) will be examined or converted. Each multibyte character
is converted as if by a call to the mbtowc function, except that the
shift state of the mbtowc function is not affected.
No more than n elements will be modified in the array pointed to by
pwcs . If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the
behavior is undefined.
Returns
If an invalid multibyte character is encountered, the mbstowcs
function returns (size_t)-1 . Otherwise, the mbstowcs function
returns the number of array elements modified, not including a
terminating zero code, if any.rN
4.10.8.2 The wcstombs function
Synopsis
#include <stdlib.h>
size_t wcstombs(char *s, const wchar_t *pwcs, size_t n);
Description
The wcstombs function converts a sequence of codes that correspond
to multibyte characters from the array pointed to by pwcs into a
sequence of multibyte characters that begins in the initial shift
state and stores these multibyte characters into the array pointed to
by s , stopping if a multibyte character would exceed the limit of n
total bytes or if a null character is stored. Each code is converted
as if by a call to the wctomb function, except that the shift state of
the wctomb function is not affected.
No more than n bytes will be modified in the array pointed to by s
. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior
is undefined.
Returns
If a code is encountered that does not correspond to a valid
multibyte character, the wcstombs function returns (size_t)-1 .
Otherwise, the wcstombs function returns the number of bytes modified,
not including a terminating null character, if any.rN
4.11 STRING HANDLING <string.h>
4.11.1 String function conventions
The header <string.h> declares one type and several functions, and
defines one macro useful for manipulating arrays of character type and
other objects treated as arrays of character type./119/ The type is
size_t and the macro is NULL (both described in $4.1.5). Various
methods are used for determining the lengths of the arrays, but in all
cases a char * or void * argument points to the initial (lowest
addressed) character of the array. If an array is accessed beyond the
end of an object, the behavior is undefined.
4.11.2 Copying functions
4.11.2.1 The memcpy function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
void *memcpy(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
Description
The memcpy function copies n characters from the object pointed to
by s2 into the object pointed to by s1 . If copying takes place
between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The memcpy function returns the value of s1 .
4.11.2.2 The memmove function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
Description
The memmove function copies n characters from the object pointed to
by s2 into the object pointed to by s1 . Copying takes place as if
the n characters from the object pointed to by s2 are first copied
into a temporary array of n characters that does not overlap the
objects pointed to by s1 and s2 , and then the n characters from the
temporary array are copied into the object pointed to by s1 .
Returns
The memmove function returns the value of s1 .
4.11.2.3 The strcpy function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strcpy(char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strcpy function copies the string pointed to by s2 (including
the terminating null character) into the array pointed to by s1 . If
copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is
undefined.
Returns
The strcpy function returns the value of s1 .
4.11.2.4 The strncpy function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strncpy(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
Description
The strncpy function copies not more than n characters (characters
that follow a null character are not copied) from the array pointed to
by s2 to the array pointed to by s1 ./120/ If copying takes place
between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined.
If the array pointed to by s2 is a string that is shorter than n
characters, null characters are appended to the copy in the array
pointed to by s1 , until n characters in all have been written.
Returns
The strncpy function returns the value of s1 .
4.11.3 Concatenation functions
4.11.3.1 The strcat function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strcat(char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strcat function appends a copy of the string pointed to by s2
(including the terminating null character) to the end of the string
pointed to by s1 . The initial character of s2 overwrites the null
character at the end of s1 . If copying takes place between objects
that overlap, the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The strcat function returns the value of s1 .
4.11.3.2 The strncat function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strncat(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
Description
The strncat function appends not more than n characters (a null
character and characters that follow it are not appended) from the
array pointed to by s2 to the end of the string pointed to by s1 .
The initial character of s2 overwrites the null character at the end
of s1 . A terminating null character is always appended to the
result./121/ If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the
behavior is undefined.
Returns
The strncat function returns the value of s1 .
Forward references: the strlen function ($4.11.6.3).
4.11.4 Comparison functions
The sign of a nonzero value returned by the comparison functions is
determined by the sign of the difference between the values of the
first pair of characters (both interpreted as unsigned char ) that
differ in the objects being compared.
4.11.4.1 The memcmp function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
Description
The memcmp function compares the first n characters of the object
pointed to by s1 to the first n characters of the object pointed to by
s2 ./122/
Returns
The memcmp function returns an integer greater than, equal to, or
less than zero, according as the object pointed to by s1 is greater
than, equal to, or less than the object pointed to by s2 .
4.11.4.2 The strcmp function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strcmp function compares the string pointed to by s1 to the
string pointed to by s2 .
Returns
The strcmp function returns an integer greater than, equal to, or
less than zero, according as the string pointed to by s1 is greater
than, equal to, or less than the string pointed to by s2 .
4.11.4.3 The strcoll function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strcoll function compares the string pointed to by s1 to the
string pointed to by s2 , both interpreted as appropriate to the
LC_COLLATE category of the current locale.
Returns
The strcoll function returns an integer greater than, equal to, or
less than zero, according as the string pointed to by s1 is greater
than, equal to, or less than the string pointed to by s2 when both are
interpreted as appropriate to the current locale.
4.11.4.4 The strncmp function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
Description
The strncmp function compares not more than n characters
(characters that follow a null character are not compared) from the
array pointed to by s1 to the array pointed to by s2 .
Returns
The strncmp function returns an integer greater than, equal to, or
less than zero, according as the possibly null-terminated array
pointed to by s1 is greater than, equal to, or less than the possibly
null-terminated array pointed to by s2 .
4.11.4.5 The strxfrm function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
size_t strxfrm(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
Description
The strxfrm function transforms the string pointed to by s2 and
places the resulting string into the array pointed to by s1 . The
transformation is such that if the strcmp function is applied to two
transformed strings, it returns a value greater than, equal to, or
less than zero, corresponding to the result of the strcoll function
applied to the same two original strings. No more than n characters
are placed into the resulting array pointed to by s1 , including the
terminating null character. If n is zero, s1 is permitted to be a
null pointer. If copying takes place between objects that overlap,
the behavior is undefined.
Returns
The strxfrm function returns the length of the transformed string
(not including the terminating null character). If the value returned
is n or more, the contents of the array pointed to by s1 are
indeterminate.
Example
The value of the following expression is the size of the array
needed to hold the transformation of the string pointed to by s .
1 + strxfrm(NULL, s, 0)
4.11.5 Search functions
4.11.5.1 The memchr function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
void *memchr(const void *s, int c, size_t n);
Description
The memchr function locates the first occurrence of c (converted to
an unsigned char ) in the initial n characters (each interpreted as
unsigned char ) of the object pointed to by s .
Returns
The memchr function returns a pointer to the located character, or
a null pointer if the character does not occur in the object.
4.11.5.2 The strchr function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strchr(const char *s, int c);
Description
The strchr function locates the first occurrence of c (converted to
a char ) in the string pointed to by s . The terminating null
character is considered to be part of the string.
Returns
The strchr function returns a pointer to the located character, or
a null pointer if the character does not occur in the string.
4.11.5.3 The strcspn function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
size_t strcspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strcspn function computes the length of the maximum initial
segment of the string pointed to by s1 which consists entirely of
characters not from the string pointed to by s2 .
Returns
The strcspn function returns the length of the segment.
4.11.5.4 The strpbrk function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strpbrk(const char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strpbrk function locates the first occurrence in the string
pointed to by s1 of any character from the string pointed to by s2 .
Returns
The strpbrk function returns a pointer to the character, or a null
pointer if no character from s2 occurs in s1 .
4.11.5.5 The strrchr function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strrchr(const char *s, int c);
Description
The strrchr function locates the last occurrence of c (converted to
a char ) in the string pointed to by s . The terminating null
character is considered to be part of the string.
Returns
The strrchr function returns a pointer to the character, or a null
pointer if c does not occur in the string.
4.11.5.6 The strspn function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
size_t strspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strspn function computes the length of the maximum initial
segment of the string pointed to by s1 which consists entirely of
characters from the string pointed to by s2 .
Returns
The strspn function returns the length of the segment.
4.11.5.7 The strstr function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strstr(const char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
The strstr function locates the first occurrence in the string
pointed to by s1 of the sequence of characters (excluding the
terminating null character) in the string pointed to by s2
Returns
The strstr function returns a pointer to the located string, or a
null pointer if the string is not found. If s2 points to a string
with zero length, the function returns s1 .
4.11.5.8 The strtok function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strtok(char *s1, const char *s2);
Description
A sequence of calls to the strtok function breaks the string
pointed to by s1 into a sequence of tokens, each of which is delimited
by a character from the string pointed to by s2 . The first call in
the sequence has s1 as its first argument, and is followed by calls
with a null pointer as their first argument. The separator string
pointed to by s2 may be different from call to call.
The first call in the sequence searches the string pointed to by s1
for the first character that is not contained in the current separator
string pointed to by s2 . If no such character is found, then there
are no tokens in the string pointed to by s1 and the strtok function
returns a null pointer. If such a character is found, it is the start
of the first token.
The strtok function then searches from there for a character that
is contained in the current separator string. If no such character is
found, the current token extends to the end of the string pointed to
by s1 , and subsequent searches for a token will return a null
pointer. If such a character is found, it is overwritten by a null
character, which terminates the current token. The strtok function
saves a pointer to the following character, from which the next search
for a token will start.
Each subsequent call, with a null pointer as the value of the first
argument, starts searching from the saved pointer and behaves as
described above.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
strtok function.
Returns
The strtok function returns a pointer to the first character of a
token, or a null pointer if there is no token.
Example
#include <string.h>
static char str[] = "?a???b,,,#c";
char *t;
t = strtok(str, "?"); /* t points to the token "a" */
t = strtok(NULL, ","); /* t points to the token "??b" */
t = strtok(NULL, "#,"); /* t points to the token "c" */
t = strtok(NULL, "?"); /* t is a null pointer */
4.11.6 Miscellaneous functions
4.11.6.1 The memset function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n);
Description
The memset function copies the value of c (converted to an unsigned
char ) into each of the first n characters of the object pointed to by
s .
Returns
The memset function returns the value of s .
4.11.6.2 The strerror function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
char *strerror(int errnum);
Description
The strerror function maps the error number in errnum to an error
message string.
The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the
strerror function.
Returns
The strerror function returns a pointer to the string, the contents
of which are implementation-defined. The array pointed to shall not
be modified by the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequent
call to the strerror function.
4.11.6.3 The strlen function
Synopsis
#include <string.h>
size_t strlen(const char *s);
Description
The strlen function computes the length of the string pointed to by s .
Returns
The strlen function returns the number of characters that precede
the terminating null character.
4.12 DATE AND TIME <time.h>
4.12.1 Components of time
The header <time.h> defines two macros, and declares four types and
several functions for manipulating time. Many functions deal with a
calendar time that represents the current date (according to the
Gregorian calendar) and time. Some functions deal with local time,
which is the calendar time expressed for some specific time zone, and
with Daylight Saving Time, which is a temporary change in the
algorithm for determining local time. The local time zone and
Daylight Saving Time are implementation-defined.
The macros defined are NULL (described in $4.1.5); and
CLK_TCK
which is the number per second of the value returned by the clock function.
The types declared are size_t (described in $4.1.5);
clock_t
and
time_t
which are arithmetic types capable of representing times; and
struct tm
which holds the components of a calendar time, called the broken-down
time. The structure shall contain at least the following members, in
any order. The semantics of the members and their normal ranges are
expressed in the comments./123/
int tm_sec; /* seconds after the minute --- [0, 60] */
int tm_min; /* minutes after the hour --- [0, 59] */
int tm_hour; /* hours since midnight --- [0, 23] */
int tm_mday; /* day of the month --- [1, 31] */
int tm_mon; /* months since January --- [0, 11] */
int tm_year; /* years since 1900 */
int tm_wday; /* days since Sunday --- [0, 6] */
int tm_yday; /* days since January 1 --- [0, 365] */
int tm_isdst; /* Daylight Saving Time flag */
The value of tm_isdst is positive if Daylight Saving Time is in
effect, zero if Daylight Saving Time is not in effect, and negative if
the information is not available.
4.12.2 Time manipulation functions
4.12.2.1 The clock function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
clock_t clock(void);
Description
The clock function determines the processor time used.
Returns
The clock function returns the implementation's best approximation
to the processor time used by the program since the beginning of an
implementation-defined era related only to the program invocation. To
determine the time in seconds, the value returned by the clock
function should be divided by the value of the macro CLK_TCK . If the
processor time used is not available or its value cannot be
represented, the function returns the value (clock_t)-1 .
4.12.2.2 The difftime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
double difftime(time_t time1, time_t time0);
Description
The difftime function computes the difference between two calendar
times: time1 - time0 .
Returns
The difftime function returns the difference expressed in seconds
as a double .
4.12.2.3 The mktime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
time_t mktime(struct tm *timeptr);
Description
The mktime function converts the broken-down time, expressed as
local time, in the structure pointed to by timeptr into a calendar
time value with the same encoding as that of the values returned by
the time function. The original values of the tm_wday and tm_yday
components of the structure are ignored, and the original values of
the other components are not restricted to the ranges indicated
above./124/ On successful completion, the values of the tm_wday and
tm_yday components of the structure are set appropriately, and the
other components are set to represent the specified calendar time, but
with their values forced to the ranges indicated above; the final
value of tm_mday is not set until tm_mon and tm_year are determined.
Returns
The mktime function returns the specified calendar time encoded as
a value of type time_t . If the calendar time cannot be represented,
the function returns the value (time_t)-1 .
Example
What day of the week is July 4, 2001?
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
static const char *const wday[] = {
"Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday",
"Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "-unknown-"
};
struct tm time_str;
time_str.tm_year = 2001 - 1900;
time_str.tm_mon = 7 - 1;
time_str.tm_mday = 4;
time_str.tm_hour = 0;
time_str.tm_min = 0;
time_str.tm_sec = 1;
time_str.tm_isdst = -1;
if (mktime(&time_str) == -1)
time_str.tm_wday = 7;
printf("%s\n", wday[time_str.tm_wday]);
4.12.2.4 The time function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
time_t time(time_t *timer);
Description
The time function determines the current calendar time. The
encoding of the value is unspecified.
Returns
The time function returns the implementation's best approximation
to the current calendar time. The value (time_t)-1 is returned if the
calendar time is not available. If timer is not a null pointer, the
return value is also assigned to the object it points to.
4.12.3 Time conversion functions
Except for the strftime function, these functions return values in
one of two static objects: a broken-down time structure and an array
of char . Execution of any of the functions may overwrite the
information returned in either of these objects by any of the other
functions. The implementation shall behave as if no other library
functions call these functions.
4.12.3.1 The asctime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr);
Description
The asctime function converts the broken-down time in the structure
pointed to by timeptr into a string in the form
Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973\n\0
using the equivalent of the following algorithm.
char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr)
{
static const char wday_name[7][3] = {
"Sun", "Mon", "Tue", "Wed", "Thu", "Fri", "Sat"
};
static const char mon_name[12][3] = {
"Jan", "Feb", "Mar", "Apr", "May", "Jun",
"Jul", "Aug", "Sep", "Oct", "Nov", "Dec"
};
static char result[26];
sprintf(result, "%.3s %.3s%3d %.2d:%.2d:%.2d %d\n",
wday_name[timeptr->tm_wday],
mon_name[timeptr->tm_mon],
timeptr->tm_mday, timeptr->tm_hour,
timeptr->tm_min, timeptr->tm_sec,
1900 + timeptr->tm_year);
return result;
}
Returns
The asctime function returns a pointer to the string.
4.12.3.2 The ctime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
char *ctime(const time_t *timer);
Description
The ctime function converts the calendar time pointed to by timer to local time in the form of a string. It is equivalent to
asctime(localtime(timer))
Returns
The ctime function returns the pointer returned by the asctime
function with that broken-down time as argument.
Forward references: the localtime function ($4.12.3.4).
4.12.3.3 The gmtime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
struct tm *gmtime(const time_t *timer);
Description
The gmtime function converts the calendar time pointed to by timer
into a broken-down time, expressed as Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC).
Returns
The gmtime function returns a pointer to that object, or a null
pointer if UTC is not available.
4.12.3.4 The localtime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
struct tm *localtime(const time_t *timer);
Description
The localtime function converts the calendar time pointed to by
timer into a broken-down time, expressed as local time.
Returns
The localtime function returns a pointer to that object.
4.12.3.5 The strftime function
Synopsis
#include <time.h>
size_t strftime(char *s, size_t maxsize,
const char *format, const struct tm *timeptr);
Description
The strftime function places characters into the array pointed to
by s as controlled by the string pointed to by format . The format
shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and ending in its
initial shift state. The format string consists of zero or more
conversion specifications and ordinary multibyte characters. A
conversion specification consists of a % character followed by a
character that determines the conversion specification's behavior.
All ordinary multibyte characters (including the terminating null
character) are copied unchanged into the array. If copying takes
place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. No
more than maxsize characters are placed into the array. Each
conversion specification is replaced by appropriate characters as
described in the following list. The appropriate characters are
determined by the program's locale and by the values contained in the
structure pointed to by timeptr .
"%a" is replaced by the locale's abbreviated weekday name.
"%A" is replaced by the locale's full weekday name.
"%b" is replaced by the locale's abbreviated month name.
"%B" is replaced by the locale's full month name.
"%c" is replaced by the locale's appropriate date and time representation.
"%d" is replaced by the day of the month as a decimal number (01-31).
"%H" is replaced by the hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (00-23).
"%I" is replaced by the hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (01-12).
"%j" is replaced by the day of the year as a decimal number (001-366 ).
"%m" is replaced by the month as a decimal number (01-12).
"%M" is replaced by the minute as a decimal number (00-59).
"%p" is replaced by the locale's equivalent of either AM or PM .
"%S" is replaced by the second as a decimal number (00-60).
"%U" is replaced by the week number of the year (ithe first Sunday as the
first day of week 1) as a decimal number (00-53).
"%w" is replaced by the weekday as a decimal number (0-6), where Sunday is
0.
"%W" is replaced by the week number of the year (the first Monday as the
first day of week 1) as a decimal number (00-53).
"%x" is replaced by the locale's appropriate date representation.
"%X" is replaced by the locale's appropriate time representation.
"%y" is replaced by the year without century as a decimal number (00-99).
"%Y" is replaced by the year with century as a decimal number.
"%Z" is replaced by the time zone name, or by no characters if no time
zone is determinable.
"%%" is replaced by %.
If a conversion specification is not one of the above, the behavior
is undefined.
Returns
If the total number of resulting characters including the
terminating null character is not more than maxsize , the strftime
function returns the number of characters placed into the array
pointed to by s not including the terminating null character.
Otherwise, zero is returned and the contents of the array are
indeterminate.
4.13 FUTURE LIBRARY DIRECTIONS
The following names are grouped under individual headers for
convenience. All external names described below are reserved no
matter what headers are included by the program.
4.13.1 Errors <errno.h>
Macros that begin with E and a digit or E and an upper-case letter
(followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore) may be
added to the declarations in the <errno.h> header.
4.13.2 Character handling <ctype.h>
Function names that begin with either is or to , and a lower-case
letter (followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore)
may be added to the declarations in the <ctype.h> header.
4.13.3 Localization <locale.h>
Macros that begin with LC_ and an upper-case letter (followed by
any combination of digits, letters and underscore) may be added to the
definitions in the <locale.h> header.
4.13.4 Mathematics <math.h>
The names of all existing functions declared in the <math.h>
header, suffixed with f or l , are reserved respectively for
corresponding functions with float and long double arguments and
return values.
4.13.5 Signal handling <signal.h>
Macros that begin with either SIG and an upper-case letter or SIG_
and an upper-case letter (followed by any combination of digits,
letters and underscore) may be added to the definitions in the
<signal.h> header.
4.13.6 Input/output <stdio.h>
Lower-case letters may be added to the conversion specifiers in
fprintf and fscanf . Other characters may be used in extensions.
4.13.7 General utilities <stdlib.h>
Function names that begin with str and a lower-case letter
(followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore) may be
added to the declarations in the <stdlib.h> header.
4.13.8 String handling <string.h>
Function names that begin with str , mem , or wcs and a lower-case
letter (followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore)
may be added to the declarations in the <string.h> header.
A. APPENDICES
(These appendices are not a part of American National Standard for
Information Systems --- Programming Language C, X3.???-1988.)
These appendices collect information that appears in the Standard,
and are not necessarily complete.
A.1 LANGUAGE SYNTAX SUMMARY
The notation is described in the introduction to $3 (Language).
A.1.1 Lexical grammar
A.1.1.1 Tokens
keyword
identifier
constant
string-literal
operator
punctuator
header-name
identifier
pp-number
character-constant
string-literal
operator
punctuator
each non-white-space character that cannot be one of
the above
A.1.1.2 Keywords
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
A.1.1.3 Identifiers
nondigit
identifier nondigit
identifier digit
_ a b c d e f g h i j k l m
n o p q r s t u v w x y z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
A.1.1.4 Constants
floating-constant
integer-constant
enumeration-constant
character-constant
fractional-constant exponent-part<opt> floating-suffix<opt>
digit-sequence exponent-part floating-suffix<opt>
digit-sequence<opt> . digit-sequence
digit-sequence .
e sign<opt> digit-sequence
E sign<opt> digit-sequence
+ -
digit
digit-sequence digit
f l F L
decimal-constant integer-suffix<opt>
octal-constant integer-suffix<opt>
hexadecimal-constant integer-suffix<opt>
nonzero-digit
decimal-constant digit
0
octal-constant octal-digit
0x hexadecimal-digit
0X hexadecimal-digit
hexadecimal-constant hexadecimal-digit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a b c d e f
A B C D E F
unsigned-suffix long-suffix<opt>
long-suffix unsigned-suffix<opt>
u U
l L
identifier
' c-char-sequence'
L' c-char-sequence'
c-char
c-char-sequence c-char
any member of the source character set except
the single-quote ', backslash \, or new-line character
escape-sequence
simple-escape-sequence
octal-escape-sequence
hexadecimal-escape-sequence
\' \" \? \\
\a \b \f \n \r \t \v
\ octal-digit
\ octal-digit octal-digit
\ octal-digit octal-digit octal-digit
\x hexadecimal-digit
hexadecimal-escape-sequence hexadecimal-digit
A.1.1.5 String literals
" s-char-sequence<opt>"
L" s-char-sequence<opt>"
s-char
s-char-sequence s-char
any member of the source character set except
the double-quote ", backslash \, or new-line character
escape-sequence
A.1.1.6 Operators
[ ] ( ) . ->
++ -- & * + - ~ ! sizeof
/ % << >> < > <= >= == != ^ | && ||
? :
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
, # ##
A.1.1.7 Punctuators
[ ] ( ) { } * , : = ; ... #
A.1.1.8 Header names
< h-char-sequence>
" q-char-sequence"
h-char
h-char-sequence h-char
any member of the source character set except
the new-line character and >
q-char
q-char-sequence q-char
any member of the source character set except
the new-line character and "
A.1.1.9 Preprocessing numbers
digit
. digit
pp-number digit
pp-number nondigit
pp-number e sign
pp-number E sign
pp-number .
A.1.2 Phrase structure grammar
A.1.2.1 Expressions
identifier
constant
string-literal
( expression )
primary-expression
postfix-expression [ expression ]
postfix-expression ( argument-expression-list<opt> )
postfix-expression . identifier
postfix-expression -> identifier
postfix-expression ++
postfix-expression --
assignment-expression
argument-expression-list , assignment-expression
postfix-expression
++ unary-expression
-- unary-expression
unary-operator cast-expression
sizeof unary-expression
sizeof ( type-name )
& * + - ~ !
unary-expression
( type-name ) cast-expression
cast-expression
multiplicative-expression * cast-expression
multiplicative-expression / cast-expression
multiplicative-expression % cast-expression
multiplicative-expression
additive-expression + multiplicative-expression
additive-expression - multiplicative-expression
additive-expression
shift-expression << additive-expression
shift-expression >> additive-expression
shift-expression
relational-expression < shift-expression
relational-expression > shift-expression
relational-expression <= shift-expression
relational-expression >= shift-expression
relational-expression
equality-expression == relational-expression
equality-expression != relational-expression
equality-expression
AND-expression & equality-expression
AND-expression
exclusive-OR-expression ^ AND-expression
exclusive-OR-expression
inclusive-OR-expression | exclusive-OR-expression
inclusive-OR-expression
logical-AND-expression && inclusive-OR-expression
logical-AND-expression
logical-OR-expression || logical-AND-expression
logical-OR-expression
logical-OR-expression ? expression : conditional-expression
conditional-expression
unary-expression assignment-operator assignment-expression
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
assignment-expression
expression , assignment-expression
conditional-expression
A.1.2.2 Declarations
declaration-specifiers init-declarator-list<opt> ;
storage-class-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt>
type-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt>
type-qualifier declaration-specifiers<opt>
init-declarator
init-declarator-list , init-declarator
declarator
declarator = initializer
typedef
extern
static
auto
register
void
char
short
int
long
float
double
signed
unsigned
struct-or-union-specifier
enum-specifier
typedef-name
struct-or-union identifier<opt> { struct-declaration-list }
struct-or-union identifier
struct
union
struct-declaration
struct-declaration-list struct-declaration
specifier-qualifier-list struct-declarator-list ;
type-specifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt>
type-qualifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt>
struct-declarator
struct-declarator-list , struct-declarator
declarator
declarator<opt> : constant-expression
enum identifier<opt> { enumerator-list }
enum identifier
enumerator
enumerator-list , enumerator
enumeration-constant
enumeration-constant = constant-expression
const
volatile
pointer<opt> direct-declarator
identifier
( declarator )
direct-declarator [ constant-expression<opt> ]
direct-declarator ( parameter-type-list )
direct-declarator ( identifier-list<opt> )
* type-qualifier-list<opt>
* type-qualifier-list<opt> pointer
type-qualifier
type-qualifier-list type-qualifier
parameter-list
parameter-list , ...
parameter-declaration
parameter-list , parameter-declaration
declaration-specifiers declarator
declaration-specifiers abstract-declarator<opt>
identifier
identifier-list , identifier
specifier-qualifier-list abstract-declarator<opt>
pointer
pointer<opt> direct-abstract-declarator
( abstract-declarator )
direct-abstract-declarator<opt> [ constant-expression<opt> ]
direct-abstract-declarator<opt> ( parameter-type-list<opt> )
identifier
assignment-expression
{ initializer-list }
{ initializer-list , }
initializer
initializer-list , initializer
A.1.2.3 Statements
labeled-statement
compound-statement
expression-statement
selection-statement
iteration-statement
jump-statement
identifier : statement
case constant-expression : statement
default : statement
{ declaration-list<opt> statement-list<opt> }
declaration
declaration-list declaration
statement
statement-list statement
expression<opt> ;
if ( expression ) statement
if ( expression ) statement else statement
switch ( expression ) statement
while ( expression ) statement
do statement while ( expression ) ;
for ( expression<opt> ; expression<opt> ;
expression<opt> ) statement
goto identifier ;
continue ;
break ;
return expression<opt> ;
A.1.2.4 External definitions
external-declaration
translation-unit external-declaration
function-definition
declaration
declaration-specifiers<opt> declarator
declaration-list<opt> compound-statement
A.1.3 Preprocessing directives
group<opt>
group-part
group group-part
pp-tokens<opt> new-line
if-section
control-line
if-group elif-groups<opt> else-group<opt> endif-line
# if constant-expression new-line group<opt>
# ifdef identifier new-line group<opt>
# ifndef identifier new-line group<opt>
elif-group
elif-groups elif-group
# elif constant-expression new-line group<opt>
# else new-line group<opt>
# endif new-line
control-line:
the left-parenthesis character without preceding white space
pp-tokens<opt>
preprocessing-token
pp-tokens preprocessing-token
the new-line character
A.2 SEQUENCE POINTS
The following are the sequence points described in $2.1.2.3.
* The call to a function, after the arguments have been evaluated
($3.3.2.2).
* The end of the first operand of the following operators: logical
AND && ($3.3.13); logical OR || ($3.3.14); conditional ? ($3.3.15);
comma , ($3.3.17).
* The end of a full expression: an initializer ($3.5.7); the
expression in an expression statement ($3.6.3); the controlling
expression of a selection statement ( if or switch ) ($3.6.4); the
controlling expression of a while or do statement ($3.6.5); the three
expressions of a for statement ($3.6.5.3); the expression in a return
statement ($3.6.6.4).
A.3 LIBRARY SUMMARY
A.3.1 ERRORS <errno.h>
EDOM
ERANGE
errno
A.3.2 COMMON DEFINITIONS <stddef.h>
NULL
offsetof( type, member-designator)
ptrdiff_t
size_t
wchar_t
A.3.3 DIAGNOSTICS <assert.h>
NDEBUG
void assert(int expression);
A.3.4 CHARACTER HANDLING <ctype.h>
int isalnum(int c);
int isalpha(int c);
int iscntrl(int c);
int isdigit(int c);
int isgraph(int c);
int islower(int c);
int isprint(int c);
int ispunct(int c);
int isspace(int c);
int isupper(int c);
int isxdigit(int c);
int tolower(int c);
int toupper(int c);
A.3.5 LOCALIZATION <locale.h>
LC_ALL
LC_COLLATE
LC_CTYPE
LC_MONETARY
LC_NUMERIC
LC_TIME
NULL
struct lconv
char *setlocale(int category, const char *locale);
struct lconv *localeconv(void);
A.3.6 MATHEMATICS <math.h>
HUGE_VAL
double acos(double x);
double asin(double x);
double atan(double x);
double atan2(double y, double x);
double cos(double x);
double sin(double x);
double tan(double x);
double cosh(double x);
double sinh(double x);
double tanh(double x);
double exp(double x);
double frexp(double value, int *exp);
double ldexp(double x, int exp);
double log(double x);
double log10(double x);
double modf(double value, double *iptr);
double pow(double x, double y);
double sqrt(double x);
double ceil(double x);
double fabs(double x);
double floor(double x);
double fmod(double x, double y);
A.3.7 NON-LOCAL JUMPS <setjmp.h>
jmp_buf
int setjmp(jmp_buf env);
void longjmp(jmp_buf env, int val);
A.3.8 SIGNAL HANDLING <signal.h>
sig_atomic_t
SIG_DFL
SIG_ERR
SIG_IGN
SIGABRT
SIGFPE
SIGILL
SIGINT
SIGSEGV
SIGTERM
void (*signal(int sig, void (*func)(int)))(int);
int raise(int sig);
A.3.9 VARIABLE ARGUMENTS <stdarg.h>
va_list
void va_start(va_list ap, parmN);
type va_arg(va_list ap, type);
void va_end(va_list ap);
A.3.10 INPUT/OUTPUT <stdio.h>
_IOFBF
_IOLBF
_IONBF
BUFSIZ
EOF
FILE
FILENAME_MAX
FOPEN_MAX
fpos_t
L_tmpnam
NULL
SEEK_CUR
SEEK_END
SEEK_SET
size_t
stderr
stdin
stdout
TMP_MAX
int remove(const char *filename);
int rename(const char *old, const char *new);
FILE *tmpfile(void);
char *tmpnam(char *s);
int fclose(FILE *stream);
int fflush(FILE *stream);
FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode,
FILE *stream);
void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf);
int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size);
int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);
int printf(const char *format, ...);
int scanf(const char *format, ...);
int sprintf(char *s, const char *format, ...);
int sscanf(const char *s, const char *format, ...);
int vfprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, va_list arg);
int vprintf(const char *format, va_list arg);
int vsprintf(char *s, const char *format, va_list arg);
int fgetc(FILE *stream);
char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream);
int fputc(int c, FILE *stream);
int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream);
int getc(FILE *stream);
int getchar(void);
char *gets(char *s);
int putc(int c, FILE *stream);
int putchar(int c);
int puts(const char *s);
int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream);
size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,
FILE *stream);
size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,
FILE *stream);
int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos);
int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence);
int fsetpos(FILE *stream, const fpos_t *pos);
long int ftell(FILE *stream);
void rewind(FILE *stream);
void clearerr(FILE *stream);
int feof(FILE *stream);
int ferror(FILE *stream);
void perror(const char *s);
A.3.11 GENERAL UTILITIES <stdlib.h>
EXIT_FAILURE
EXIT_SUCCESS
MB_CUR_MAX
NULL
RAND_MAX
div_t
ldiv_t
size_t
wchar_t
double atof(const char *nptr);
int atoi(const char *nptr);
long int atol(const char *nptr);
double strtod(const char *nptr, char **endptr);
long int strtol(const char *nptr, char **endptr, int base);
unsigned long int strtoul(const char *nptr, char **endptr,
int base);
int rand(void);
void srand(unsigned int seed);
void *calloc(size_t nmemb, size_t size);
void free(void *ptr);
void *malloc(size_t size);
void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t size);
void abort(void);
int atexit(void (*func)(void));
void exit(int status);
char *getenv(const char *name);
int system(const char *string);
void *bsearch(const void *key, const void *base,
size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
int abs(int j);
div_t div(int numer, int denom);
long int labs(long int j);
ldiv_t ldiv(long int numer, long int denom);
int mblen(const char *s, size_t n);
int mbtowc(wchar_t *pwc, const char *s, size_t n);
int wctomb(char *s, wchar_t wchar);
size_t mbstowcs(wchar_t *pwcs, const char *s, size_t n);
size_t wcstombs(char *s, const wchar_t *pwcs, size_t n);
A.3.12 STRING HANDLING <string.h>
NULL
size_t
void *memcpy(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
char *strcpy(char *s1, const char *s2);
char *strncpy(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
char *strcat(char *s1, const char *s2);
char *strncat(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2);
int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
size_t strxfrm(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
void *memchr(const void *s, int c, size_t n);
char *strchr(const char *s, int c);
size_t strcspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);
char *strpbrk(const char *s1, const char *s2);
char *strrchr(const char *s, int c);
size_t strspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);
char *strstr(const char *s1, const char *s2);
char *strtok(char *s1, const char *s2);
void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n);
char *strerror(int errnum);
size_t strlen(const char *s);
A.3.13 DATE AND TIME <time.h>
CLK_TCK
NULL
clock_t
time_t
size_t
struct tm
clock_t clock(void);
double difftime(time_t time1, time_t time0);
time_t mktime(struct tm *timeptr);
time_t time(time_t *timer);
char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr);
char *ctime(const time_t *timer);
struct tm *gmtime(const time_t *timer);
struct tm *localtime(const time_t *timer);
size_t strftime(char *s, size_t maxsize,
const char *format, const struct tm *timeptr);
A.4 IMPLEMENTATION LIMITS
The contents of a header <limits.h> are given below, in alphabetic
order. The minimum magnitudes shown shall be replaced by
implementation-defined magnitudes with the same sign. The values
shall all be constant expressions suitable for use in #if
preprocessing directives. The components are described further in
$2.2.4.2.
#define CHAR_BIT 8
#define CHAR_MAX UCHAR_MAX or SCHAR_MAX
#define CHAR_MIN 0 or SCHAR_MIN
#define MB_LEN_MAX 1
#define INT_MAX +32767
#define INT_MIN -32767
#define LONG_MAX +2147483647
#define LONG_MIN -2147483647
#define SCHAR_MAX +127
#define SCHAR_MIN -127
#define SHRT_MAX +32767
#define SHRT_MIN -32767
#define UCHAR_MAX 255
#define UINT_MAX 65535
#define ULONG_MAX 4294967295
#define USHRT_MAX 65535
The contents of a header <float.h> are given below, in alphabetic
order. The value of FLT_RADIX shall be a constant expression suitable
for use in #if preprocessing directives. Values that need not be
constant expressions shall be supplied for all other components. The
minimum magnitudes shown for integers and exponents shall be replaced
by implementation-defined magnitudes with the same sign. The
components are described further in $2.2.4.2.
#define DBL_DIG 10
#define DBL_EPSILON 1E-9
#define DBL_MANT_DIG
#define DBL_MAX 1E+37
#define DBL_MAX_10_EXP +37
#define DBL_MAX_EXP
#define DBL_MIN 1E-37
#define DBL_MIN_10_EXP -37
#define DBL_MIN_EXP
#define FLT_DIG 6
#define FLT_EPSILON 1E-5
#define FLT_MANT_DIG
#define FLT_MAX 1E+37
#define FLT_MAX_10_EXP +37
#define FLT_MAX_EXP
#define FLT_MIN 1E-37
#define FLT_MIN_10_EXP -37
#define FLT_MIN_EXP
#define FLT_RADIX 2
#define FLT_ROUNDS
#define LDBL_DIG 10
#define LDBL_EPSILON 1E-9
#define LDBL_MANT_DIG
#define LDBL_MAX 1E+37
#define LDBL_MAX_10_EXP +37
#define LDBL_MAX_EXP
#define LDBL_MIN 1E-37
#define LDBL_MIN_10_EXP -37
#define LDBL_MIN_EXP
A.5 COMMON WARNINGS
An implementation may generate warnings in many situations, none of
which is specified as part of the Standard. The following are a few
of the more common situations.
* A block with initialization of an object that has automatic storage
duration is jumped into ($3.1.2.4).
* An integer character constant includes more than one character or a
wide character constant includes more than one multibyte character
($3.1.3.4).
* The characters /* are found in a comment ($3.1.7).
* An implicit narrowing conversion is encountered, such as the
assignment of a long int or a double to an int , or a pointer to void
to a pointer to any type of object other than char ($3.2).
* An ``unordered'' binary operator (not comma, && or || ) contains a
side-effect to an lvalue in one operand, and a side-effect to, or an
access to the value of, the identical lvalue in the other operand
($3.3).
* A function is called but no prototype has been supplied ($3.3.2.2).
* The arguments in a function call do not agree in number and type
with those of the parameters in a function definition that is not a
prototype ($3.3.2.2).
* An object is defined but not used ($3.5).
* A value is given to an object of an enumeration type other than by
assignment of an enumeration constant that is a member of that type,
or an enumeration variable that has the same type, or the value of a
function that returns the same enumeration type ($3.5.2.2).
* An aggregate has a partly bracketed initialization ($3.5.7).
* A statement cannot be reached ($3.6).
* A statement with no apparent effect is encountered ($3.6).
* A constant expression is used as the controlling expression of a
selection statement ($3.6.4).
* A function has return statements with and without expressions ($3.6.6.4).
* An incorrectly formed preprocessing group is encountered while
skipping a preprocessing group ($3.8.1).
* An unrecognized #pragma directive is encountered ($3.8.6).
A.6 PORTABILITY ISSUES
This appendix collects some information about portability that
appears in the Standard.
A.6.1 Unspecified behavior
The following are unspecified:
* The manner and timing of static initialization ($2.1.2).
* The behavior if a printable character is written when the active
position is at the final position of a line ($2.2.2).
* The behavior if a backspace character is written when the active
position is at the initial position of a line ($2.2.2).
* The behavior if a horizontal tab character is written when the
active position is at or past the last defined horizontal tabulation
position ($2.2.2).
* The behavior if a vertical tab character is written when the active
position is at or past the last defined vertical tabulation position
($2.2.2).
* The representations of floating types ($3.1.2.5).
* The order in which expressions are evaluated --- in any order
conforming to the precedence rules, even in the presence of
parentheses ($3.3).
* The order in which side effects take place ($3.3).
* The order in which the function designator and the arguments in a
function call are evaluated ($3.3.2.2).
* The alignment of the addressable storage unit allocated to hold a
bit-field ($3.5.2.1).
* The layout of storage for parameters ($3.7.1).
* The order in which # and ## operations are evaluated during macro
substitution ($3.8.3.3).
* Whether errno is a macro or an external identifier ($4.1.3).
* Whether setjmp is a macro or an external identifier ($4.6.1.1).
* Whether va_end is a macro or an external identifier ($4.8.1.3).
* The value of the file position indicator after a successful call to
the ungetc function for a text stream, until all pushed-back
characters are read or discarded ($4.9.7.11).
* The details of the value stored by the fgetpos function on success
($4.9.9.1).
* The details of the value returned by the ftell function for a text
stream on success ($4.9.9.4).
* The order and contiguity of storage allocated by the calloc ,
malloc , and realloc functions ($4.10.3).
* Which of two members that compare as equal is returned by the
bsearch function ($4.10.5.1).
* The order in an array sorted by the qsort function of two members
that compare as equal ($4.10.5.2).
* The encoding of the calendar time returned by the time function
($4.12.2.3).
A.6.2 Undefined behavior
The behavior in the following circumstances is undefined:
* A nonempty source file does not end in a new-line character, ends
in new-line character immediately preceded by a backslash character,
or ends in a partial preprocessing token or comment ($2.1.1.2).
* A character not in the required character set is encountered in a
source file, except in a preprocessing token that is never converted
to a token, a character constant, a string literal, or a comment
($2.2.1).
* A comment, string literal, character constant, or header name
contains an invalid multibyte character or does not begin and end in
the initial shift state ($2.2.1.2).
* An unmatched ' or character is encountered on a logical source line
during tokenization ($3.1).
* The same identifier is used more than once as a label in the same
function ($3.1.2.1).
* An identifier is used that is not visible in the current scope ($3.1.2.1).
* Identifiers that are intended to denote the same entity differ in a
character beyond the minimal significant characters ($3.1.2).
* The same identifier has both internal and external linkage in the
same translation unit ($3.1.2.2).
* An identifier with external linkage is used but there does not
exist exactly one external definition in the program for the
identifier ($3.1.2.2).
* The value stored in a pointer that referred to an object with
automatic storage duration is used ($3.1.2.4).
* Two declarations of the same object or function specify types that
are not compatible ($3.1.2.6).
* An unspecified escape sequence is encountered in a character
constant or a string literal ($3.1.3.4).
* An attempt is made to modify a string literal of either form ($3.1.4).
* A character string literal token is adjacent to a wide string
literal token ($3.1.4).
* The characters ', \ , , or /* are encountered between the < and >
delimiters or the characters ', \ , or /* are encountered between the
delimiters in the two forms of a header name preprocessing token
($3.1.7).
* An arithmetic conversion produces a result that cannot be
represented in the space provided ($3.2.1).
* An lvalue with an incomplete type is used in a context that
requires the value of the designated object ($3.2.2.1).
* The value of a void expression is used or an implicit conversion
(except to void ) is applied to a void expression ($3.2.2.2).
* An object is modified more than once, or is modified and accessed
other than to determine the new value, between two sequence points
($3.3).
* An arithmetic operation is invalid (such as division or modulus by 0)
or produces a result that cannot be represented in the space
provided (such as overflow or underflow) ($3.3).
* An object has its stored value accessed by an lvalue that does not
have one of the following types: the declared type of the object, a
qualified version of the declared type of the object, the signed or
unsigned type corresponding to the declared type of the object, the
signed or unsigned type corresponding to a qualified version of the
declared type of the object, an aggregate or union type that
(recursively) includes one of the aforementioned types among its
members, or a character type ($3.3).
* An argument to a function is a void expression ($3.3.2.2).
* For a function call without a function prototype, the number of
arguments does not agree with the number of parameters ($3.3.2.2).
* For a function call without a function prototype, if the function
is defined without a function prototype, and the types of the
arguments after promotion do not agree with those of the parameters
after promotion ($3.3.2.2).
* If a function is called with a function prototype and the function
is not defined with a compatible type ($3.3.2.2).
* A function that accepts a variable number of arguments is called
without a function prototype that ends with an ellipsis ($3.3.2.2).
* An invalid array reference, null pointer reference, or reference to
an object declared with automatic storage duration in a terminated
block occurs ($3.3.3.2).
* A pointer to a function is converted to point to a function of a
different type and used to call a function of a type not compatible
with the original type ($3.3.4).
* A pointer to a function is converted to a pointer to an object or a
pointer to an object is converted to a pointer to a function ($3.3.4).
* A pointer is converted to other than an integral or pointer type ($3.3.4).
* A pointer that is not to a member of an array object is added to or
subtracted from ($3.3.6).
* Pointers that are not to the same array object are subtracted ($3.3.6).
* An expression is shifted by a negative number or by an amount
greater than or equal to the width in bits of the expression being
shifted ($3.3.7).
* Pointers are compared using a relational operator that do not point
to the same aggregate or union ($3.3.8).
* An object is assigned to an overlapping object ($3.3.16.1).
* An identifier for an object is declared with no linkage and the
type of the object is incomplete after its declarator, or after its
init-declarator if it has an initializer ($3.5).
* A function is declared at block scope with a storage-class
specifier other than extern ($3.5.1).
* A bit-field is declared with a type other than int , signed int ,
or unsigned int ($3.5.2.1).
* An attempt is made to modify an object with const-qualified type by
means of an lvalue with non-const-qualified type ($3.5.3).
* An attempt is made to refer to an object with volatile-qualified
type by means of an lvalue with non-volatile-qualified type ($3.5.3).
* The value of an uninitialized object that has automatic storage
duration is used before a value is assigned ($3.5.7).
* An object with aggregate or union type with static storage duration
has a non-brace-enclosed initializer, or an object with aggregate or
union type with automatic storage duration has either a single
expression initializer with a type other than that of the object or a
non-brace-enclosed initializer ($3.5.7).
* The value of a function is used, but no value was returned ($3.6.6.4).
* A function that accepts a variable number of arguments is defined
without a parameter type list that ends with the ellipsis notation
($3.7.1).
* An identifier for an object with internal linkage and an incomplete
type is declared with a tentative definition ($3.7.2).
* The token defined is generated during the expansion of a #if or
#elif preprocessing directive ($3.8.1).
* The #include preprocessing directive that results after expansion
does not match one of the two header name forms ($3.8.2).
* A macro argument consists of no preprocessing tokens ($3.8.3).
* There are sequences of preprocessing tokens within the list of
macro arguments that would otherwise act as preprocessing directive
lines ($3.8.3).
* The result of the preprocessing concatenation operator ## is not a
valid preprocessing token ($3.8.3).
* The #line preprocessing directive that results after expansion does
not match one of the two well-defined forms ($3.8.4).
* One of the following identifiers is the subject of a #define or
#undef preprocessing directive: defined , __LINE__ , __FILE__ ,
__DATE__ , __TIME__ , or __STDC__ ($3.8.8).
* An attempt is made to copy an object to an overlapping object by
use of a library function other than memmove ($4.).
* The effect if the program redefines a reserved external identifier
($4.1.2).
* The effect if a standard header is included within an external
definition; is included for the first time after the first reference
to any of the functions or objects it declares, or to any of the types
or macros it defines; or is included while a macro is defined with a
name the same as a keyword ($4.1.2).
* A macro definition of errno is suppressed to obtain access to an
actual object ($4.1.3).
* The parameter member-designator of an offsetof macro is an invalid
right operand of the . operator for the type parameter or designates
bit-field member of a structure ($4.1.5).
* A library function argument has an invalid value, unless the
behavior is specified explicitly ($4.1.6).
* A library function that accepts a variable number of arguments is
not declared ($4.1.6).
* The macro definition of assert is suppressed to obtain access to an
actual function ($4.2).
* The argument to a character handling function is out of the domain ($4.3).
* A macro definition of setjmp is suppressed to obtain access to an
actual function ($4.6).
* An invocation of the setjmp macro occurs in a context other than as
the controlling expression in a selection or iteration statement, or
in a comparison with an integral constant expression (possibly as
implied by the unary ! operator) as the controlling expression of a
selection or iteration statement, or as an expression statement
(possibly cast to void ) ($4.6.1.1).
* An object of automatic storage class that does not have
volatile-qualified type has been changed between a setjmp invocation
and a longjmp call and then has its value accessed ($4.6.2.1).
* The longjmp function is invoked from a nested signal routine ($4.6.2.1).
* A signal occurs other than as the result of calling the abort or
raise function, and the signal handler calls any function in the
standard library other than the signal function itself or refers to
any object with static storage duration other than by assigning a
value to a static storage duration variable of type volatile
sig_atomic_t ($4.7.1.1).
* The value of errno is referred to after a signal occurs other than
as the result of calling the abort or raise function and the
corresponding signal handler calls the signal function such that it
returns the value SIG_ERR ($4.7.1.1).
* The macro va_arg is invoked with the parameter ap that was passed
to a function that invoked the macro va_arg with the same parameter
($4.8).
* A macro definition of va_start , va_arg , or va_end or a
combination thereof is suppressed to obtain access to an actual
function ($4.8.1).
* The parameter parmN of a va_start macro is declared with the
register storage class, or with a function or array type, or with a
type that is not compatible with the type that results after
application of the default argument promotions ($4.8.1.1).
* There is no actual next argument for a va_arg macro invocation
($4.8.1.2).
* The type of the actual next argument in a variable argument list
disagrees with the type specified by the va_arg macro ($4.8.1.2).
* The va_end macro is invoked without a corresponding invocation of
the va_start macro ($4.8.1.3).
* A return occurs from a function with a variable argument list
initialized by the va_start macro before the va_end macro is invoked
($4.8.1.3).
* The stream for the fflush function points to an input stream or to
an update stream in which the most recent operation was input
($4.9.5.2).
* An output operation on an update stream is followed by an input
operation without an intervening call to the fflush function or a file
positioning function, or an input operation on an update stream is
followed by an output operation without an intervening call to a file
positioning function ($4.9.5.3).
* The format for the fprintf or fscanf function does not match the
argument list ($4.9.6).
* An invalid conversion specification is found in the format for the
fprintf or fscanf function ($4.9.6).
* A %% conversion specification for the fprintf or fscanf function
contains characters between the pair of % characters ($4.9.6).
* A conversion specification for the fprintf function contains an h
or l with a conversion specifier other than d , i , n , o , u , x , or
X , or an L with a conversion specifier other than e , E , f , g , or
G ($4.9.6.1).
* A conversion specification for the fprintf function contains a #
flag with a conversion specifier other than o , x , X , e , E , f , g,
or G ($4.9.6.1).
* A conversion specification for the fprintf function contains a 0
flag with a conversion specifier other than d , i , o , u , x , X , e,
E , f , g , or G ($4.9.6.1).
* An aggregate or union, or a pointer to an aggregate or union is an
argument to the fprintf function, except for the conversion specifiers
%s (for an array of character type) or %p (for a pointer to void )
($4.9.6.1).
* A single conversion by the fprintf function produces more than 509
characters of output ($4.9.6.1).
* A conversion specification for the fscanf function contains an h or
l with a conversion specifier other than d , i , n , o , u , or x , or
an L with a conversion specifier other than e , f , or g ($4.9.6.2).
* A pointer value printed by %p conversion by the fprintf function
during a previous program execution is the argument for %p conversion
by the fscanf function ($4.9.6.2).
* The result of a conversion by the fscanf function cannot be
represented in the space provided, or the receiving object does not
have an appropriate type ($4.9.6.2).
* The result of converting a string to a number by the atof , atoi ,
or atol function cannot be represented ($4.10.1).
* The value of a pointer that refers to space deallocated by a call
to the free or realloc function is referred to ($4.10.3).
* The pointer argument to the free or realloc function does not match
a pointer earlier returned by calloc , malloc , or realloc , or the
object pointed to has been deallocated by a call to free or realloc
($4.10.3).
* A program executes more than one call to the exit function ($4.10.4.3).
* The result of an integer arithmetic function ( abs , div , labs ,
or ldiv ) cannot be represented ($4.10.6).
* The shift states for the mblen , mbtowc , and wctomb functions are
not explicitly reset to the initial state when the LC_CTYPE category
of the current locale is changed ($4.10.7).
* An array written to by a copying or concatenation function is too
small ($4.11.2, $4.11.3).
* An invalid conversion specification is found in the format for the
strftime function ($4.12.3.5).
A.6.3 Implementation-defined behavior
Each implementation shall document its behavior in each of the
areas listed in this section. The following are
implementation-defined:
A.6.3.1 Environment
* The semantics of the arguments to main ($2.1.2.2).
* What constitutes an interactive device ($2.1.2.3).
A.6.3.2 Identifiers
* The number of significant initial characters (beyond 31) in an
identifier without external linkage ($3.1.2).
* The number of significant initial characters (beyond 6) in an
identifier with external linkage ($3.1.2).
* Whether case distinctions are significant in an identifier with
external linkage ($3.1.2).
A.6.3.3 Characters
* The members of the source and execution character sets, except as
explicitly specified in the Standard ($2.2.1).
* The shift states used for the encoding of multibyte characters $2.2.1.2).
* The number of bits in a character in the execution character set
($2.2.4.2).
* The mapping of members of the source character set (in character
constants and string literals) to members of the execution character
set ($3.1.3.4).
* The value of an integer character constant that contains a
character or escape sequence not represented in the basic execution
character set or the extended character set for a wide character
constant ($3.1.3.4).
* The value of an integer character constant that contains more than
one character or a wide character constant that contains more than one
multibyte character ($3.1.3.4).
* The current locale used to convert multibyte characters into
corresponding wide characters (codes) for a wide character constant
($3.1.3.4).
* Whether a ``plain'' char has the same range of values as signed
char or unsigned char ($3.2.1.1).
A.6.3.4 Integers
* The representations and sets of values of the various types of
integers ($3.1.2.5).
* The result of converting an integer to a shorter signed integer, or
the result of converting an unsigned integer to a signed integer of
equal length, if the value cannot be represented ($3.2.1.2).
* The results of bitwise operations on signed integers ($3.3).
* The sign of the remainder on integer division ($3.3.5).
* The result of a right shift of a negative-valued signed integral
type ($3.3.7).
A.6.3.5 Floating point
* The representations and sets of values of the various types of
floating-point numbers ($3.1.2.5).
* The direction of truncation when an integral number is converted to
a floating-point number that cannot exactly represent the original
value ($3.2.1.3).
* The direction of truncation or rounding when a floating-point
number is converted to a narrower floating-point number ($3.2.1.4).
A.6.3.6 Arrays and pointers
* The type of integer required to hold the maximum size of an array
--- that is, the type of the sizeof operator, size_t ($3.3.3.4,
$4.1.1).
* The result of casting a pointer to an integer or vice versa ($3.3.4).
* The type of integer required to hold the difference between two
pointers to members of the same array, ptrdiff_t ($3.3.6, $4.1.1).
A.6.3.7 Registers
* The extent to which objects can actually be placed in registers by
use of the register storage-class specifier ($3.5.1).
A.6.3.8 Structures, unions, enumerations, and bit-fields
* A member of a union object is accessed using a member of a
different type ($3.3.2.3).
* The padding and alignment of members of structures ($3.5.2.1).
This should present no problem unless binary data written by one
implementation are read by another.
* Whether a ``plain'' int bit-field is treated as a signed int
bit-field or as an unsigned int bit-field ($3.5.2.1).
* The order of allocation of bit-fields within an int ($3.5.2.1).
* Whether a bit-field can straddle a storage-unit boundary ($3.5.2.1).
* The integer type chosen to represent the values of an enumeration
type ($3.5.2.2).
A.6.3.9 Qualifiers
* What constitutes an access to an object that has volatile-qualified
type ($3.5.5.3).
A.6.3.10 Declarators
* The maximum number of declarators that may modify an arithmetic,
structure, or union type ($3.5.4).
A.6.3.11 Statements
* The maximum number of case values in a switch statement ($3.6.4.2).
A.6.3.12 Preprocessing directives
* Whether the value of a single-character character constant in a
constant expression that controls conditional inclusion matches the
value of the same character constant in the execution character set.
Whether such a character constant may have a negative value ($3.8.1).
* The method for locating includable source files ($3.8.2).
* The support of quoted names for includable source files ($3.8.2).
* The mapping of source file character sequences ($3.8.2).
* The behavior on each recognized #pragma directive ($3.8.6).
* The definitions for __DATE__ and __TIME__ when respectively, the
date and time of translation are not available ($3.8.8).
A.6.3.13 Library functions
* The null pointer constant to which the macro NULL expands ($4.1.5).
* The diagnostic printed by and the termination behavior of the
assert function ($4.2).
* The sets of characters tested for by the isalnum , isalpha ,
iscntrl , islower , isprint , and isupper functions ($4.3.1).
* The values returned by the mathematics functions on domain errors
($4.5.1).
* Whether the mathematics functions set the integer expression errno
to the value of the macro ERANGE on underflow range errors ($4.5.1).
* Whether a domain error occurs or zero is returned when the fmod
function has a second argument of zero ($4.5.6.4).
* The set of signals for the signal function ($4.7.1.1).
* The semantics for each signal recognized by the signal function
($4.7.1.1).
* The default handling and the handling at program startup for each
signal recognized by the signal function ($4.7.1.1).
* If the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is not executed prior to
the call of a signal handler, the blocking of the signal that is
performed ($4.7.1.1).
* Whether the default handling is reset if the SIGILL signal is
received by a handler specified to the signal function ($4.7.1.1).
* Whether the last line of a text stream requires a terminating
new-line character ($4.9.2).
* Whether space characters that are written out to a text stream
immediately before a new-line character appear when read in ($4.9.2).
* The number of null characters that may be appended to data written
to a binary stream ($4.9.2).
* Whether the file position indicator of an append mode stream is
initially positioned at the beginning or end of the file ($4.9.3).
* Whether a write on a text stream causes the associated file to be
truncated beyond that point ($4.9.3).
* The characteristics of file buffering ($4.9.3).
* Whether a zero-length file actually exists ($4.9.3).
* The rules for composing valid file names ($4.9.3).
* Whether the same file can be open multiple times ($4.9.3).
* The effect of the remove function on an open file ($4.9.4.1).
* The effect if a file with the new name exists prior to a call to
the rename function ($4.9.4.2).
* The output for %p conversion in the fprintf function ($4.9.6.1).
* The input for %p conversion in the fscanf function ($4.9.6.2).
* The interpretation of a - character that is neither the first nor
the last character in the scanlist for %[ conversion in the fscanf
function ($4.9.6.2).
* The value to which the macro errno is set by the fgetpos or ftell
function on failure ($4.9.9.1, $4.9.9.4).
* The messages generated by the perror function ($4.9.10.4).
* The behavior of the calloc , malloc , or realloc function if the
size requested is zero ($4.10.3).
* The behavior of the abort function with regard to open and
temporary files ($4.10.4.1).
* The status returned by the exit function if the value of the
argument is other than zero, EXIT_SUCCESS , or EXIT_FAILURE
($4.10.4.3).
* The set of environment names and the method for altering the
environment list used by the getenv function ($4.10.4.4).
* The contents and mode of execution of the string by the system
function ($4.10.4.5).
* The contents of the error message strings returned by the strerror
function ($4.11.6.2).
* The local time zone and Daylight Saving Time ($4.12.1).
* The era for the clock function ($4.12.2.1).
A.6.4 Locale-specific Behavior
The following characteristics of a hosted environment are locale-specific:
* The content of the execution character set, in addition to the
required members ($2.2.1).
* The direction of printing ($2.2.2).
* The decimal-point character ($4.1.1).
* The implementation-defined aspects of character testing and case
mapping functions ($4.3).
* The collation sequence of the execution character set ($4.11.4.4).
* The formats for time and date ($4.12.3.5).
A.6.5 Common extensions
The following extensions are widely used in many systems, but are
not portable to all implementations. The inclusion of any extension
that may cause a strictly conforming program to become invalid renders
an implementation nonconforming. Examples of such extensions are new
keywords, or library functions declared in standard headers or
predefined macros with names that do not begin with an underscore.
A.6.5.1 Environment arguments
In a hosted environment, the main function receives a third
argument, char *envp[] , that points to a null-terminated array of
pointers to char , each of which points to a string that provides
information about the environment for this execution of the process
($2.1.2.2).
A.6.5.2 Specialized identifiers
Characters other than the underscore _ , letters, and digits, that
are not defined in the required source character set (such as the
dollar sign $ , or characters in national character sets) may appear
in an identifier ($3.1.2).
A.6.5.3 Lengths and cases of identifiers
All characters in identifiers (with or without external linkage)
are significant and case distinctions are observed ($3.1.2).
A.6.5.4 Scopes of identifiers
A function identifier, or the identifier of an object the
declaration of which contains the keyword extern , has file scope
($3.1.2.1).
A.6.5.5 Writable string literals
String literals are modifiable. Identical string literals shall be
distinct ($3.1.4).
A.6.5.6 Other arithmetic types
Other arithmetic types, such as long long int , and their
appropriate conversions are defined ($3.2.2.1).
A.6.5.7 Function pointer casts
A pointer to an object or to void may be cast to a pointer to a
function, allowing data to be invoked as a function ($3.3.4). A
pointer to a function may be cast to a pointer to an object or to void
, allowing a function to be inspected or modified (for example, by a
debugger) ($3.3.4).
A.6.5.8 Non-int bit-field types
Types other than int , unsigned int , or signed int can be declared
as bit-fields, with appropriate maximum widths ($3.5.2.1).
A.6.5.9 The fortran keyword
The fortran type specifier may be used in a function declaration to
indicate that function linkage suitable for FORTRAN is to be
generated, or that different representations for external names are to
be generated ($3.5.4.3).
A.6.5.10 The asm keyword
The asm keyword may be used to insert assembly-language code
directly into the translator output. The most common implementation
is via a statement of the form
asm ( character-string-literal );
($3.6).
A.6.5.11 Multiple external definitions
There may be more than one external definition for the identifier
of an object, with or without the explicit use of the keyword extern ,
If the definitions disagree, or more than one is initialized, the
behavior is undefined ($3.7.2).
A.6.5.12 Empty macro arguments
A macro argument may consist of no preprocessing tokens ($3.8.3).
A.6.5.13 Predefined macro names
Macro names that do not begin with an underscore, describing the
translation and execution environments, may be defined by the
implementation before translation begins ($3.8.8).
A.6.5.14 Extra arguments for signal handlers
Handlers for specific signals may be called with extra arguments in
addition to the signal number ($4.7.1.1).
A.6.5.15 Additional stream types and file-opening modes
Additional mappings from files to streams may be supported
($4.9.2), and additional file-opening modes may be specified by
characters appended to the mode argument of the fopen function
($4.9.5.3).
A.6.5.16 Defined file position indicator
The file position indicator is decremented by each successful call
to the ungetc function for a text stream, except if its value was zero
before a call ($4.9.7.11).
A.7 INDEX
Only major references are listed.
absolute-value functions, 4.5.6.2, 4.10.6.1
abstract declarator, type name, 3.5.5
abstract machine, 2.1.2.3
abstract semantics, 2.1.2.3
active position, 2.2.2
addition assignment operator, +=, 3.3.16.2
addition operator, +, 3.3.6
additive expressions, 3.3.6
address operator, &, 3.3.3.2
aggregate type, 3.1.2.5
alert escape sequence, \a, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
alignment, definition of, 1.6
alignment of structure members, 3.5.2.1
AND operator, bitwise, &, 3.3.10
AND operator, logical, &&, 3.3.13
argument, function, 3.3.2.2
argument, 1.6
argument promotion, default, 3.3.2.2
arithmetic conversions, usual, 3.2.1.5
arithmetic operators, unary, 3.3.3.3
arithmetic type, 3.1.2.5
array declarator, 3.5.4.2
array parameter, 3.7.1
array subscript operator, [ ], 3.3.2.1
array type, 3.1.2.5
array type conversion, 3.2.2.1
arrow operator, ->, 3.3.2.3
ASCII character set, 2.2.1.1
assignment operators, 3.3.16
asterisk punctuator, *, 3.1.6, 3.5.4.1
automatic storage, reentrancy, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3
automatic storage duration, 3.1.2.4
backslash character, \, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1
backspace escape sequence, \b, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
base documents, 1.5
basic character set, 1.6, 2.2.1
basic type, 3.1.2.5
binary stream, 4.9.2
bit, definition of, 1.6
bit, high-order, 1.6
bit, low-order, 1.6
bit-field structure member, 3.5.2.1
bitwise operators, 3.3, 3.3.7, 3.3.10, 3.3.11, 3.3.12
block, 3.6.2
block identifier scope, 3.1.2.1
braces punctuator, { }, 3.1.6, 3.5.7, 3.6.2
brackets punctuator, [ ], 3.1.6, 3.3.2.1, 3.5.4.2
broken-down-time type, 4.12.1
byte, definition of, 1.6
C program, 2.1.1.1
C Standard, definition of terms, 1.6
C Standard, organization of document, 1.4
C Standard, purpose of, 1.1
C Standard, references, 1.3
C Standard, scope, restrictions and limits, 1.2
carriage-return escape sequence, \r, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
case mapping functions, 4.3.2
cast expressions, 3.3.4
cast operator, ( ), 3.3.4
character, 1.6
character case mapping functions, 4.3.2
character constant, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1.3.4
character display semantics, 2.2.2
character handling header, 4.3
character input/output functions, 4.9.7
character sets, 2.2.1
character string literal, 2.1.1.2, 3.1.4
character testing functions, 4.3.1
character type, 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7
character type conversion, 3.2.1.1
collating sequence, character set, 2.2.1
colon punctuator, :, 3.1.6, 3.5.2.1
comma operator, ,, 3.3.17
command processor, 4.10.4.5
comment delimiters, /* */, 3.1.9
comments, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.1.9
common initial sequence, 3.3.2.3
comparison functions, 4.11.4
compatible type, 3.1.2.6, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.4
complement operator, ~, 3.3.3.3
compliance, 1.7
composite type, 3.1.2.6
compound assignment operators, 3.3.16.2
compound statement, 3.6.2
concatenation functions, 4.11.3
conceptual models, 2.1
conditional inclusion, 3.8.1
conditional operator, ? :, 3.3.15
conforming freestanding implementation, 1.7
conforming hosted implementation, 1.7
conforming implementation, 1.7
conforming program, 1.7
const-qualified type, 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.3
constant, character, 3.1.3.4
constant, enumeration, 3.1.2, 3.1.3.3
constant, floating, 3.1.3.1
constant, integer, 3.1.3.2
constant, primary expression, 3.3.1
constant expressions, 3.4
constants, 3.1.3
constraints, definition of, 1.6
content, structure/union/enumeration, 3.5.2.3
contiguity, memory allocation, 4.10.3
control characters, 2.2.1, 4.3.1, 4.3.1.3
conversion, arithmetic operands, 3.2.1
conversion, array, 3.2.2.1
conversion, characters and integers, 3.2.1.1
conversion, explicit, 3.2
conversion, floating and integral, 3.2.1.3
conversion, floating types, 3.2.1.4, 3.2.1.5
conversion, function, 3.2.2.1
conversion, function arguments, 3.3.2.2, 3.7.1
conversion, implicit, 3.2
conversion, pointer, 3.2.2.1, 3.2.2.3
conversion, signed and unsigned integers, 3.2.1.2
conversion, void type, 3.2.2.2
conversions, 3.2
conversions, usual arithmetic, 3.2.1.5
copying functions, 4.11.2
data streams, 4.9.2
date and time header, 4.12
decimal constant, 3.1.3.2
decimal digits, 2.2.1
decimal-point character, 4.1.1
declaration specifiers, 3.5
declarations, 3.5
declarators, 3.5.4
declarator type derivation, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.4
decrement operator, postfix, --, 3.3.2.4
decrement operator, prefix, --, 3.3.3.1
default argument promotions, 3.3.2.2
definition, 3.5
derived declarator types, 3.1.2.5
derived types, 3.1.2.5
device input/output, 2.1.2.3
diagnostics, 2.1.1.3
diagnostics, assert.h, 4.2
direct input/output functions, 4.9.8
display device, 2.2.2
division assignment operator, /=, 3.3.16.2
division operator, /, 3.3.5
documentation of implementation, 1.7
domain error, 4.5.1
dot operator, ., 3.3.2.3
double-precision arithmetic, 2.1.2.3
element type, 3.1.2.5
ellipsis, unspecified parameters, , ..., 3.5.4.3
end-of-file macro, EOF, 4.3, 4.9.1
end-of-file indicator, 4.9.1, 4.9.7.1
end-of-line indicator, 2.2.1
enumerated types, 3.1.2.5
enumeration constant, 3.1.2, 3.1.3.3
enumeration content, 3.5.2.3
enumeration members, 3.5.2.2
enumeration specifiers, 3.5.2.2
enumeration tag, 3.5.2.3
enumerator, 3.5.2.2
environment, 2
environment functions, 4.10.4
environment list, 4.10.4.4
environmental considerations, 2.2
environmental limits, 2.2.4
equal-sign punctuator, =, 3.1.6, 3.5, 3.5.7
equal-to operator, ==, 3.3.9
equality expressions, 3.3.9
error, domain, 4.5.1
error, range, 4.5.1
error conditions, 4.5.1
error handling functions, 4.9.10, 4.11.6.2
error indicator, 4.9.1, 4.9.7.1, 4.9.7.3
escape sequences, 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
evaluation, 3.1.5, 3.3
exception, 3.3
exclusive OR assignment operator, ^=, 3.3.16.2
exclusive OR operator, ^, 3.3.11
executable program, 2.1.1.1
execution environment, character sets, 2.2.1
execution environment limits, 2.2.4.2
execution environments, 2.1.2
execution sequence, 2.1.2.3, 3.6
explicit conversion, 3.2
exponent part, floating constant, 3.1.3.1
exponential functions, 4.5.4
expression, 3.3
expression, full, 3.6
expression, primary, 3.3.1
expression, unary, 3.3.3
expression statement, 3.6.3
extended character set, 1.6, 2.2.1.2
external definitions, 3.7
external identifiers, underscore, 4.1.2
external linkage, 3.1.2.2
external name, 3.1.2
external object definitions, 3.7.2
file, closing, 4.9.3
file, creating, 4.9.3
file, opening, 4.9.3
file access functions, 4.9.5
file identifier scope, 3.1.2.1, 3.7
file name, 4.9.3
file operations, 4.9.4
file position indicator, 4.9.3
file positioning functions, 4.9.9
files, 4.9.3
floating arithmetic functions, 4.5.6
floating constants, 3.1.3.1
floating suffix, f or F, 3.1.3.1
floating types, 3.1.2.5
floating-point numbers, 3.1.2.5
form-feed character, 2.2.1, 3.1
form-feed escape sequence, \f, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
formatted input/output functions, 4.9.6
forward references, definition of, 1.6
freestanding execution environment, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.1
full expression, 3.6
fully buffered stream, 4.9.3
function, definition of, 1.6, 3.5.4.3
function, recursive call, 3.3.2.2
function argument, 3.3.2.2
function body, 3.7, 3.7.1
function call, 3.3.2.2
function call, library, 4.1.6
function declarator, 3.5.4.3
function definition, 3.5.4.3, 3.7.1
function designator, 3.2.2.1
function identifier scope, 3.1.2.1
function image, 2.2.3
function library, 2.1.1.1, 4.1.6
function parameter, 2.1.2.2, 3.3.2.2
function prototype, 3.1.2.1, 3.3.2.2, 3.5.4.3, 3.7.1
function prototype identifier scope, 3.1.2.1
function return, 3.6.6.4
function type, 3.1.2.5
function type conversion, 3.2.2.1
function-call operator, ( ), 3.3.2.2
future directions, 1.8, 3.9, 4.13
future language directions, 3.9
future library directions, 4.13
general utility library, 4.10
graphic characters, 2.2.1
greater-than operator, >, 3.3.8
greater-than-or-equal-to operator, >=, 3.3.8
header names, 3.1, 3.1.7, 3.8.2
headers, 4.1.2
hexadecimal constant, 3.1.3.2
hexadecimal digit, 3.1.3.2, 3.1.3.4
hexadecimal escape sequence, 3.1.3.4
high-order bit, 1.6
horizontal-tab character, 2.2.1, 3.1
horizontal-tab escape sequence, \t, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
hosted execution environment, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.2
hyperbolic functions, 4.5.3
identifier, 3.1.2, 3.3.1
identifier, maximum length, 3.1.2
identifier, reserved, 4.1.2
identifier linkage, 3.1.2.2
identifier list, 3.5.4
identifier name space, 3.1.2.3
identifier scope, 3.1.2.1
identifier type, 3.1.2.5
IEEE floating-point arithmetic standard, 2.2.4.2
implementation, definition of, 1.6
implementation limits, 1.6, 2.2.4
implementation-defined behavior, 1.6
implicit conversion, 3.2
implicit function declaration, 3.3.2.2
inclusive OR assignment operator, |=, 3.3.16.2
inclusive OR operator, |, 3.3.12
incomplete type, 3.1.2.5
increment operator, postfix, ++, 3.3.2.4
increment operator, prefix, ++, 3.3.3.1
indirection operator, *, 3.3.3.2
inequality operator, !=, 3.3.9
initialization, 2.1.2, 3.1.2.4, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7, 3.6.2
initializer, string literal, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7
initializer braces, 3.5.7
initial shift state, 2.2.1.2, 4.10.7
input/output, device, 2.1.2.3
input/output header, 4.9
integer arithmetic functions, 4.10.6
integer character constant, 3.1.3.4
integer constants, 3.1.3.2
integer suffix, 3.1.3.2
integer type, 3.1.2.5
integer type conversion, 3.2.1.1, 3.2.1.2
integral constant expression, 3.4
integral promotions, 2.1.2.3, 3.2.1.1
integral type, 3.1.2.5
integral type conversion, 3.2.1.3
interactive device, 2.1.2.3, 4.9.3, 4.9.5.3
internal linkage, 3.1.2.2
internal name, 3.1.2
interrupt handler, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3, 4.7
ISO 4217 Currency and Funds Representation, 1.3, 4.4.2.1
ISO 646 Invariant Code Set, 1.3, 2.2.1.1
iteration statements, 3.6.5
jump statements, 3.6.6
keywords, 3.1.1
label name, 3.1.2.1, 3.1.2.3
labeled statements, 3.6.1
language, 3 language, future directions, 3.9
leading underscore in identifiers, 4.1.2
left-shift assignment operator, <<=, 3.3.16.2
left-shift operator, <<, 3.3.7
length function, 4.11.6.3
less-than operator, <, 3.3.8
less-than-or-equal-to operator, <=, 3.3.8
letter, 4.1.1
lexical elements, 2.1.1.2, 3.1
library, 2.1.1.1, 4
library, future directions, 4.13
library functions, use of, 4.1.6
library terms, 4.1.1
limits, environmental, 2.2.4
limits, numerical, 2.2.4.2
limits, translation, 2.2.4.1
line buffered stream, 4.9.3
line number, 3.8.4
lines, 2.1.1.2, 3.8, 4.9.2
linkages of identifiers, 3.1.2.2
locale, definition of, 1.6
localization, 4.4
logarithmic functions, 4.5.4
logical AND operator, &&, 3.3.13
logical negation operator, !, 3.3.3.3
logical OR operator, ||, 3.3.14
logical source lines, 2.1.1.2
long double suffix, l or L, 3.1.3.1
long integer suffix, l or L, 3.1.3.2
low-order bit, 1.6 lvalue, 3.2.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.3.2.4, 3.3.3.1, 3.3.16
macro function vs. definition, 4.1.6
macro name definition, 2.2.4.1
macro names, predefined, 3.8.8
macro, redefinition of, 3.8.3
macro replacement, 3.8.3
member-access operators, . and ->, 3.3.2.3
memory management functions, 4.10.3
minus operator, unary, -, 3.3.3.3
modifiable lvalue, 3.2.2.1
modulus function, 4.5.4.6
multibyte characters, 2.2.1.2, 3.1.3.4, 4.10.7, 4.10.8
multibyte functions, 4.10.7, 4.10.8
multiplication assignment operator, *=, 3.3.16.2
multiplication operator, *, 3.3.5
multiplicative expressions, 3.3.5
name, file, 4.9.3
name spaces of identifiers, 3.1.2.3
nearest-integer functions, 4.5.6
new-line character, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1, 3.8, 3.8.4
new-line escape sequence, \n, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
nongraphic characters, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
nonlocal jumps header, 4.6
not-equal-to operator, !=, 3.3.9
null character padding of binary streams, 4.9.2
null character, \0, 2.2.1, 3.1.3.4, 3.1.4
null pointer, 3.2.2.3
null pointer constant, 3.2.2.3
null preprocessing directive, 3.8.7
null statement, 3.6.3
number, floating-point, 3.1.2.5
numerical limits, 2.2.4.2
object, definition of, 1.6
object type, 3.1.2.5
obsolescence, 1.8, 3.9, 4.13
octal constant, 3.1.3.2
octal digit, 3.1.3.2, 3.1.3.4
octal escape sequence, 3.1.3.4
operand, 3.1.5, 3.3
operating system, 2.1.2.1, 4.10.4.5
operator, unary, 3.3.3
operators, 3.1.5, 3.3
OR assignment operator, exclusive, ^=, 3.3.16.2
OR assignment operator, inclusive, |=, 3.3.16.2
OR operator, exclusive, ^, 3.3.11
OR operator, inclusive, |, 3.3.12
OR operator, logical, ||, 3.3.14
order of memory allocation, 4.10.3
order of evaluation of expression, 3.3
ordinary identifier name space, 3.1.2.3
padding, null character, 4.9.2
parameter, ellipsis, , ..., 3.5.4.3
parameter, function, 3.3.2.2
parameter, main function, 2.1.2.2
parameter, 1.6
parameter type list, 3.5.4.3
parameters, program, 2.1.2.2
parentheses punctuator, ( ), 3.1.6, 3.5.4.3
parenthesized expression, 3.3.1
physical source lines, 2.1.1.2
plus operator, unary, +, 3.3.3.3
pointer, null, 3.2.2.3
pointer declarator, 3.5.4.1
pointer operator, ->, 3.3.2.3
pointer to function returning type, 3.3.2.2
pointer type, 3.1.2.5
pointer type conversion, 3.2.2.1, 3.2.2.3
portability of implementations, 1.7
position indicator, file, 4.9.3
postfix decrement operator, --, 3.3.2.4
postfix expressions, 3.3.2
postfix increment operator, ++, 3.3.2.4
power functions, 4.5.5
precedence of expression operators, 3.3
precedence of syntax rules, 2.1.1.2
predefined macro names, 3.8.8
prefix decrement operator, --, 3.3.3.1
prefix increment operator, ++, 3.3.3.1
preprocessing concatenation, 2.1.1.2, 3.8.3
preprocessing directives, 2.1.1.2, 3.8
preprocessing numbers, 3.1, 3.1.8
preprocessing tokens, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.8
primary expressions, 3.3.1
printing characters, 2.2.2, 4.3.1, 4.3.1.7
program, conforming, 1.7
program, strictly conforming, 1.7
program diagnostics, 4.2.1
program execution, 2.1.2.3
program file, 2.1.1.1
program image, 2.1.1.2
program name, argv[0], 2.1.2.2
program parameters, 2.1.2.2
program startup, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.1, 2.1.2.2
program structure, 2.1.1.1
program termination, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.1, 2.1.2.2, 2.1.2.3
promotions, default argument, 3.3.2.2
promotions, integral, 2.1.2.3, 3.2.1.1
prototype, function, 3.1.2.1, 3.3.2.2, 3.5.4.3, 3.7.1
pseudo-random sequence functions, 4.10.2
punctuators, 3.1.6
qualified types, 3.1.2.5
range error, 4.5.1
recursive function call, 3.3.2.2
redefinition of macro, 3.8.3
reentrancy, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3
referenced type, 3.1.2.5
relational expressions, 3.3.8
reliability of data, interrupted, 2.1.2.3
remainder assignment operator, %=, 3.3.16.2
remainder operator, %, 3.3.5
restore calling environment function, 4.6.2.1
reserved identifiers, 4.1.2
right-shift assignment operator, >>=, 3.3.16.2
right-shift operator, >>, 3.3.7
rvalue, 3.2.2.1
save calling environment function, 4.6.1.1
scalar type, 3.1.2.5
scope of identifiers, 3.1.2.1
search functions, 4.10.5.1, 4.11.5
selection statements, 3.6.4
semicolon punctuator, ;, 3.1.6, 3.5, 3.6.3
sequence points, 2.1.2.3, 3.3, 3.6
shift expressions, 3.3.7
shift states, 2.2.1.2, 4.10.7
side effects, 2.1.2.3, 3.3
signal handler, 2.2.3, 4.7.1.1
signals, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3, 4.7
signed integer types, 3.1.2.5, 3.1.3.2, 3.2.1.2
simple assignment operator, =, 3.3.16.1
single-precision arithmetic, 2.1.2.3
sort function, 4.10.5.2
source character set, 2.2.1
source file inclusion, 3.8.2
source files, 2.1.1.1
source text, 2.1.1.2
space character, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1
standard streams, 4.9.1, 4.9.3
standard header, float.h, 1.7, 2.2.4.2, 4.1.4
standard header, limits.h, 1.7, 2.2.4.2, 4.1.4
standard header, stdarg.h, 1.7, 4.8
standard header, stddef.h, 1.7, 4.1.5
standard headers, 4.1.2
state-dependent encoding, 2.2.1.2, 4.10.7
statements, 3.6
static storage duration, 3.1.2.4
storage duration, 3.1.2.4
storage-class specifier, 3.5.1
stream, fully buffered, 4.9.3
stream, line buffered, 4.9.3
stream, standard error, stderr, 4.9.1, 4.9.3
stream, standard input, stdin, 4.9.1, 4.9.3
stream, standard output, stdout, 4.9.1, 4.9.3
stream, unbuffered, 4.9.3
streams, 4.9.2
strictly conforming program, 1.7
string, 4.1.1
string conversion functions, 4.10.1
string handling header, 4.11
string length, 4.1.1, 4.11.6.3
string literal, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1.4, 3.3.1, 3.5.7
structure/union arrow operator, ->, 3.3.2.3
structure/union content, 3.5.2.3
structure/union dot operator, ., 3.3.2.3
structure/union member name space, 3.1.2.3
structure/union specifiers, 3.5.2.1
structure/union tag, 3.5.2.3
structure/union type, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.2.1
subtraction assignment operator, -=, 3.3.16.2
subtraction operator, -, 3.3.6
suffix, floating constant, 3.1.3.1
suffix, integer constant, 3.1.3.2
switch body, 3.6.4.2
switch case label, 3.6.1, 3.6.4.2
switch default label, 3.6.1, 3.6.4.2
syntactic categories, 3
syntax notation, 3
syntax rules, precedence of, 2.1.1.2
tab characters, 2.2.1
tabs, white space, 3.1
tag, enumeration, 3.5.2.3
tag, structure/union, 3.5.2.3
tag name space, 3.1.2.3
tentative definitions, 3.7.2
text stream, 4.9.2
time components, 4.12.1
time conversion functions, 4.12.3
time manipulation functions, 4.12.2
tokens, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.8
top type, 3.1.2.5
translation environment, 2.1.1
translation limits, 2.2.4.2
translation phases, 2.1.1.2
translation unit, 2.1.1.1, 3.7
trigonometric functions, 4.5.2
trigraph sequences, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1.1
type, character, 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7
type, compatible, 3.1.2.6, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.4
type, composite, 3.1.2.6
type, const-qualified, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.3
type, function, 3.1.2.5
type, incomplete, 3.1.2.5
type, object, 3.1.2.5
type, qualified, 3.1.2.5
type, unqualified, 3.1.2.5
type, volatile-qualified, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.3
type conversions, 3.2
type definitions, 3.5.6
type names, 3.5.5
type specifiers, 3.5.2
type qualifiers, 3.5.3
types, 3.1.2.5
unary arithmetic operators, 3.3.3.3
unary expressions, 3.3.3
unary minus operator, -, 3.3.3.3
unary operators, 3.3.3
unary plus operator, +, 3.3.3.3
unbuffered stream, 4.9.3
undefined behavior, 1.6
underscore, leading, in identifiers, 4.1.2
union tag, 3.5.2.3
union type specifier, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.2, 3.5.2.1
unqualified type, 3.1.2.5
unsigned integer suffix, u or U, 3.1.3.2
unsigned integer types, 3.1.2.5, 3.1.3.2
unspecified behavior, 1.6
usual arithmetic conversions, 3.2.1.5
value part, floating constant, 3.1.3.1
variable arguments header, 4.8
vertical-tab character, 2.2.1, 3.1
vertical-tab escape sequence, \v, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4
visibility of identifiers, 3.1.2.1
void expression, 3.2.2.2
volatile storage, 2.1.2.3
volatile-qualified type, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.3
white space, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.8, 4.3.1.9
wide character, 3.1.3.4
wide character constant, 3.1.3.4
wide string literal, 2.1.1.2, 3.1.4
1. This Standard is designed to promote the portability of C programs
among a variety of data-processing systems. It is intended for use by
implementors and knowledgeable programmers, and is not a tutorial. It
is accompanied by a Rationale document that explains many of the
decisions of the Technical Committee that produced it.
2. Strictly conforming programs are intended to be maximally portable
among conforming implementations. Conforming programs may depend upon
nonportable features of a conforming implementation.
3. Implementations must behave as if these separate phases occur, even
though many are typically folded together in practice.
4. As described in $3.1, the process of dividing a source file's
characters into preprocessing tokens is context-dependent. For
example, see the handling of < within a #include preprocessing
directive.
5. The trigraph sequences enable the input of characters that are not
defined in the "ISO 646-1983" Invariant Code Set, which is a subset of
the seven-bit ASCII code set.
6. Implementations should avoid imposing fixed translation limits
whenever possible.
7. See $3.1.2.5.
8. This model precludes floating-point representations other than
sign-magnitude.
9. The floating-point model in that standard sums powers of from zero,
so the values of the exponent limits are one less than shown here.
10. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.1).
11. There is only one name space for tags even though three are
possible.
12. In the case of a volatile object, the last store may not be
explicit in the program.
13. A positional representation for integers that uses the binary
digits 0 and 1, in which the values represented by successive bits are
additive, begin with 1, and are multiplied by successive integral
powers of 2, except perhaps the bit with the highest position.
14. Note that aggregate type does not include union type because an
object with union type can only contain one member at a time.
15. There are three distinct combinations of qualified types.
16. Two types need not be identical to be compatible.
17. The semantics of these characters were discussed in $2.2.2.
18. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.2).
19. A character string literal need not be a string (see $4.1.1),
because a null character may be embedded in it by a \0 escape
sequence.
20. Thus, sequences of characters that resemble escape sequences cause
undefined behavior.
21. Thus comments do not nest.
22. In a two's-complement representation, there is no actual change in
the bit pattern except filling the high-order bits with copies of the
sign bit if the unsigned integer has greater size.
23. The remaindering operation done when a value of integral type is
converted to unsigned type need not be done when a value of floating
type is converted to unsigned type. Thus the range of portable values
is [0, U type _MAX +1).
24. The name ``lvalue'' comes originally from the assignment
expression E1 = E2 , in which the left operand E1 must be a
(modifiable) lvalue. It is perhaps better considered as representing
an object ``locator value.'' What is sometimes called ``rvalue'' is in
this Standard described as the ``value of an expression.'' An obvious
example of an lvalue is an identifier of an object. As a further
example, if E is a unary expression that is a pointer to an object, *E
is an lvalue that designates the object to which E points.
25. Because this conversion does not occur, the operand of the sizeof
operator remains a function designator and violates the constraint in
$3.3.3.4.
26. This paragraph renders undefined statement expressions such as
i = ++i + 1; while allowing i = i + 1;
27. The syntax specifies the precedence of operators in the evaluation
of an expression, which is the same as the order of the major
subsections of this section, highest precedence first. Thus, for
example, the expressions allowed as the operands of the binary +
operator ($3.3.6) shall be those expressions defined in $3.3.1 through
$3.3.6. The exceptions are cast expressions ($3.3.4) as operands of
unary operators ($3.3.3), and an operand contained between any of the
following pairs of operators: grouping parentheses () ($3.3.1),
subscripting brackets [] ($3.3.2.1), function-call parentheses ()
($3.3.2.2), and the conditional operator ?: ($3.3.15). Within each
major subsection, the operators have the same precedence. Left- or
right-associativity is indicated in each subsection by the syntax for
the expressions discussed therein.
28. The intent of this list is to specify those circumstances in which
an object may or may not be aliased.
29. Most often, this is the result of converting an identifier that is
a function designator.
30. That is, a function with external linkage and no information about
its parameters that returns an int . If in fact it is not defined as
having type ``function returning int ,'' the behavior is undefined.
31. A function may change the values of its parameters, but these
changes cannot affect the values of the arguments. On the other hand,
it is possible to pass a pointer to an object, and the function may
change the value of the object pointed to. A parameter declared to
have array or function type is converted to a parameter with a pointer
type as described in
32. If &E is a valid pointer expression (where & is the ``address-of''
operator, which generates a pointer to its operand) the expression
(&E)->MOS is the same as E.MOS .
33. The ``byte orders'' for scalar types are invisible to isolated
programs that do not indulge in type punning (for example, by
assigning to one member of a union and inspecting the storage by
accessing another member that is an appropriately sized array of
character type), but must be accounted for when conforming to
externally-imposed storage layouts.
34. It is always true that if E is a function designator or an lvalue
that is a valid operand of the unary & operator, *&E is a function
designator or an lvalue equal to E . If *P is an lvalue and T is the
name of an object pointer type, the cast expression *(T)P is an lvalue
that has a type compatible with that to which T points. Among the
invalid values for dereferencing a pointer by the unary * operator are
a null pointer, an address inappropriately aligned for the type of
object pointed to, or the address of an object that has automatic
storage duration when execution of the block in which the object is
declared and of all enclosed blocks has terminated.
35. When applied to a parameter declared to have array or function
type, the sizeof operator yields the size of the pointer obtained by
converting as in $3.2.2.1; see $3.7.1.
36. A cast does not yield an lvalue.
37. The mapping functions for converting a pointer to an integer or an
integer to a pointer are intended to be consistent with the addressing
structure of the execution environment.
38. The expression a<b<c is not interpreted as in ordinary
mathematics. As the syntax indicates, it means (a<b)<c ; in other
words, ``if a is less than b compare 1 to c ; otherwise compare 0 to c
.''
39. Because of the precedences, a<b == c<d is 1 whenever a<b and c<d
have the same truth-value.
40. If invalid prior pointer operations, such as accesses outside
array bounds, produced undefined behavior, the effect of subsequent
comparisons is undefined.
41. A conditional expression does not yield an lvalue.
42. The asymmetric appearance of these constraints with respect to
type qualifiers is due to the conversion (specified in $3.2.2.1) that
changes lvalues to ``the value of the expression'' which removes any
type qualifiers from the top type of the expression.
43. A comma operator does not yield an lvalue.
44. The operand of a sizeof operator is not evaluated ($3.3.3.4), and
thus any operator in $3.3 may be used.
45. An integral constant expression must be used to specify the size
of a bit-field member of a structure, the value of an enumeration
constant, the size of an array, or the value of a case constant.
Further constraints that apply to the integral constant expressions
used in conditional-inclusion preprocessing directives are discussed
in $3.8.1.
46. Thus in the following initialization, static int i = 2 || 1 / 0;
the expression is a valid integral constant expression with value one.
47. Function definitions have a different syntax, described in $3.7.1.
48. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.3).
49. The implementation may treat any register declaration simply as an
auto declaration. However, whether or not addressable storage is
actually used, the address of any part of an object declared with
storage-class specifier register may not be computed, either
explicitly (by use of the unary & operator as discussed in $3.3.3.2)
or implicitly (by converting an array name to a pointer as discussed
in $3.2.2.1). Thus the only operator that can be applied to an array
declared with storage-class specifier register is sizeof .
50. The unary & (address-of) operator may not be applied to a
bit-field object; thus there are no pointers to or arrays of bit-field
objects.
51. An unnamed bit-field is useful for padding to conform to
externally-imposed layouts.
52. Thus, the identifiers of enumeration constants in the same scope
shall all be distinct from each other and from other identifiers
declared in ordinary declarators.
53. A similar construction with enum does not exist and is not
necessary as there can be no mutual dependencies between the
declaration of an enumerated type and any other type.
54. It is not needed, for example, when a typedef name is declared to
be a specifier for a structure or union, or when a pointer to or a
function returning a structure or union is being declared. (See
incomplete types in $3.1.2.5.) The specification shall be complete
before such a function is called or defined.
55. Of course, when the declaration is of a typedef name, subsequent
declarations can make use of the typedef name to declare objects
having the specified structure, union, or enumerated type.
56. The implementation may place a const object that is not volatile
in a read-only region of storage. Moreover, the implementation need
not allocate storage for such an object if its address is never used.
57. This applies to those objects that behave as if they were defined
with qualified types, even if they are never actually defined as
objects in the program (such as an object at a memory-mapped
input/output address).
58. A volatile declaration may be used to describe an object
corresponding to a memory-mapped input/output port or an object
accessed by an asynchronously interrupting function. Actions on
objects so declared shall not be ``optimized out'' by an
implementation or reordered except as permitted by the rules for
evaluating expressions.
59. Both of these can only occur through the use of typedef s.
60. When several ``array of'' specifications are adjacent, a
multi-dimensional array is declared.
61. The macros defined in the <stdarg.h> header ($4.8) may be used to
access arguments that follow an ellipsis.
62. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.4).
63. If both function types are ``old style,'' parameter types are not
compared.
64. As indicated by the syntax, empty parentheses in a type name are
interpreted as ``function with no parameter specification,'' rather
than redundant parentheses around the omitted identifier.
65. Unlike in the base document, any automatic duration object may be
initialized.
66. Such as assignments, and function calls which have side effects.
67. Thus specifies initialization for the loop; the controlling
expression, specifies an evaluation made before each iteration, such
that execution of the loop continues until the expression compares
equal to 0; specifies an operation (such as incrementing) that is
performed after each iteration.
68. Following the contin: label is a null statement.
69. Thus, if an identifier declared with external linkage is not used
in an expression, there need be no external definition for it.
70. The intent is that the top type in a function definition cannot be
inherited from a typedef: typedef int F(void); /* type F is ``function
of no arguments returning int '' */ F f, g; /* f and g both have type
compatible with F */ F f { /*...*/ } /* WRONG: syntax/constraint error
*/ F g() { /*...*/ } /* WRONG: declares that g returns a function */
int f(void) { /*...*/ } /* RIGHT: f has type compatible with F */ int
g() { /*...*/ } /* RIGHT: g has type compatible with F */ F *e(void) {
/*...*/ } /* e returns a pointer to a function */ F *((e))(void) {
/*...*/ } /* same: parentheses irrelevant */ int (*fp)(void); /* fp
points to a function that has type F */ F *Fp; /* Fp points to a
function that has type F */
71. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.5).
72. A parameter is in effect declared at the head of the compound
statement that constitutes the function body, and therefore may not be
redeclared in the function body (except in an enclosed block).
73. Thus preprocessing directives are commonly called ``lines.'' These
``lines'' have no other syntactic significance, as all white space is
equivalent except in certain situations during preprocessing (see the
# character string literal creation operator in $3.8.3.2, for
example).
74. Because the controlling constant expression is evaluated during
translation phase 4, all identifiers either are or are not macro names
--- there simply are no keywords, enumeration constants, and so on.
75. Thus the constant expression in the following #if directive and if
statement is not guaranteed to evaluate to the same value in these two
contexts. #if 'z' - 'a' == 25 if ('z' - 'a' == 25)
76. As indicated by the syntax, a preprocessing token shall not follow
a #else or #endif directive before the terminating new-line character.
However, comments may appear anywhere in a source file, including
within a preprocessing directive.
77. Note that adjacent string literals are not concatenated into a
single string literal (see the translation phases in $2.1.1.2); thus
an expansion that results in two string literals is an invalid
directive.
78. Since, by macro-replacement time, all character constants and
string literals are preprocessing tokens, not sequences possibly
containing identifier-like subsequences (see $2.1.1.2, translation
phases), they are never scanned for macro names or parameters.
79. Thus indicating a Standard-conforming implementation.
80. The functions that make use of the decimal-point character are
localeconv , fprintf , fscanf , printf , scanf , sprintf , sscanf ,
vfprintf , vprintf , vsprintf , atof , and strtod .
81. A header is not necessarily a source file, nor are the < and >
delimited sequences in header names necessarily valid source file
names.
82. The list of reserved external identifiers includes errno , setjmp ,
and va_end .
83. The macro errno need not be the identifier of an object. It might
be a modifiable lvalue resulting from a function call (for example,
*errno() ).
84. Thus, a program that uses errno for error checking should set it
to zero before a library function call, then inspect it before a
subsequent library function call.
85. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.1).
86. This means that an implementation must provide an actual function
for each library function, even if it also provides a macro for that
function.
87. Because external identifiers and some macro names beginning with
an underscore are reserved, implementations may provide special
semantics for such names. For example, the identifier _BUILTIN_abs
could be used to indicate generation of in-line code for the abs
function. Thus, the appropriate header could specify #define abs(x)
_BUILTIN_abs(x) for a compiler whose code generator will accept it.
In this manner, a user desiring to guarantee that a given library
function such as abs will be a genuine function may write #undef abs
whether the implementation's header provides a macro implementation of
abs or a builtin implementation. The prototype for the function,
which precedes and is hidden by any macro definition, is thereby
revealed also.
88. The message written might be of the form Assertion failed: file
line
89. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.2).
90. In an implementation that uses the seven-bit ASCII character set,
the printing characters are those whose values lie from 0x20 (space)
through 0x7E (tilde); the control characters are those whose values
lie from 0 (NUL) through 0x1F (US), and the character 0x7F (DEL).
91. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.3).
92. The only functions in $4.3 whose behavior is not affected by the
current locale are isdigit and isxdigit .
93. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.4).
94. In an implementation that supports infinities, this allows
infinity as an argument to be a domain error if the mathematical
domain of the function does not include infinity.
95. These functions are useful for dealing with unusual conditions
encountered in a low-level function of a program.
96. For example, by executing a return statement or because another
longjmp call has caused a transfer to a setjmp invocation in a
function earlier in the set of nested calls.
97. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.5). The names of the
signal numbers reflect the following terms (respectively): abort,
floating-point exception, illegal instruction, interrupt, segmentation
violation, and termination.
98. Of course, the contents of the file name strings are subject to
other system-specific constraints.
99. An implementation need not distinguish between text streams and
binary streams. In such an implementation, there need be no new-line
characters in a text stream nor any limit to the length of a line.
100. This is described in the Base Document as a That term is not used
in this Standard to avoid confusion with a pointer to an object that
has type FILE .
101. Among the reasons the implementation may cause the rename
function to fail are that the file is open or that it is necessary to
copy its contents to effectuate its renaming.
102. Files created using strings generated by the tmpnam function are
temporary only in the sense that their names should not collide with
those generated by conventional naming rules for the implementation.
It is still necessary to use the remove function to remove such files
when their use is ended, and before program termination.
103. Additional characters may follow these sequences.
104. The primary use of the freopen function is to change the file
associated with a standard text stream ( stderr , stdin , or stdout ),
as those identifiers need not be modifiable lvalues to which the value
returned by the fopen function may be assigned.
105. The buffer must have a lifetime at least as great as the open
stream, so the stream should be closed before a buffer that has
automatic storage duration is deallocated upon block exit.
106. Note that 0 is taken as a flag, not as the beginning of a field
width.
107. No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.
108. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.6).
109. No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.
110. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.6).
111. As vfprintf , vsprintf , and vprintf invoke the va_arg macro, the
value of arg after the return is indeterminate.
112. An end-of-file and a read error can be distinguished by use of
the feof and ferror functions.
113. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.7).
114. Note that this need not be the same as the representation of
floating-point zero or a null pointer constant.
115. Each function is called as many times as it was registered.
116. Notice that the key-to-member comparison an ordering on the
array.
117. In a two's complement representation, the absolute value of the
most negative number cannot be represented.
118. The array will not be null- or zero-terminated if the value
returned is n .
119. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.8).
120. Thus, if there is no null character in the first n characters of
the array pointed to by s2 , the result will not be null-terminated.
121. Thus the maximum number of characters that end up in the array
pointed to by s1 is strlen(s1)+n+1 .
122. The contents of ``holes'' used as padding for purposes of
alignment within structure objects are indeterminate, unless the
contents of the entire object have been set explicitly, as by the
calloc or memset function. Strings shorter than their allocated space
and unions may also cause problems in comparison.
123. The range [0, 60] for tm_sec allows for the occasional leap
second.
124. Thus, a positive or zero value for tm_isdst causes the mktime
function initially to presume that Daylight Saving Time, respectively,
is or is not in effect for the specified time. A negative value for
tm_isdst causes the mktime function to attempt to determine whether
Daylight Saving Time is in effect for the specified time. (This foreword is not a part of American National Standard forInformation Systems --- Programming Language C, X3.???-1988.) American National Standard Programming Language C specifies thesyntax and semantics of programs written in the C programminglanguage. It specifies the C program's interactions with theexecution environment via input and output data. It also specifiesrestrictions and limits imposed upon conforming implementations of Clanguage translators. The standard was developed by the X3J11 Technical Committee on theC Programming Language under project 381-D by American NationalStandards Committee on Computers and Information Processing (X3).SPARC document number 83-079 describes the purpose of this project to``provide an unambiguous and machine-independent definition of thelanguage C.'' The need for a single clearly defined standard had arisen in the Ccommunity due to a rapidly expanding use of the C programming languageand the variety of differing translator implementations that had beenand were being developed. The existence of similar but incompatibleimplementations was a serious problem for program developers whowished to develop code that would compile and execute as expected inseveral different environments. Part of this problem could be traced to the fact that implementorsdid not have an adequate definition of the C language upon which tobase their implementations. The de facto C programming languagestandard, The C Programming Language by Brian W. Kernighan and DennisM. Ritchie, is an excellent book; however, it is not precise orcomplete enough to specify the C language fully. In addition, thelanguage has grown over years of use to incorporate new ideas inprogramming and to address some of the weaknesses of the originallanguage. American National Standard Programming Language C addresses theproblems of both the program developer and the translator implementorby specifying the C language precisely. The work of X3J11 began in the summer of 1983, based on the severaldocuments that were made available to the Committee (see $1.5, BaseDocuments). The Committee divided the effort into three pieces: theenvironment, the language, and the library. A complete specificationin each of these areas is necessary if truly portable programs are tobe developed. Each of these areas is addressed in the Standard. TheCommittee evaluated many proposals for additions, deletions, andchanges to the base documents during its deliberations. A concertedeffort was made to codify existing practice wherever unambiguous andconsistent practice could be identified. However, where no consistentpractice could be identified, the Committee worked to establish clearrules that were consistent with the overall flavor of the language. This document was approved as an American National Standard by theAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI) on DD MM, 1988.Suggestions for improvement of this Standard are welcome. They shouldbe sent to the American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,New York, NY 10018. The Standard was processed and approved for submittal to ANSI bythe American National Standards Committee on Computers and InformationProcessing, X3. Committee approval of the Standard does notnecessarily imply that all members voted for its approval. At thetime that it approved this Standard, the X3 Committee had thefollowing members: Organization Name of Representative (To be completed on approval of the Standard.) Technical Committee X3J11 on the C Programming Language had thefollowing members at the time they forwarded this document to X3 forprocessing as an American National Standard:ChairJim BrodieVice-ChairThomas Plum Plum Hall SecretaryP. J. Plauger Whitesmiths, Ltd.International RepresentativeP. J. Plauger Whitesmiths, Ltd.Steve Hersee Lattice, Inc.Vocabulary RepresentativeAndrew Johnson Prime Computer Environment Subcommittee ChairsRalph Ryan MicrosoftRalph Phraner Phraner AssociatesLanguage Subcommittee ChairLawrence Rosler AT&TLibrary Subcommittee ChairP. J. Plauger Whitesmiths, Ltd.Draft RedactorDavid F. Prosser AT&TLawrence Rosler AT&TRationale RedactorRandy Hudson Intermetrics, Inc. In the following list, unmarked names denote principal members and *denotes alternate members.David F. Prosser, AT&TSteven J. Adamski, AT&T* (X3H2 SQL liaison)Bob Gottlieb, Alliant Computer SystemsKevin Brosnan, Alliant Computer SystemsNeal Weidenhofer, AmdahlPhilip C. Steel, American CimflexEric McGlohon, American Cimflex*Stephen Kafka, Analog DevicesKevin Leary, Analog Devices*Gordon Sterling, Analog Devices*John Peyton, Apollo ComputerElizabeth Crockett, Apple ComputersEd Wells, ArincTom Ketterhagen, Arinc*Vaughn Vernon, Aspen ScientificCraig Bordelon, Bell Communications ResearchSteve Carter, Bell Communications Research*William Puig, Bell Communications Research*Bob Jervis, Borland InternationalYom-Tov Meged, Boston Systems OfficeRose Thomson, Boston Systems Office*Maurice Fathi, COSMICJohn Wu, Charles River Data SystemsDaniel Mickey, Chemical Abstracts ServiceThomas Mimlitch, Chemical Abstracts Service*Alan Losoff, Chicago Research & Trading GroupEdward Briggs, CitibankFirmo Freire, Cobra S/AJim Patterson, CognosBruce Tetelman, Columbia U. Center for ComputingTerry Moore, CompuDasMark Barrenechea, Computer AssociatesGeorge Eberhardt, Computer InnovationsDave Neathery, Computer Innovations*Joseph Bibbo, ComputritionSteve Davies, Concurrent Computer CorporationDon Fosbury, Control DataGeorge VandeBunte, Control Data*Lloyd Irons, Cormorant CommunicationsTom MacDonald, Cray ResearchLynne Johnson, Cray Research*Dave Becker, Cray Research*Jean Risley, Custom Development EnvironmentsRex Jaeschke, DEC ProfessionalMike Terrazas, DECUS RepresentativeMichael Meissner, Data GeneralMark Harris, Data General*Leonard Ohmes, DatapointJames Stanley, Data Systems AnalystsSamuel J. Kendall, Delft ConsultingRandy Meyers, Digital Equipment CorporationArt Bjork, Digital Equipment Corporation*Lu Anne Van de Pas, Digital Equipment Corporation*Ben Patel, EDSRichard Relph, EPIGraham Andrews, Edinburgh Portable CompilersColin McPhail, Edinburgh Portable Compilers*J. Stephen Adamczyk, Edison Design GroupEric Schwarz, Edison Design Group*Dmitry Lenkov, Everest SolutionsFrank Farance, Farance Inc.Peter Hayes, Farance Inc.*Florin Jordan, FloradinPhilip Provin, General Electric Information ServicesLiz Sanville, Gould CSDTina Aleksa, Gould CSD*Thomas Kelly, HCR CorporationPaul Jackson, HCR Corporation*Gary Jeter, Harris Computer SystemsSue Meloy, Hewlett PackardLarry Rosler, Hewlett Packard*Michelle Ruscetta, Hewlett Packard*Thomas E. Osten, Honeywell Information SystemsDavid Kayden, Honeywell Information Systems*Shawn Elliott, IBMLarry Breed, IBM*Mel Goldberg, IBM*Mike Banahan, Instruction SetClark Nelson, IntelDan Lau, Intel*John Wolfe, InterACTLillian Toll, InterACT*Randy Hudson, IntermetricsKeith Winter, International Computers Ltd.Honey M. Schrecker, International Computers Ltd.*Jim Brodie, J. Brodie & AssociatesJacklin Kotikian, Kendall Square ResearchW. Peter Hesse, LSI Logic Europe Ltd.John Kaminski, Language Processors Inc.David Yost, Laurel ArtsMike Branstetter, Lawrence Livermore National LaboratoryBob Weaver, Los Alamos National LaboratoryLidia Eberhart, ModcompRobert Sherry, Manx SoftwareCourtney Meissen, Mark Williams Co.Patricia Jenkins, MasscompDave Hinman, Masscomp*Michael Kearns, MetaLinkTom Pennello, MetaWare IncorporatedDavid F. Weil, MicrosoftMitch Harder, Microsoft*Kim Kempf, Microware SystemsShane McCarron, Minnesota Educational ComputingBruce Olsen, Mosaic TechnologiesMichael Paton, MotorolaRick Schubert, NCRBrian Johnson, NCR*Joseph Mueller, National SemiconductorDerek Godfrey, National Semiconductor*Jim Upperman, National Bureau of StandardsJames W. Williams, Naval Research LaboratoryLisa Simon, OCLCPaul Amaranth, Oakland UniversityAugust R. Hansen, OmniwareMichael Rolle, OracleCarl Ellis, Oregon SoftwareBarry Hedquist, PerennialSassan Hazeghi, Peritus InternationalJames Holmlund, Peritus International*Thomas Plum, Plum HallChristopher Skelly, Plum Hall*Andrew Johnson, Prime ComputerFran Litterio, Prime Computer*Daniel J. Conrad, PrismaticsDavid Fritz, Production LanguagesKenneth Pugh, PughKilleen Ed Ramsey, Purdue UniversityStephen Roberts, Purdue University*Kevin Nolan, Quantitative Technology Corp.Robert Mueller, Quantitative Technology Corp.*Chris DeVoney, Que CorporationJon Tulk, Rabbit SoftwareTerry Colligan, Rational SystemsDaniel Saks, Saks & AssociatesNancy Saks, Saks & Associates*Oliver Bradley, SAS InstituteAlan Beale, SAS Institute*Larry Jones, SDRCDonald Kossman, SEI Information TechnologyKenneth Harrenstien, SRI InternationalLarry Rosenthal, Sierra SystemsPhil Hempfner, Southern Bell TelephonePurshotam Rajani, Spruce TechnologySavu Savulescu, Stagg SystemsPeter Darnell, Stellar ComputerLee W. Cooprider, Stellar Computer*Paul Gilmartin, Storage Technology Corp.Steve Muchnick, Sun MicrosystemsChuck Rasbold, Supercomputer Systems, Inc.Kelly O'Hair, Supercomputer Systems, Inc.*Henry Richardson, TandemJohn M. Hausman, Tandem*Samuel Harbison, Tartan LaboratoriesMichael S. Ball, TauMetricCarl Sutton, TektronixJim Besemer, Tektronix*Reid Tatge, Texas InstrumentsEd Brower, TokheimRobert Mansfield, Tokheim*Monika Khushf, TymlabsMorgan Jones, Tymlabs*Don Bixler, UnisysSteve Bartels, Unisys*Glenda Berkheimer, Unisys*Annice Jackson, Unisys*Fred Blonder, University of MarylandFred Schwarz, University of MichiganR. Jordan Kreindler, University of Southern California CTCMike Carmody, University of WaterlooDouglas Gwyn, US Army BRL (IEEE P1003 liaison)C. Dale Pierce, US Army Management Engineering*John C. Black, VideoFinancialJoseph Musacchia, Wang LabsFred Rozakis, Wang Labs*P. J. Plauger, Whitesmiths, Ltd.Kim Leeper, Wick HillMark Wittenberg, ZehntelJim BalterRobert BradburyEdward ChinNeil DanielsStephen DesofiMichael DuffyPhillip EscueRalph PhranerD. Hugh RedelmeierArnold DaviRobbins RogerWilks MichaelJ. Youngpurpose: 1.1scope: 1.2references: 1.3organization of the document: 1.4base documents: 1.5definitions of terms: 1.6compliance: 1.7translation environment: 2.execution environment: 2.separate compilation: 2.1.1.1separate translation: 2.1.1.1source file: 2.1.1.1translation unit: 2.1.1.1program execution: 2.1.2.3side effects: 2.1.2.3sequence point: 2.1.2.3character set: 2.2.1signals: 2.2.3interrupts: 2.2.3syntax notation: 3.lexical elements: 3.1comment: 3.1white space: 3.1list of keywords: 3.1.1reserved words: 3.1.1underscore character: 3.1.2enumeration constant: 3.1.2length of names: 3.1.2internal name, length of: 3.1.2external name, length of: 3.1.2function name, length of: 3.1.2scopes: 3.1.2.1prototype, function: 3.1.2.1function scope: 3.1.2.1file scope: 3.1.2.1block scope: 3.1.2.1block structure: 3.1.2.1function prototype scope: 3.1.2.1linkage: 3.1.2.2external linkage: 3.1.2.2internal linkage: 3.1.2.2no linkage: 3.1.2.2name spaces: 3.1.2.3named label: 3.1.2.3structure tag: 3.1.2.3union tag: 3.1.2.3enumeration tag: 3.1.2.3structure member name: 3.1.2.3union member name: 3.1.2.3storage duration: 3.1.2.4static storage duration: 3.1.2.4automatic storage duration: 3.1.2.4types: 3.1.2.5object types: 3.1.2.5function types: 3.1.2.5incomplete types: 3.1.2.5char type: 3.1.2.5signed character: 3.1.2.5signed char type: 3.1.2.5short type: 3.1.2.5long type: 3.1.2.5unsigned type: 3.1.2.5float type: 3.1.2.5double type: 3.1.2.5long double type: 3.1.2.5basic types: 3.1.2.5character types: 3.1.2.5enumerated type: 3.1.2.5void type: 3.1.2.5derived types: 3.1.2.5integral types: 3.1.2.5arithmetic types: 3.1.2.5scalar types: 3.1.2.5aggregate types: 3.1.2.5constants: 3.1.3floating constant: 3.1.3.1double constant: 3.1.3.1integer constant: 3.1.3.2decimal constant: 3.1.3.2octal constant: 3.1.3.2hexadecimal constant: 3.1.3.2unsigned constant: 3.1.3.2long constant: 3.1.3.2enumeration constant: 3.1.3.3character constant: 3.1.3.4backslash character: 3.1.3.4 escape character: 3.1.3.4escape sequence: 3.1.3.4string literal: 3.1.4character string: 3.1.4operator: 3.1.5evaluation: 3.1.5operand: 3.1.5punctuator: 3.1.6character-integer conversion: 3.2.1.1integer-character conversion: 3.2.1.1integral promotions: 3.2.1.1integer-long conversion: 3.2.1.1signed character: 3.2.1.1unsigned-integer conversion: 3.2.1.2integer-unsigned conversion: 3.2.1.2long-unsigned conversion: 3.2.1.2long-integer conversion: 3.2.1.2floating-integer conversion: 3.2.1.3integer-floating conversion: 3.2.1.3float-double conversion: 3.2.1.4double-float conversion: 3.2.1.4arithmetic conversions: 3.2.1.5type conversion rules: 3.2.1.5lvalue: 3.2.2.1function designator: 3.2.2.1conversion of array: 3.2.2.1conversion of function name: 3.2.2.1void type: 3.2.2.2pointer-pointer conversion: 3.2.2.3integer-pointer conversion: 3.2.2.3null pointer: 3.2.2.3expression: 3.3precedence of operators: 3.3associativity of operators: 3.3order of evaluation of expressions: 3.3order of evaluation: 3.3bitwise operators: 3.3exceptions: 3.3primary expression: 3.3.1type of string: 3.3.1parenthesized expression: 3.3.1subscript operator: 3.3.2function call: 3.3.2structure member operator: 3.3.2structure pointer operator: 3.3.2++ increment operator: 3.3.2-- decrement operator: 3.3.2array, explanation of subscripting: 3.3.2.1subscripting, explanation of: 3.3.2.1multi-dimensional array: 3.3.2.1storage order of array: 3.3.2.1function call: 3.3.2.2implicit declaration of function: 3.3.2.2function argument: 3.3.2.2call by value: 3.3.2.2recursion: 3.3.2.2structure reference: 3.3.2.3union reference: 3.3.2.3common initial sequence: 3.3.2.3postfix ++ and --: 3.3.2.4-- decrement operator: 3.3.2.4unary expression: 3.3.3++ increment operator: 3.3.3-- decrement operator: 3.3.3sizeof operator: 3.3.3& address operator: 3.3.3* indirection operator: 3.3.3+ unary plus operator: 3.3.3- unary minus operator: 3.3.3~ bitwise complement operator: 3.3.3! logical negation operator: 3.3.3++ increment operator: 3.3.3.1prefix ++ and --: 3.3.3.1-- decrement operator: 3.3.3.1+ unary plus operator: 3.3.3.3- unary minus operator: 3.3.3.3~ bitwise complement operator: 3.3.3.3! logical negation operator: 3.3.3.3byte: 3.3.3.4storage allocator: 3.3.3.4cast expression: 3.3.4cast operator: 3.3.4explicit conversion operator: 3.3.4cast operator: 3.3.4pointer conversion: 3.3.4explicit conversion operator: 3.3.4pointer-integer conversion: 3.3.4integer-pointer conversion: 3.3.4alignment restriction: 3.3.4arithmetic operators: 3.3.5multiplicative operators: 3.3.5* multiplication operator: 3.3.5/ division operator: 3.3.5% modulus operator: 3.3.5additive operators: 3.3.6+ addition operator: 3.3.6- subtraction operator: 3.3.6pointer arithmetic: 3.3.6pointer arithmetic: 3.3.6shift operators: 3.3.7<< left shift operator: 3.3.7>> right shift operator: 3.3.7relational operators: 3.3.8< less than operator: 3.3.8> greater than operator: 3.3.8<= less than or equal to operator: 3.3.8>= greater than or equal to operator: 3.3.8pointer comparison: 3.3.8equality operators: 3.3.9== equality operator: 3.3.9!= inequality operator: 3.3.9& bitwise AND operator: 3.3.10^ bitwise exclusive OR operator: 3.3.11| bitwise inclusive OR operator: 3.3.12&& logical AND operator: 3.3.13|| logical OR operator: 3.3.14?: conditional expression: 3.3.15assignment operators: 3.3.16assignment expression: 3.3.16simple assignment: 3.3.16.1conversion by assignment: 3.3.16.1compound assignment: 3.3.16.2comma operator: 3.3.17constant expression: 3.4permitted form of initializer: 3.4declarations: 3.5storage-class specifier: 3.5.1storage-class declaration: 3.5.1typedef declaration: 3.5.1extern storage class: 3.5.1static storage class: 3.5.1auto storage class: 3.5.1register storage class: 3.5.1type specifier: 3.5.2void type: 3.5.2char type: 3.5.2short type: 3.5.2int type: 3.5.2long type: 3.5.2float type: 3.5.2double type: 3.5.2signed type: 3.5.2unsigned type: 3.5.2structure declaration: 3.5.2.1union declaration: 3.5.2.1bit-field declaration: 3.5.2.1bit-field: 3.5.2.1member alignment: 3.5.2.1enumeration: 3.5.2.2enum-specifier: 3.5.2.2enumerator: 3.5.2.2structure tag: 3.5.2.3union tag: 3.5.2.3structure content: 3.5.2.3union content: 3.5.2.3enumeration content: 3.5.2.3self-referential structure: 3.5.2.3type qualifier: 3.5.3const type qualifier: 3.5.3volatile type qualifier: 3.5.3declarator: 3.5.4type declaration: 3.5.4declaration of pointer: 3.5.4.1array declaration: 3.5.4.2declaration of function: 3.5.4.3type names: 3.5.5abstract declarator: 3.5.5typedef declaration: 3.5.6initialization: 3.5.7initialization of statics: 3.5.7implicit initialization: 3.5.7default initialization: 3.5.7initialization of automatics: 3.5.7aggregate initialization: 3.5.7array initialization: 3.5.7structure initialization: 3.5.7character array initialization: 3.5.7wchar_t array initialization: 3.5.7statements: 3.6sequencing of statements: 3.6full expression: 3.6labeled statement: 3.6.1named label: 3.6.1case label: 3.6.1default label: 3.6.1compound statement: 3.6.2block: 3.6.2block structure: 3.6.2initialization in blocks: 3.6.2expression statement: 3.6.3null statement: 3.6.3empty statement: 3.6.3if-else statement: 3.6.4.1switch statement: 3.6.4.2switch body: 3.6.4.2loop body: 3.6.5while statement: 3.6.5.1do statement: 3.6.5.2for statement: 3.6.5.3goto statement: 3.6.6.1continue statement: 3.6.6.2break statement: 3.6.6.3return statement: 3.6.6.4type conversion by return: 3.6.6.4conversion by return: 3.6.6.4external definition: 3.7function definition: 3.7.1parameter: 3.7.1array argument: 3.7.1function name argument: 3.7.1pointer to function: 3.7.1object definitions: 3.7.2scope of externals: 3.7.2tentative definition: 3.7.2preprocessing directives: 3.8macro preprocessor: 3.8preprocessing directive lines: 3.8conditional inclusion: 3.8.1#if: 3.8.1#elif 3.8.1#ifdef: 3.8.1#ifndef: 3.8.1#else: 3.8.1#endif: 3.8.1#include: 3.8.2source file inclusion: 3.8.2macro replacement: 3.8.3object-like macro: 3.8.3function-like macro: 3.8.3macro name: 3.8.3#define: 3.8.3macro parameters: 3.8.3macro invocation: 3.8.3argument substitution: 3.8.3.1# operator: 3.8.3.2## operator: 3.8.3.3rescanning and replacement: 3.8.3.4macro definition scope: 3.8.3.5#undef: 3.8.3.5#line: 3.8.4error directive: 3.8.5pragma directive: 3.8.6null directive: 3.8.7introduction: 4.1string definition: 4.1.1letter definition: 4.1.1decimal-point definition: 4.1.1reserved identifier: 4.1.2printing character: 4.3control character: 4.3variable arguments: 4.8unbuffered stream: 4.9.3fully buffered stream: 4.9.3line buffered stream: 4.9.3appendices: A.language syntax summary: A.1sequence points: A.2library summary: A.3implementation limits: A.4warnings: A.5portability: A.6order of evaluation: A.6.1machine dependency: A.6.3restrictions on registers: A.6.3.7function pointer casts: A.6.5.7bit-field types: A.6.5.8fortran keyword: A.6.5.9asm keyword: A.6.5.10multiple external definitions: A.6.5.11empty macro arguments: A.6.5.12predefined macro names: A.6.5.13signal handler arguments: A.6.5.14stream types: A.6.5.15file-opening modes: A.6.5.15file position indicator: A.6.5.16foreword: A.71. INTRODUCTION1.1 PURPOSE This Standard specifies the form and establishes the interpretation of programs written in the C programming language./1/1.2 SCOPE This Standard specifies: * the representation of C programs; * the syntax and constraints of the C language; * the semantic rules for interpreting C programs; * the representation of input data to be processed by C programs; * the representation of output data produced by C programs; * the restrictions and limits imposed by a conforming implementation of C. This Standard does not specify: * the mechanism by which C programs are transformed for use by a data-processing system; * the mechanism by which C programs are invoked for use by a data-processing system; * the mechanism by which input data are transformed for use by a C program; * the mechanism by which output data are transformed after being produced by a C program; * the size or complexity of a program and its data that will exceed the capacity of any specific data-processing system or the capacity of a particular processor; * all minimal requirements of a data-processing system that is capable of supporting a conforming implementation.1.3 REFERENCES 1. ``The C Reference Manual'' by Dennis M. Ritchie, a version of which was published in The C Programming Language by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, Prentice-Hall, Inc., (1978). Copyright owned by AT&T. 2. 1984 /usr/group Standard by the /usr/group Standards Committee, Santa Clara, California, USA (November, 1984). 3. American National Dictionary for Information Processing Systems, Information Processing Systems Technical Report ANSI X3/TR-1-82 (1982). 4. ISO 646-1983 Invariant Code Set. 5. IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985). 6. ISO 4217 Codes for the Representation of Currency and Funds. 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE DOCUMENT This document is divided into four major sections: 1. this introduction; 2. the characteristics of environments that translate and execute C programs; 3. the language syntax, constraints, and semantics; 4. the library facilities. Examples are provided to illustrate possible forms of theconstructions described. Footnotes are provided to emphasizeconsequences of the rules described in the section or elsewhere in theStandard. References are used to refer to other related sections. Aset of appendices summarizes information contained in the Standard.The abstract, the foreword, the examples, the footnotes, thereferences, and the appendices are not part of the Standard.1.5 BASE DOCUMENTSThe language section ($3) is derived from ``The C ReferenceManual'' by Dennis M. Ritchie, a version of which was published asAppendix A of The C Programming Language by Brian W. Kernighan andDennis M. Ritchie, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978; copyright owned by AT&T.The library section ($4) is based on the 1984 /usr/group Standard bythe /usr/group Standards Committee, Santa Clara, California, USA(November 14, 1984).1.6 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS In this Standard, ``shall'' is to be interpreted as a requirementon an implementation or on a program; conversely, ``shall not'' is tobe interpreted as a prohibition.The following terms are used in this document: * Implementation --- a particular set of software, running in a particular translation environment under particular control options, that performs translation of programs for, and supports execution of functions in, a particular execution environment. * Bit --- the unit of data storage in the execution environment large enough to hold an object that may have one of two values. It need not be possible to express the address of each individual bit of an object. * Byte --- the unit of data storage in the execution environment large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment. It shall be possible to express the address of each individual byte of an object uniquely. A byte is composed of a contiguous sequence of bits, the number of which is implementation-defined. The least significant bit is called the low-order bit; the most significant bit is called the high-order bit. * Object --- a region of data storage in the execution environment, the contents of which can represent values. Except for bit-fields, objects are composed of contiguous sequences of one or more bytes, the number, order, and encoding of which are either explicitly specified or implementation-defined. * Character --- a single byte representing a member of the basic character set of either the source or the execution environment. * Multibyte character --- a sequence of one or more bytes representing a member of the extended character set of either the source or the execution environment. The extended character set is a superset of the basic character set. * Alignment --- a requirement that objects of a particular type be located on storage boundaries with addresses that are particular multiples of a byte address. * Argument --- an expression in the comma-separated list bounded by the parentheses in a function call expression, or a sequence of preprocessing tokens in the comma-separated list bounded by the parentheses in a function-like macro invocation. Also known as ``actual argument'' or ``actual parameter.'' * Parameter --- an object declared as part of a function declaration or definition that acquires a value on entry to the function, or an identifier from the comma-separated list bounded by the parentheses immediately following the macro name in a function-like macro definition. Also known as ``formal argument'' or ``formal parameter.'' * Unspecified behavior --- behavior, for a correct program construct and correct data, for which the Standard imposes no requirements. * Undefined behavior --- behavior, upon use of a nonportable or erroneous program construct, of erroneous data, or of indeterminately-valued objects, for which the Standard imposes no requirements. Permissible undefined behavior ranges from ignoring the situation completely with unpredictable results, to behaving during translation or program execution in a documented manner characteristic of the environment (with or without the issuance of a diagnostic message), to terminating a translation or execution (with the issuance of a diagnostic message). If a ``shall'' or ``shall not'' requirement that appears outside of a constraint is violated, the behavior is undefined. Undefined behavior is otherwise indicated in this Standard by the words ``undefined behavior'' or by the omission of any explicit definition of behavior. There is no difference in emphasis among these three; they all describe ``behavior that is undefined.'' * Implementation-defined behavior --- behavior, for a correct program construct and correct data, that depends on the characteristics of the implementation and that each implementation shall document. * Locale-specific behavior --- behavior that depends on local conventions of nationality, culture, and language that each implementation shall document. * Diagnostic message --- a message belonging to an implementation-defined subset of the implementation's message output. * Constraints --- syntactic and semantic restrictions by which the exposition of language elements is to be interpreted. * Implementation limits --- restrictions imposed upon programs by the implementation. * Forward references --- references to later sections of the Standard that contain additional information relevant to this section. Other terms are defined at their first appearance, indicated by italic type. Terms explicitly defined in this Standard are not to be presumed to refer implicitly to similar terms defined elsewhere. Terms not defined in this Standard are to be interpreted according to the American National Dictionary for Information Processing Systems, Information Processing Systems Technical Report ANSI X3/TR-1-82 (1982).Forward references: localization ($4.4). "Examples" An example of unspecified behavior is the order in which the arguments to a function are evaluated. An example of undefined behavior is the behavior on integer overflow. An example of implementation-defined behavior is the propagation of the high-order bit when a signed integer is shifted right. An example of locale-specific behavior is whether the islower function returns true for characters other than the 26 lower-case English letters.Forward references: bitwise shift operators ($3.3.7), expressions($3.3), function calls ($3.3.2.2), the islower function ($4.3.1.6).1.7 COMPLIANCE A strictly conforming program shall use only those features of thelanguage and library specified in this Standard. It shall not produceoutput dependent on any unspecified, undefined, orimplementation-defined behavior, and shall not exceed any minimumimplementation limit. The two forms of conforming implementation are hosted andfreestanding. A conforming hosted implementation shall accept anystrictly conforming program. A conforming freestanding implementationshall accept any strictly conforming program in which the use of thefeatures specified in the library section ($4) is confined to thecontents of the standard headers <float.h> , <limits.h> , <stdarg.h> ,and <stddef.h> . A conforming implementation may have extensions(including additional library functions), provided they do not alterthe behavior of any strictly conforming program. A conforming program is one that is acceptable to a conformingimplementation./2/ An implementation shall be accompanied by a document that definesall implementation-defined characteristics and all extensions.Forward references: limits <float.h> and <limits.h> ($4.1.4), variablearguments <stdarg.h> ($4.8), common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5).1.8 FUTURE DIRECTIONS With the introduction of new devices and extended character sets,new features may be added to the Standard. Subsections in thelanguage and library sections warn implementors and programmers ofusages which, though valid in themselves, may conflict with futureadditions. Certain features are obsolescent , which means that they may beconsidered for withdrawal in future revisions of the Standard. Theyare retained in the Standard because of their widespread use, buttheir use in new implementations (for implementation features) or newprograms (for language or library features) is discouraged.Forward references: future language directions ($3.9.9), futurelibrary directions ($4.13).1.9 ABOUT THIS DRAFT Symbols in the right margin mark substantive differences betweenthis draft and its predecessor (ANSI X3J11/88-001, January 11, 1988).A plus sign indicates an addition, a minus sign a deletion, and avertical bar a replacement. This section and the difference marks themselves will not appear inthe published document.2. ENVIRONMENT An implementation translates C source files and executes C programsin two data-processing-system environments, which will be called thetranslation environment and the execution environment in thisStandard. Their characteristics define and constrain the results ofexecuting conforming C programs constructed according to the syntacticand semantic rules for conforming implementations.Forward references: In the environment section ($2), only a few ofmany possible forward references have been noted.2.1 CONCEPTUAL MODELS2.1.1 Translation environment2.1.1.1 Program structure A C program need not all be translated at the same time. The textof the program is kept in units called source files in this Standard.A source file together with all the headers and source files includedvia the preprocessing directive #include , less any source linesskipped by any of the conditional inclusion preprocessing directives,is called a translation unit. Previously translated translation unitsmay be preserved individually or in libraries. The separatetranslation units of a program communicate by (for example) calls tofunctions whose identifiers have external linkage, by manipulation ofobjects whose identifiers have external linkage, and by manipulationof data files. Translation units may be separately translated andthen later linked to produce an executable program.Forward references: conditional inclusion ($3.8.1), linkages ofidentifiers ($3.1.2.2), source file inclusion ($3.8.2).2.1.1.2 Translation phases The precedence among the syntax rules of translation is specifiedby the following phases./3/ 1. Physical source file characters are mapped to the source character set (introducing new-line characters for end-of-line indicators) if necessary. Trigraph sequences are replaced by corresponding single-character internal representations. 2. Each instance of a new-line character and an immediately preceding backslash character is deleted, splicing physical source lines to form logical source lines. A source file that is not empty shall end in a new-line character, which shall not be immediately preceded by a backslash character. 3. The source file is decomposed into preprocessing tokens/4/ and sequences of white-space characters (including comments). A source file shall not end in a partial preprocessing token or comment. Each comment is replaced by one space character. New-line characters are retained. Whether each nonempty sequence of other white-space characters is retained or replaced by one space character is implementation-defined. 4. Preprocessing directives are executed and macro invocations are expanded. A #include preprocessing directive causes the named header or source file to be processed from phase 1 through phase 4, recursively. 5. Each escape sequence in character constants and string literals is converted to a member of the execution character set. 6. Adjacent character string literal tokens are concatenated and adjacent wide string literal tokens are concatenated. 7. White-space characters separating tokens are no longer significant. Preprocessing tokens are converted into tokens. The resulting tokens are syntactically and semantically analyzed and translated. 8. All external object and function references are resolved. Library components are linked to satisfy external references to functions and objects not defined in the current translation. All such translator output is collected into a program image which contains information needed for execution in its execution environment.Forward references: lexical elements ($3.1), preprocessing directives($3.8), trigraph sequences ($2.2.1.1).2.1.1.3 Diagnostics A conforming implementation shall produce at least one diagnosticmessage (identified in an implementation-defined manner) for everytranslation unit that contains a violation of any syntax rule orconstraint. Diagnostic messages need not be produced in othercircumstances.2.1.2 Execution environments Two execution environments are defined: freestanding and hosted.In both cases, program startup occurs when a designated C functionis called by the execution environment. All objects in static storageshall be initialized (set to their initial values) before programstartup. The manner and timing of such initialization are otherwiseunspecified. Program termination returns control to the executionenvironment.Forward references: initialization ($3.5.7). 2.1.2.1 Freestanding environment In a freestanding environment (in which C program execution maytake place without any benefit of an operating system), the name andtype of the function called at program startup areimplementation-defined. There are otherwise no reserved externalidentifiers. Any library facilities available to a freestandingprogram are implementation-defined. The effect of program termination in a freestanding environment isimplementation-defined.2.1.2.2 Hosted environment A hosted environment need not be provided, but shall conform to thefollowing specifications if present."Program startup" The function called at program startup is named main . Theimplementation declares no prototype for this function. It can bedefined with no parameters: int main(void) { /*...*/ }or with two parameters (referred to here as argc and argv , though anynames may be used, as they are local to the function in which they aredeclared): int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { /*...*/ } If they are defined, the parameters to the main function shall obeythe following constraints: * The value of argc shall be nonnegative. * argv[argc] shall be a null pointer. * If the value of argc is greater than zero, the array members argv[0] through argv[argc-1] inclusive shall contain pointers to strings, which are given implementation-defined values by the host environment prior to program startup. The intent is to supply to the program information determined prior to program startup from elsewhere in the hosted environment. If the host environment is not capable of supplying strings with letters in both upper-case and lower-case, the implementation shall ensure that the strings are received in lower-case. * If the value of argc is greater than zero, the string pointed to by argv[0] represents the program name ;argv[0][0] shall be the null character if the program name is not available from the host environment. If the value of argc is greater than one, the strings pointed to by argv[1] through argv[argc-1] represent the program parameters . * The parameters argc and argv and the strings pointed to by the argv array shall be modifiable by the program, and retain their last-stored values between program startup and program termination."Program execution" In a hosted environment, a program may use all the functions,macros, type definitions, and objects described in the library section ($4)."Program termination" A return from the initial call to the main function is equivalentto calling the exit function with the value returned by the mainfunction as its argument. If the main function executes a return thatspecifies no value, the termination status returned to the hostenvironment is undefined.Forward references: definition of terms ($4.1.1), the exit function($4.10.4.3).2.1.2.3 Program execution The semantic descriptions in this Standard describe the behavior ofan abstract machine in which issues of optimization are irrelevant. Accessing a volatile object, modifying an object, modifying a file,or calling a function that does any of those operations are all sideeffects ,which are changes in the state of the execution environment.Evaluation of an expression may produce side effects. At certainspecified points in the execution sequence called sequence points, allside effects of previous evaluations shall be complete and no sideeffects of subsequent evaluations shall have taken place. In the abstract machine, all expressions are evaluated as specifiedby the semantics. An actual implementation need not evaluate part ofan expression if it can deduce that its value is not used and that noneeded side effects are produced (including any caused by calling afunction or accessing a volatile object). When the processing of the abstract machine is interrupted byreceipt of a signal, only the values of objects as of the previoussequence point may be relied on. Objects that may be modified betweenthe previous sequence point and the next sequence point need not havereceived their correct values yet. An instance of each object with automatic storage duration isassociated with each entry into a block. Such an object exists andretains its last-stored value during the execution of the block andwhile the block is suspended (by a call of a function or receipt of asignal). The least requirements on a conforming implementation are: * At sequence points, volatile objects are stable in the sense that previous evaluations are complete and subsequent evaluations have not yet occurred. * At program termination, all data written into files shall be identical to the result that execution of the program according to the abstract semantics would have produced. * The input and output dynamics of interactive devices shall take place as specified in $4.9.3. The intent of these requirements is that unbuffered or line-buffered output appear as soon as possible, to ensure that prompting messages actually appear prior to a program waiting for input. What constitutes an interactive device is implementation-defined. More stringent correspondences between abstract and actual semantics may be defined by each implementation."Examples" An implementation might define a one-to-one correspondence betweenabstract and actual semantics: at every sequence point, the values ofthe actual objects would agree with those specified by the abstractsemantics. The keyword volatile would then be redundant. Alternatively, an implementation might perform variousoptimizations within each translation unit, such that the actualsemantics would agree with the abstract semantics only when makingfunction calls across translation unit boundaries. In such animplementation, at the time of each function entry and function returnwhere the calling function and the called function are in differenttranslation units, the values of all externally linked objects and ofall objects accessible via pointers therein would agree with theabstract semantics. Furthermore, at the time of each such functionentry the values of the parameters of the called function and of allobjects accessible via pointers therein would agree with the abstractsemantics. In this type of implementation, objects referred to byinterrupt service routines activated by the signal function wouldrequire explicit specification of volatile storage, as well as otherimplementation-defined restrictions. In executing the fragment char c1, c2; /*...*/ c1 = c1 + c2;the ``integral promotions'' require that the abstract machine promotethe value of each variable to int size and then add the two int s andtruncate the sum. Provided the addition of two char s can be donewithout creating an overflow exception, the actual execution need onlyproduce the same result, possibly omitting the promotions. Similarly, in the fragment float f1, f2; double d; /*...*/ f1 = f2 * d;the multiplication may be executed using single-precision arithmeticif the implementation can ascertain that the result would be the sameas if it were executed using double-precision arithmetic (for example,if d were replaced by the constant 2.0, which has type double ).Alternatively, an operation involving only int s or float s may beexecuted using double-precision operations if neither range norprecision is lost thereby.Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2), files($4.9.3), sequence points ($3.3, $3.6), the signal function ($4.7),type qualifiers ($3.5.3).2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS2.2.1 Character sets Two sets of characters and their associated collating sequencesshall be defined: the set in which source files are written, and theset interpreted in the execution environment. The values of themembers of the execution character set are implementation-defined; anyadditional members beyond those required by this section arelocale-specific. In a character constant or string literal, members of the executioncharacter set shall be represented by corresponding members of thesource character set or by escape sequences consisting of thebackslash \ followed by one or more characters. A byte with all bitsset to 0, called the null character, shall exist in the basicexecution character set; it is used to terminate a character stringliteral. Both the basic source and basic execution character sets shall haveat least the following members: the 26 upper-case letters of theEnglish alphabet A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Zthe 26 lower-case letters of the English alphabet a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y zthe 10 decimal digits 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9the following 29 graphic characters ! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ { | } ~the space character, and control characters representing horizontaltab, vertical tab, and form feed. In both the source and executionbasic character sets, the value of each character after 0 in the abovelist of decimal digits shall be one greater than the value of theprevious. In source files, there shall be some way of indicating theend of each line of text; this Standard treats such an end-of-lineindicator as if it were a single new-line character. In the executioncharacter set, there shall be control characters representing alert,backspace, carriage return, and new line. If any other characters areencountered in a source file (except in a preprocessing token that isnever converted to a token, a character constant, a string literal, ora comment), the behavior is undefined.Forward references: character constants ($3.1.3.4), preprocessingdirectives ($3.8), string literals ($3.1.4), comments ($3.1.9).2.2.1.1 Trigraph sequences All occurrences in a source file of the following sequences ofthree characters (called trigraph sequences /5/)are replaced with thecorresponding single character. ??= # ??( [ ??/ \ ??) ] ??' ^ ??< { ??! | ??> } ??- ~No other trigraph sequences exist. Each ? that does not begin one ofthe trigraphs listed above is not changed.Example The following source line printf("Eh???/n");becomes (after replacement of the trigraph sequence ??/ ) printf("Eh?\n");2.2.1.2 Multibyte characters The source character set may contain multibyte characters, used torepresent members of the extended character set. The executioncharacter set may also contain multibyte characters, which need nothave the same encoding as for the source character set. For bothcharacter sets, the following shall hold: * The single-byte characters defined in $2.2.1 shall be present. * The presence, meaning, and representation of any additional members is locale-specific. * A multibyte character may have a state-dependent encoding ,wherein each sequence of multibyte characters begins in an initial shift state and enters other implementation-defined shift states when specific multibyte characters are encountered in the sequence. While in the initial shift state, all single-byte characters retain their usual interpretation and do not alter the shift state. The interpretation for subsequent bytes in the sequence is a function of the current shift state. * A byte with all bits zero shall be interpreted as a null character independent of shift state. * A byte with all bits zero shall not occur in the second or subsequent bytes of a multibyte character. For the source character set, the following shall hold: * A comment, string literal, character constant, or header name shall begin and end in the initial shift state. * A comment, string literal, character constant, or header name shall consist of a sequence of valid multibyte characters.2.2.2 Character display semantics The active position is that location on a display device where thenext character output by the fputc function would appear. The intentof writing a printable character (as defined by the isprint function)to a display device is to display a graphic representation of thatcharacter at the active position and then advance the active positionto the next position on the current line. The direction of printingis locale-specific. If the active position is at the final positionof a line (if there is one), the behavior is unspecified. Alphabetic escape sequences representing nongraphic characters inthe execution character set are intended to produce actions on displaydevices as follows: ( alert ) Produces an audible or visible alert.The active position shall not be changed. ( backspace ) Moves theactive position to the previous position on the current line. If theactive position is at the initial position of a line, the behavior isunspecified. ( "form feed" ) Moves the active position to the initialposition at the start of the next logical page. ( "new line" ) Movesthe active position to the initial position of the next line. ( "carriage return" ) Moves the active position to the initial positionof the current line. ( "horizontal tab" ) Moves the active positionto the next horizontal tabulation position on the current line. Ifthe active position is at or past the last defined horizontaltabulation position, the behavior is unspecified. ( "vertical tab" )Moves the active position to the initial position of the next verticaltabulation position. If the active position is at or past the lastdefined vertical tabulation position, the behavior is unspecified. Each of these escape sequences shall produce a uniqueimplementation-defined value which can be stored in a single charobject. The external representations in a text file need not beidentical to the internal representations, and are outside the scopeof this Standard.Forward references: the fputc function ($4.9.7.3), the isprintfunction ($4.3.1.7).2.2.3 Signals and interrupts Functions shall be implemented such that they may be interrupted atany time by a signal, or may be called by a signal handler, or both,with no alteration to earlier, but still active, invocations' controlflow (after the interruption), function return values, or objects withautomatic storage duration. All such objects shall be maintainedoutside the function image (the instructions that comprise theexecutable representation of a function) on a per-invocation basis. The functions in the standard library are not guaranteed to bereentrant and may modify objects with static storage duration.2.2.4 Environmental limits Both the translation and execution environments constrain theimplementation of language translators and libraries. The followingsummarizes the environmental limits on a conforming implementation.2.2.4.1 Translation limits The implementation shall be able to translate and execute at leastone program that contains at least one instance of every one of thefollowing limits:/6/ * 15 nesting levels of compound statements, iteration control structures, and selection control structures * 8 nesting levels of conditional inclusion * 12 pointer, array, and function declarators (in any combinations) modifying an arithmetic, a structure, a union, or an incomplete type in a declaration * 31 declarators nested by parentheses within a full declarator * 32 expressions nested by parentheses within a full expression * 31 significant initial characters in an internal identifier or a macro name * 6 significant initial characters in an external identifier * 511 external identifiers in one translation unit * 127 identifiers with block scope declared in one block * 1024 macro identifiers simultaneously defined in one translation unit * 31 parameters in one function definition * 31 arguments in one function call * 31 parameters in one macro definition * 31 arguments in one macro invocation * 509 characters in a logical source line * 509 characters in a character string literal or wide string literal (after concatenation) * 32767 bytes in an object (in a hosted environment only) * 8 nesting levels for #include'd files * 257 case labels for a switch statement (excluding those for any nested switch statements) * 127 members in a single structure or union * 127 enumeration constants in a single enumeration * 15 levels of nested structure or union definitions in a single struct-declaration-list2.2.4.2 Numerical limits A conforming implementation shall document all the limits specifiedin this section, which shall be specified in the headers <limits.h>and <float.h> ."Sizes of integral types <limits.h>" The values given below shall be replaced by constant expressionssuitable for use in #if preprocessing directives. Theirimplementation-defined values shall be equal or greater in magnitude(absolute value) to those shown, with the same sign. * maximum number of bits for smallest object that is not a bit-field (byte) CHAR_BIT 8 * minimum value for an object of type signed char SCHAR_MIN -127 * maximum value for an object of type signed char SCHAR_MAX +127 * maximum value for an object of type unsigned char UCHAR_MAX 255 * minimum value for an object of type char CHAR_MIN see below * maximum value for an object of type char CHAR_MAX see below * maximum number of bytes in a multibyte character, for any supported locale MB_LEN_MAX 1 * minimum value for an object of type short int SHRT_MIN -32767 * maximum value for an object of type short int SHRT_MAX +32767 * maximum value for an object of type unsigned short int USHRT_MAX 65535 * minimum value for an object of type int INT_MIN -32767 * maximum value for an object of type int INT_MAX +32767 * maximum value for an object of type unsigned int UINT_MAX 65535 * minimum value for an object of type long int LONG_MIN -2147483647 * maximum value for an object of type long int LONG_MAX +2147483647 * maximum value for an object of type unsigned long int ULONG_MAX 4294967295 If the value of an object of type char sign-extends when used in anexpression, the value of CHAR_MIN shall be the same as that ofSCHAR_MIN and the value of CHAR_MAX shall be the same as that ofSCHAR_MAX . If the value of an object of type char does notsign-extend when used in an expression, the value of CHAR_MIN shall be0 and the value of CHAR_MAX shall be the same as that of UCHAR_MAX./7/"Characteristics of floating types <float.h>" delim $$ The characteristics of floating types are defined in termsof a model that describes a representation of floating-point numbersand values that provide information about an implementation'sfloating-point arithmetic. The following parameters are used todefine the model for each floating-point type: A normalized floating-point number x ($f sub 1$ > 0 if x is definedby the following model:/8/ $x~=~s~times~b sup e~times~sum from k=1 top~f sub k~times~b sup -k~,~~~e sub min~<=~e~<=~e sub max$ Of the values in the <float.h> header, FLT_RADIX shall be aconstant expression suitable for use in #if preprocessing directives;all other values need not be constant expressions. All exceptFLT_RADIX and FLT_ROUNDS have separate names for all threefloating-point types. The floating-point model representation isprovided for all values except FLT_ROUNDS . The rounding mode for floating-point addition is characterized bythe value of FLT_ROUNDS : -1 indeterminable, 0 toward zero, 1 to nearest,2 toward positive infinity, 3 toward negative infinity. All other valuesfor FLT_ROUNDS characterize implementation-defined rounding behavior. The values given in the following list shall be replaced byimplementation-defined expressions that shall be equal or greater inmagnitude (absolute value) to those shown, with the same sign. * radix of exponent representation, b FLT_RADIX 2 * number of base- FLT_RADIX digits in the floating-point mantissa, p FLT_MANT_DIGDBL_MANT_DIGLDBL_MANT_DIG * number of decimal digits of precision, $left floor~(p~-~1)~times~{ log sub 10 } b~right floor ~+~ left { lpile { 1 above 0 } ~~ lpile { roman "if " b roman " is a power of 10" above roman otherwise }$FLT_DIG 6DBL_DIG 10LDBL_DIG 10 * minimum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX raised to that power minus 1 is a normalized floating-point number, $e sub min$FLT_MIN_EXPDBL_MIN_EXPLDBL_MIN_EXP * minimum negative integer such that 10 raised to that power is in the range of normalized floating-point numbers,FLT_MIN_10_EXP -37DBL_MIN_10_EXP -37LDBL_MIN_10_EXP -37 * maximum integer such that FLT_RADIX raised to that power minus 1 is a representable finite floating-point number, $e sub max$FLT_MAX_EXPDBL_MAX_EXPLDBL_MAX_EXP * maximum integer such that 10 raised to that power is in the range of representable finite floating-point numbers,FLT_MAX_10_EXP +37DBL_MAX_10_EXP +37LDBL_MAX_10_EXP +37 The values given in the following list shall be replaced byimplementation-defined expressions with values that shall be equal toor greater than those shown. * maximum representable finite floating-point number, FLT_MAX 1E+37DBL_MAX 1E+37LDBL_MAX 1E+37 The values given in the following list shall be replaced byimplementation-defined expressions with values that shall be equal toor smaller than those shown. * minimum positive floating-point number x such that 1.0 + x FLT_EPSILON 1E-5DBL_EPSILON 1E-9LDBL_EPSILON 1E-9 * minimum normalized positive floating-point number, $b sup { e sub min - 1 }$FLT_MIN 1E-37DBL_MIN 1E-37LDBL_MIN 1E-37Examples The following describes an artificial floating-point representationthat meets the minimum requirements of the Standard, and theappropriate values in a <float.h> header for type float :$x~=~s~times~16 sup e~times~sum from k=1 to 6~f sub k~times~16 sup-k~,~~~-31~<=~e~<=~+32$ FLT_RADIX 16 FLT_MANT_DIG 6 FLT_EPSILON 9.53674316E-07F FLT_DIG 6 FLT_MIN_EXP -31 FLT_MIN 2.93873588E-39F FLT_MIN_10_EXP -38 FLT_MAX_EXP +32 FLT_MAX 3.40282347E+38F FLT_MAX_10_EXP +38 The following describes floating-point representations that alsomeet the requirements for single-precision and double-precisionnormalized numbers in the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-PointArithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985),/9/ b and the appropriate valuesin a <float.h> header for types float and double : $x subf~=~s~times~2 sup e~times~{ sum from k=1 to 24~f sub k~times~2 sup -k},~~~-125~<=~e~<=~+128$ $x sub d~=~s~times~2 sup e~times~{ sum fromk=1 to 53~f sub k~times~2 sup -k },~~~-1021~<=~e~<=~+1024$ FLT_RADIX 2 FLT_MANT_DIG 24 FLT_EPSILON 1.19209290E-07F FLT_DIG 6 FLT_MIN_EXP -125 FLT_MIN 1.17549435E-38F FLT_MIN_10_EXP -37 FLT_MAX_EXP +128 FLT_MAX 3.40282347E+38F FLT_MAX_10_EXP +38 DBL_MANT_DIG 53 DBL_EPSILON 2.2204460492503131E-16 DBL_DIG 15 DBL_MIN_EXP -1021 DBL_MIN 2.2250738585072016E-308 DBL_MIN_10_EXP -307 DBL_MAX_EXP +1024 DBL_MAX 1.7976931348623157E+308 DBL_MAX_10_EXP +308 The values shown above for FLT_EPSILON and DBL_EPSILON areappropriate for the ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985 default rounding mode (tonearest). Their values may differ for other rounding modes.Forward references: conditional inclusion ($3.8.1). conditionalinclusion ($3.8.1).3. LANGUAGE In the syntax notation used in the language section ($3), syntacticcategories (nonterminals) are indicated by italic type, and literalwords and character set members (terminals) by bold type. A colon (:)following a nonterminal introduces its definition. Alternativedefinitions are listed on separate lines, except when prefaced by thewords ``one of.'' An optional symbol is indicated by the so that { expression<opt> }indicates an optional expression enclosed in braces. 3.1 LEXICAL ELEMENTSSyntax token: keyword identifier constant string-literal operator punctuator preprocessing-token: header-name identifier pp-number character-constant string-literal operator punctuator each non-white-space character that cannot be one of the aboveConstraints Each preprocessing token that is converted to a token shall havethe lexical form of a keyword, an identifier, a constant, a stringliteral, an operator, or a punctuator.Semantics A token is the minimal lexical element of the language intranslation phases 7 and 8. The categories of tokens are: keywords,identifiers, constants, string literals, operators, and punctuators.A preprocessing token is the minimal lexical element of the languagein translation phases 3 through 6. The categories of preprocessingtoken are: header names, identifiers, preprocessing numbers,character constants, string literals, operators, punctuators, andsingle non-white-space characters that do not lexically match theother preprocessing token categories. If a ' or a " character matchesthe last category, the behavior is undefined. Comments (describedlater) and the characters space, horizontal tab, new-line, verticaltab, and form-feed---collectively called white space ---canseparatepreprocessing tokens. As described in $3.8, in certain circumstancesduring translation phase 4, white space (or the absence thereof)serves as more than preprocessing token separation. White space mayappear within a preprocessing token only as part of a header name orbetween the quotation characters in a character constant or stringliteral. If the input stream has been parsed into preprocessing tokens up toa given character, the next preprocessing token is the longestsequence of characters that could constitute a preprocessing token.Examples The program fragment 1Ex is parsed as a preprocessing number token(one that is not a valid floating or integer constant token), eventhough a parse as the pair of preprocessing tokens 1 and Ex mightproduce a valid expression (for example, if Ex were a macro defined as+1 ). Similarly, the program fragment 1E1 is parsed as apreprocessing number (one that is a valid floating constant token),whether or not E is a macro name. The program fragment x+++++y is parsed as x ++ ++ + y, whichviolates a constraint on increment operators, even though the parse x++ + ++ y might yield a correct expression.Forward references: character constants ($3.1.3.4), comments ($3.1.9),expressions ($3.3), floating constants ($3.1.3.1), header names($3.1.7), macro replacement ($3.8.3), postfix increment and decrementoperators ($3.3.2.4), prefix increment and decrement operators($3.3.3.1), preprocessing directives ($3.8), preprocessing numbers($3.1.8), string literals ($3.1.4).3.1.1 KeywordsSyntax keyword: one of auto double int struct break else long switch case enum register typedef char extern return union const float short unsigned continue for signed void default goto sizeof volatile do if static whileSemantics The above tokens (entirely in lower-case) are reserved (intranslation phases 7 and 8) for use as keywords, and shall not be usedotherwise.3.1.2 IdentifiersSyntax identifier: nondigit identifier nondigit identifier digit nondigit: one of _ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z digit: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Description An identifier is a sequence of nondigit characters (including theunderscore _ and the lower-case and upper-case letters) and digits.The first character shall be a nondigit character.Constraints In translation phases 7 and 8, an identifier shall not consist ofthe same sequence of characters as a keyword.Semantics An identifier denotes an object, a function, or one of thefollowing entities that will be described later: a tag or a member ofa structure, union, or enumeration; a typedef name; a label name; amacro name; or a macro parameter. A member of an enumeration iscalled an enumeration constant. Macro names and macro parameters arenot considered further here, because prior to the semantic phase ofprogram translation any occurrences of macro names in the source fileare replaced by the preprocessing token sequences that constitutetheir macro definitions. There is no specific limit on the maximum length of an identifier. "Implementation limits" The implementation shall treat at least the first 31 characters ofan internal name (a macro name or an identifier that does not haveexternal linkage) as significant. Corresponding lower-case andupper-case letters are different. The implementation may furtherrestrict the significance of an external name (an identifier that hasexternal linkage) to six characters and may ignore distinctions ofalphabetical case for such names./10/ These limitations on identifiersare all implementation-defined. Any identifiers that differ in a significant character aredifferent identifiers. If two identifiers differ in a non-significantcharacter, the behavior is undefined.Forward references: linkages of identifiers ($3.1.2.2), macroreplacement ($3.8.3).3.1.2.1 Scopes of identifiers An identifier is visible (i.e., can be used) only within a regionof program text called its scope . There are four kinds of scopes:function, file, block, and function prototype. (A function prototypeis a declaration of a function that declares the types of itsparameters.) A label name is the only kind of identifier that has function scope.It can be used (in a goto statement) anywhere in the function inwhich it appears, and is declared implicitly by its syntacticappearance (followed by a : and a statement). Label names shall beunique within a function. Every other identifier has scope determined by the placement of itsdeclaration (in a declarator or type specifier). If the declarator ortype specifier that declares the identifier appears outside of anyblock or list of parameters, the identifier has file scope, whichterminates at the end of the translation unit. If the declarator ortype specifier that declares the identifier appears inside a block orwithin the list of parameter declarations in a function definition,the identifier has block scope, which terminates at the } that closesthe associated block. If the declarator or type specifier thatdeclares the identifier appears within the list of parameterdeclarations in a function prototype (not part of a functiondefinition), the identifier has function prototype scope ,whichterminates at the end of the function declarator. If an outerdeclaration of a lexically identical identifier exists in the samename space, it is hidden until the current scope terminates, afterwhich it again becomes visible. Structure, union, and enumeration tags have scope that begins justafter the appearance of the tag in a type specifier that declares thetag. Each enumeration constant has scope that begins just after theappearance of its defining enumerator in an enumerator list. Anyother identifier has scope that begins just after the completion ofits declarator.Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2),declarations ($3.5), enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2), function calls($3.3.2.2), function declarators (including prototypes) ($3.5.4.3),function definitions ($3.7.1), the goto statement ($3.6.6.1), labeledstatements ($3.6.1), name spaces of identifiers ($3.1.2.3), scope ofmacro definitions ($3.8.3.5), source file inclusion ($3.8.2), tags($3.5.2.3), type specifiers ($3.5.2).3.1.2.2 Linkages of identifiers An identifier declared in different scopes or in the same scopemore than once can be made to refer to the same object or function bya process called linkage . There are three kinds of linkage: external,internal, and none. In the set of translation units and libraries that constitutes anentire program, each instance of a particular identifier with externallinkage denotes the same object or function. Within one translationunit, each instance of an identifier with internal linkage denotes thesame object or function. Identifiers with no linkage denote uniqueentities. If the declaration of an identifier for an object or a function hasfile scope and contains the storage-class specifier static, theidentifier has internal linkage. If the declaration of an identifier for an object or a functioncontains the storage-class specifier extern , the identifier has thesame linkage as any visible declaration of the identifier with filescope. If there is no visible declaration with file scope, theidentifier has external linkage. If the declaration of an identifier for a function has nostorage-class specifier, its linkage is determined exactly as if itwere declared with the storage-class specifier extern . If thedeclaration of an identifier for an object has file scope and nostorage-class specifier, its linkage is external. The following identifiers have no linkage: an identifier declaredto be anything other than an object or a function; an identifierdeclared to be a function parameter; an identifier declared to be anobject inside a block without the storage-class specifier extern. If, within a translation unit, the same identifier appears withboth internal and external linkage, the behavior is undefined.Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2),declarations ($3.5), expressions ($3.3), external definitions ($3.7).3.1.2.3 Name spaces of identifiers If more than one declaration of a particular identifier is visibleat any point in a translation unit, the syntactic contextdisambiguates uses that refer to different entities. Thus, there areseparate name spaces for various categories of identifiers, asfollows: * label names (disambiguated by the syntax of the label declaration and use); * the tags of structures, unions, and enumerations (disambiguated by following any/11/ of the keywords struct , union , or enum ); * the members of structures or unions; each structure or union has a separate name space for its members (disambiguated by the type of the expression used to access the member via the . or -> operator); * all other identifiers, called ordinary identifiers (declared in ordinary declarators or as enumeration constants).Forward references: declarators ($3.5.4), enumeration specifiers($3.5.2.2), labeled statements ($3.6.1), structure and unionspecifiers ($3.5.2.1), structure and union members ($3.3.2.3), tags($3.5.2.3).3.1.2.4 Storage durations of objects An object has a storage duration that determines its lifetime.There are two storage durations: static and automatic. An object declared with external or internal linkage, or with thestorage-class specifier static has static storage duration. For suchan object, storage is reserved and its stored value is initializedonly once, prior to program startup. The object exists and retainsits last-stored value throughout the execution of the entireprogram./12/ An object declared with no linkage and without the storage-classspecifier static has automatic storage duration. Storage is guaranteedto be reserved for a new instance of such an object on each normalentry into the block in which it is declared, or on a jump fromoutside the block to a label in the block or in an enclosed block. Ifan initialization is specified for the value stored in the object, itis performed on each normal entry, but not if the block is entered bya jump to a label. Storage for the object is no longer guaranteed tobe reserved when execution of the block ends in any way. (Entering anenclosed block suspends but does not end execution of the enclosingblock. Calling a function that returns suspends but does not endexecution of the block containing the call.) The value of a pointerthat referred to an object with automatic storage duration that is nolonger guaranteed to be reserved is indeterminate.Forward references: compound statement, or block ($3.6.2), functioncalls ($3.3.2.2), initialization ($3.5.7).3.1.2.5 Types The meaning of a value stored in an object or returned by afunction is determined by the type of the expression used to accessit. (An identifier declared to be an object is the simplest suchexpression; the type is specified in the declaration of theidentifier.) Types are partitioned into object types (types thatdescribe objects), function types (types that describe functions), andincomplete types (types that describe objects but lack informationneeded to determine their sizes). An object declared as type char is large enough to store any memberof the basic execution character set. If a member of the requiredsource character set enumerated in $2.2.1 is stored in a char object,its value is guaranteed to be positive. If other quantities arestored in a char object, the behavior is implementation-defined: thevalues are treated as either signed or nonnegative integers. There are four signed integer types, designated as signed char, short int, int, and long int. (The signed integer and other typesmay be designated in several additional ways, as described in $3.5.2.) An object declared as type signed char occupies the same amount ofstorage as a ``plain'' char object. A ``plain'' int object has thenatural size suggested by the architecture of the executionenvironment (large enough to contain any value in the range INT_MIN toINT_MAX as defined in the header <limits.h> ). In the list of signedinteger types above, the range of values of each type is a subrange ofthe values of the next type in the list. For each of the signed integer types, there is a corresponding (butdifferent) unsigned integer type (designated with the keyword unsigned) that uses the same amount of storage (including sign information)and has the same alignment requirements. The range of nonnegativevalues of a signed integer type is a subrange of the correspondingunsigned integer type, and the representation of the same value ineach type is the same. A computation involving unsigned operands cannever overflow, because a result that cannot be represented by theresulting unsigned integer type is reduced modulo the number that isone greater than the largest value that can be represented by theresulting unsigned integer type. There are three floating types, designated as float , double , andlong double . The set of values of the type float is a subset of theset of values of the type double ; the set of values of the typedouble is a subset of the set of values of the type long double. The type char, the signed and unsigned integer types, and thefloating types are collectively called the basic types. Even if theimplementation defines two or more basic types to have the samerepresentation, they are nevertheless different types. There are three character types, designated as char , signed char ,and unsigned char. An enumeration comprises a set of named integer constant values.Each distinct enumeration constitutes a different enumerated type. The void type comprises an empty set of values; it is an incompletetype that cannot be completed. Any number of derived types can be constructed from the basic,enumerated, and incomplete types, as follows: * An array type describes a contiguously allocated set of objects with a particular member object type, called the element type .Array types are characterized by their element type and by the number of members of the array. An array type is said to be derived from its element type, and if its element type is T , the array type is sometimes called ``array of T .'' The construction of an array type from an element type is called ``array type derivation.'' * A structure type describes a sequentially allocated set of member objects, each of which has an optionally specified name and possibly distinct type. * A union type describes an overlapping set of member objects, each of which has an optionally specified name and possibly distinct type. * A function type describes a function with specified return type. A function type is characterized by its return type and the number and types of its parameters. A function type is said to be derived from its return type, and if its return type is T , the function type is sometimes called ``function returning T.'' The construction of a function type from a return type is called ``function type derivation.'' * A pointer type may be derived from a function type, an object type, or an incomplete type, called the referenced type. A pointer type describes an object whose value provides a reference to an entity of the referenced type. A pointer type derived from the referenced type T is sometimes called ``pointer to T .'' The construction of a pointer type from a referenced type is called ``pointer type derivation.'' These methods of constructing derived types can be appliedrecursively. The type char, the signed and unsigned integer types, and theenumerated types are collectively called integral types. Therepresentations of integral types shall define values by use of a purebinary numeration system./13/ American National Dictionary forInformation Processing Systems.) The representations of floating typesare unspecified. Integral and floating types are collectively called arithmetictypes. Arithmetic types and pointer types are collectively calledscalar types. Array and structure types are collectively calledaggregate types. /14/ A pointer to void shall have the same representation and alignmentrequirements as a pointer to a character type. Other pointer typesneed not have the same representation or alignment requirements. An array type of unknown size is an incomplete type. It iscompleted, for an identifier of that type, by specifying the size in alater declaration (with internal or external linkage). A structure orunion type of unknown content (as described in $3.5.2.3) is anincomplete type. It is completed, for all declarations of that type,by declaring the same structure or union tag with its defining contentlater in the same scope. Array, function, and pointer types are collectively called deriveddeclarator types. A declarator type derivation from a type T is theconstruction of a derived declarator type from T by the application ofan array, a function, or a pointer type derivation to T. A type is characterized by its top type, which is either the firsttype named in describing a derived type (as noted above in theconstruction of derived types), or the type itself if the typeconsists of no derived types. A type has qualified type if its top type is specified with a typequalifier; otherwise it has unqualified type. The type qualifiersconst and volatile respectively designate const-qualified type andvolatile-qualified type. /15/ For each qualified type there is anunqualified type that is specified the same way as the qualified type,but without any type qualifiers in its top type. This type is knownas the unqualified version of the qualified type. Similarly, thereare appropriately qualified versions of types (such as aconst-qualified version of a type), just as there are appropriatelynon-qualified versions of types (such as a non-const-qualified versionof a type).Examples The type designated as ``float *'' is called ``pointer to float''and its top type is a pointer type, not a floating type. Theconst-qualified version of this type is designated as ``float * const''whereas the type designated as `` const float * '' is not aqualified type --- it is called ``pointer to const float '' and is apointer to a qualified type. Finally, the type designated as `` struct tag (*[5])(float) '' iscalled ``array of pointer to function returning struct tag.'' Its toptype is array type. The array has length five and the function has asingle parameter of type float. Forward references: character constants ($3.1.3.4), declarations($3.5), tags ($3.5.2.3), type qualifiers ($3.5.3).3.1.2.6 Compatible type and composite type Two types have compatible type if their types are the same.Additional rules for determining whether two types are compatible aredescribed in $3.5.2 for type specifiers, in $3.5.3 for typequalifiers, and in $3.5.4 for declarators. /16/ Moreover, twostructure, union, or enumeration types declared in separatetranslation units are compatible if they have the same number ofmembers, the same member names, and compatible member types; for twostructures, the members shall be in the same order; for twoenumerations, the members shall have the same values. All declarations that refer to the same object or function shallhave compatible type; otherwise the behavior is undefined. A composite type can be constructed from two types that arecompatible; it is a type that is compatible with both of the two typesand has the following additions: * If one type is an array of known size, the composite type is an array of that size. * If only one type is a function type with a parameter type list (a function prototype), the composite type is a function prototype with the parameter type list. * If both types have parameter type lists, the type of each parameter in the composite parameter type list is the composite type of the corresponding parameters. These rules apply recursively to the types from which the two typesare derived. For an identifier with external or internal linkage declared in thesame scope as another declaration for that identifier, the type of theidentifier becomes the composite type.Example Given the following two file scope declarations: int f(int (*)(), double (*)[3]); int f(int (*)(char *), double (*)[]);The resulting composite type for the function is: int f(int (*)(char *), double (*)[3]);Forward references: declarators ($3.5.4), enumeration specifiers($3.5.2.2), structure and union specifiers ($3.5.2.1), typedefinitions ($3.5.6), type qualifiers ($3.5.3), type specifiers($3.5.2).3.1.3 ConstantsSyntax constant: floating-constant integer-constant enumeration-constant character-constantConstraints The value of a constant shall be in the range of representablevalues for its type.Semantics Each constant has a type, determined by its form and value, asdetailed later.3.1.3.1 Floating constantsSyntax floating-constant: fractional-constant exponent-part<opt> floating-suffix<opt> digit-sequence exponent-part floating-suffix<opt> fractional-constant: digit-sequence<opt>.digit-sequence digit-sequence. exponent-part: e sign<opt> digit-sequence E sign<opt> digit-sequence sign: one of + - digit-sequence: digit digit-sequence digit floating-suffix: one of f l F LDescription A floating constant has a value part that may be followed by anexponent part and a suffix that specifies its type. The components ofthe value part may include a digit sequence representing thewhole-number part, followed by a period (.), followed by a digitsequence representing the fraction part. The components of theexponent part are an e or E followed by an exponent consisting of anoptionally signed digit sequence. Either the whole-number part or thefraction part shall be present; either the period or the exponent partshall be present.Semantics The value part is interpreted as a decimal rational number; thedigit sequence in the exponent part is interpreted as a decimalinteger. The exponent indicates the power of 10 by which the valuepart is to be scaled. If the scaled value is in the range ofrepresentable values (for its type) but cannot be represented exactly,the result is either the nearest higher or nearest lower value, chosenin an implementation-defined manner. An unsuffixed floating constant has type double. If suffixed bythe letter f or F, it has type float. If suffixed by the letter lor L, it has type long double.3.1.3.2 Integer constantsSyntax integer-constant: decimal-constant integer-suffix<opt> octal-constant integer-suffix<opt> hexadecimal-constant integer-suffix<opt> decimal-constant: nonzero-digit decimal-constant digit octal-constant: 0 octal-constant octal-digit hexadecimal-constant: 0x hexadecimal-digit 0X hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-constant hexadecimal-digit nonzero-digit: one of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 octal-digit: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 hexadecimal-digit: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F integer-suffix: unsigned-suffix long-suffix<opt> long-suffix unsigned-suffix<opt> unsigned-suffix: one of u U long-suffix: one of l LDescription An integer constant begins with a digit, but has no period orexponent part. It may have a prefix that specifies its base and asuffix that specifies its type. A decimal constant begins with a nonzero digit and consists of asequence of decimal digits. An octal constant consists of the prefix0 optionally followed by a sequence of the digits 0 through 7 only. Ahexadecimal constant consists of the prefix 0x or 0X followed by asequence of the decimal digits and the letters a (or A ) through f (orF) with values 10 through 15 respectively.Semantics The value of a decimal constant is computed base 10; that of anoctal constant, base 8; that of a hexadecimal constant, base 16. Thelexically first digit is the most significant. The type of an integer constant is the first of the correspondinglist in which its value can be represented. Unsuffixed decimal: int,long int, unsigned long int; unsuffixed octal or hexadecimal: int,unsigned int, long int, unsigned long int; suffixed by the letter uor U: unsigned int, unsigned long int; suffixed by the letter l orL: long int, unsigned long int; suffixed by both the letters u or Uand l or L: unsigned long int .3.1.3.3 Enumeration constantsSyntax enumeration-constant: identifierSemantics An identifier declared as an enumeration constant has type int. Forward references: enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2). 3.1.3.4 Character constantsSyntax character-constant: ' c-char-sequence' L' c-char-sequence' c-char-sequence: c-char c-char-sequence c-char c-char: any member of the source character set except the single-quote ', backslash \, or new-line character escape-sequence escape-sequence: simple-escape-sequence octal-escape-sequence hexadecimal-escape-sequence simple-escape-sequence: one of \' \" \? \\ \a \b \f \n \r \t \v octal-escape-sequence: \ octal-digit \ octal-digit octal-digit \ octal-digit octal-digit octal-digit hexadecimal-escape-sequence: \x hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-escape-sequence hexadecimal-digitDescription An integer character constant is a sequence of one or moremultibyte characters enclosed in single-quotes, as in 'x' or 'ab'. Awide character constant is the same, except prefixed by the letter L .With a few exceptions detailed later, the elements of the sequence areany members of the source character set; they are mapped in animplementation-defined manner to members of the execution characterset. The single-quote ', the double-quote , the question-mark ?, thebackslash \ , and arbitrary integral values, are representableaccording to the following table of escape sequences: single-quote ' \' double-quote " \" question-mark ? \? backslash \ \\ octal integer \ octal digits hexadecimal integer \x hexadecimal digits The double-quote and question-mark ? are representable either bythemselves or by the escape sequences \" and \? respectively, but thesingle-quote ' and the backslash \ shall be represented, respectively,by the escape sequences \' and \\ . The octal digits that follow the backslash in an octal escapesequence are taken to be part of the construction of a singlecharacter for an integer character constant or of a single widecharacter for a wide character constant. The numerical value of theoctal integer so formed specifies the value of the desired character. The hexadecimal digits that follow the backslash and the letter xin a hexadecimal escape sequence are taken to be part of theconstruction of a single character for an integer character constantor of a single wide character for a wide character constant. Thenumerical value of the hexadecimal integer so formed specifies thevalue of the desired character. Each octal or hexadecimal escape sequence is the longest sequenceof characters that can constitute the escape sequence. In addition, certain nongraphic characters are representable byescape sequences consisting of the backslash \ followed by alower-case letter: \a , \b , \f , \n , \r , \t , and \v ./17/ If anyother escape sequence is encountered, the behavior is undefined./18/Constraints The value of an octal or hexadecimal escape sequence shall be inthe range of representable values for the unsigned type correspondingto its type.Semantics An integer character constant has type int. The value of aninteger character constant containing a single character that mapsinto a member of the basic execution character set is the numericalvalue of the representation of the mapped character interpreted as aninteger. The value of an integer character constant containing morethan one character, or containing a character or escape sequence notrepresented in the basic execution character set, isimplementation-defined. In particular, in an implementation in whichtype char has the same range of values as signed char, the high-orderbit position of a single-character integer character constant istreated as a sign bit. A wide character constant has type wchar_t , an integral typedefined in the <stddef.h> header. The value of a wide characterconstant containing a single multibyte character that maps into amember of the extended execution character set is the wide character(code) corresponding to that multibyte character, as defined by thembtowc function, with an implementation-defined current locale. Thevalue of a wide character constant containing more than one multibytecharacter, or containing a multibyte character or escape sequence notrepresented in the extended execution character set, isimplementation-defined.Examples The construction '\0' is commonly used to represent the null character. Consider implementations that use two's-complement representationfor integers and eight bits for objects that have type char. In animplementation in which type char has the same range of values assigned char, the integer character constant '\xFF' has the value iftype char has the same range of values as unsigned char, thecharacter constant '\xFF' has the value Even if eight bits are used for objects that have type char , theconstruction '\x123' specifies an integer character constantcontaining only one character. (The value of this single-characterinteger character constant is implementation-defined and violates theabove constraint.) To specify an integer character constant containingthe two characters whose values are 0x12 and '3', the construction'\0223' may be used, since a hexadecimal escape sequence is terminatedonly by a non-hexadecimal character. (The value of this two-characterinteger character constant is implementation-defined also.) Even if 12 or more bits are used for objects that have type wchar_t,the construction L'\1234' specifies the implementation-defined valuethat results from the combination of the values 0123 and '4'.Forward references: characters and integers ($3.2.1.1) commondefinitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5), the mbtowc function ($4.10.7.2).3.1.4 String literalsSyntax string-literal: " s-char-sequence<opt>" L" s-char-sequence<opt>" s-char-sequence: s-char s-char-sequence s-char s-char: any member of the source character set except the double-quote ", backslash \, or new-line character escape-sequenceDescription A character string literal is a sequence of zero or more multibytecharacters enclosed in double-quotes, as in xyz. A wide stringliteral is the same, except prefixed by the letter L. The same considerations apply to each element of the sequence in acharacter string literal or a wide string literal as if it were in aninteger character constant or a wide character constant, except thatthe single-quote ' is representable either by itself or by the escapesequence \', but the double-quote shall be represented by the escapesequence \.Semantics A character string literal has static storage duration and type``array of char ,'' and is initialized with the given characters. Awide string literal has static storage duration and type ``array ofwchar_t,'' and is initialized with the wide characters correspondingto the given multibyte characters. Character string literals that areadjacent tokens are concatenated into a single character stringliteral. A null character is then appended. /19/ Likewise, adjacentwide string literal tokens are concatenated into a single wide stringliteral to which a code with value zero is then appended. If acharacter string literal token is adjacent to a wide string literaltoken, the behavior is undefined. Identical string literals of either form need not be distinct. Ifthe program attempts to modify a string literal of either form, thebehavior is undefined.Example This pair of adjacent character string literals "\x12" "3"produces a single character string literal containing the twocharacters whose values are \x12 and '3', because escape sequences areconverted into single members of the execution character set justprior to adjacent string literal concatenation.Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5). 3.1.5 OperatorsSyntax operator: one of [ ] ( ) . -> ++ -- & * + - ~ ! sizeof / % << >> < > <= >= == != ^ | && || ? : = *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |= , # ##Constraints The operators [ ] , ( ) , and ? : shall occur in pairs, possiblyseparated by expressions. The operators # and ## shall occur inmacro-defining preprocessing directives only.Semantics An operator specifies an operation to be performed (an evaluation )that yields a value, or yields a designator, or produces a sideeffect, or a combination thereof. An operand is an entity on which anoperator acts.Forward references: expressions ($3.3), macro replacement ($3.8.3). 3.1.6 PunctuatorsSyntax punctuator: one of [ ] ( ) { } * , : = ; ... #Constraints The punctuators [ ] , ( ) , and { } shall occur in pairs, possiblyseparated by expressions, declarations, or statements. The punctuator# shall occur in preprocessing directives only.Semantics A punctuator is a symbol that has independent syntactic andsemantic significance but does not specify an operation to beperformed that yields a value. Depending on context, the same symbolmay also represent an operator or part of an operator.Forward references: expressions ($3.3), declarations ($3.5),preprocessing directives ($3.8), statements ($3.6).3.1.7 Header namesSyntax header-name: < h-char-sequence> " q-char-sequence" h-char-sequence: h-char h-char-sequence h-char h-char: any member of the source character set except the new-line character and > q-char-sequence: q-char q-char-sequence q-char q-char: any member of the source character set except the new-line character and "Constraints Header name preprocessing tokens shall only appear within a#include preprocessing directive.Semantics The sequences in both forms of header names are mapped in animplementation-defined manner to headers or external source file namesas specified in $3.8.2. If the characters ', \ , , or /* occur in the sequence between the< and > delimiters, the behavior is undefined. Similarly, if thecharacters ', \ , or /* occur in the sequence between the " delimiters,the behavior is undefined. /20/Example The following sequence of characters: 0x3<1/a.h>1e2 #include <1/a.h> #define const.member@$forms the following sequence of preprocessing tokens (with eachindividual preprocessing token delimited by a { on the left and a } onthe right). {0x3}{<}{1}{/}{a}{.}{h}{>}{1e2} {#}{include} {<1/a.h>} {#}{define} {const}{.}{member}{@}{$}Forward references: source file inclusion ($3.8.2). 3.1.8 Preprocessing numbersSyntax pp-number: digit . digit pp-number digit pp-number nondigit pp-number e sign pp-number E sign pp-number .Description A preprocessing number begins with a digit optionally preceded by aperiod (.) and may be followed by letters, underscores, digits,periods, and e+, e-, E+, or E- character sequences. Preprocessing number tokens lexically include all floating andinteger constant tokens.Semantics A preprocessing number does not have type or a value; it acquiresboth after a successful conversion (as part of translation phase 7) toa floating constant token or an integer constant token.3.1.9 Comments Except within a character constant, a string literal, or a comment,the characters /* introduce a comment. The contents of a comment areexamined only to identify multibyte characters and to find thecharacters */ that terminate it. /21/3.2 CONVERSIONS Several operators convert operand values from one type to anotherautomatically. This section specifies the result required from suchan implicit conversion, as well as those that result from a castoperation (an explicit conversion). The list in $3.2.1.5 summarizesthe conversions performed by most ordinary operators; it issupplemented as required by the discussion of each operator in $3.3. Conversion of an operand value to a compatible type causes no change. Forward references: cast operators ($3.3.4). 3.2.1 Arithmetic operands3.2.1.1 Characters and integers A char, a short int, or an int bit-field, or their signed orunsigned varieties, or an object that has enumeration type, may beused in an expression wherever an int or unsigned int may be used. Ifan int can represent all values of the original type, the value isconverted to an int; otherwise it is converted to an unsigned int.These are called the integral promotions. The integral promotions preserve value including sign. Asdiscussed earlier, whether a ``plain'' char is treated as signed isimplementation-defined.Forward references: enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2), structure andunion specifiers ($3.5.2.1).3.2.1.2 Signed and unsigned integers When an unsigned integer is converted to another integral type, ifthe value can be represented by the new type, its value is unchanged. When a signed integer is converted to an unsigned integer withequal or greater size, if the value of the signed integer isnonnegative, its value is unchanged. Otherwise: if the unsignedinteger has greater size, the signed integer is first promoted to thesigned integer corresponding to the unsigned integer; the value isconverted to unsigned by adding to it one greater than the largestnumber that can be represented in the unsigned integer type. /22/ When an integer is demoted to an unsigned integer with smallersize, the result is the nonnegative remainder on division by thenumber one greater than the largest unsigned number that can berepresented in the type with smaller size. When an integer is demotedto a signed integer with smaller size, or an unsigned integer isconverted to its corresponding signed integer, if the value cannot berepresented the result is implementation-defined.3.2.1.3 Floating and integral When a value of floating type is converted to integral type, thefractional part is discarded. If the value of the integral partcannot be represented by the integral type, the behavior isundefined. /23/ When a value of integral type is converted to floating type, if thevalue being converted is in the range of values that can berepresented but cannot be represented exactly, the result is eitherthe nearest higher or nearest lower value, chosen in animplementation-defined manner.3.2.1.4 Floating types When a float is promoted to double or long double , or a double ispromoted to long double , its value is unchanged. When a double is demoted to float or a long double to double orfloat, if the value being converted is outside the range of valuesthat can be represented, the behavior is undefined. If the valuebeing converted is in the range of values that can be represented butcannot be represented exactly, the result is either the nearest higheror nearest lower value, chosen in an implementation-defined manner.3.2.1.5 Usual arithmetic conversions Many binary operators that expect operands of arithmetic type causeconversions and yield result types in a similar way. The purpose isto yield a common type, which is also the type of the result. Thispattern is called the usual arithmetic conversions: First, if eitheroperand has type long double, the other operand is converted to longdouble . Otherwise, if either operand has type double, the otheroperand is converted to double. Otherwise, if either operand hastype float, the other operand is converted to float. Otherwise, theintegral promotions are performed on both operands. Then thefollowing rules are applied: If either operand has type unsigned longint, the other operand is converted to unsigned long int.Otherwise, if one operand has type long int and the other has typeunsigned int, if a long int can represent all values of an unsignedint, the operand of type unsigned int is converted to long int ; if along int cannot represent all the values of an unsigned int, bothoperands are converted to unsigned long int. Otherwise, if eitheroperand has type long int, the other operand is converted to long int.Otherwise, if either operand has type unsigned int, the otheroperand is converted to unsigned int. Otherwise, both operands havetype int. The values of operands and of the results of expressions may berepresented in greater precision and range than that required by thetype; the types are not changed thereby.3.2.2 Other operands3.2.2.1 Lvalues and function designators An lvalue is an expression (with an object type or an incompletetype other than void) that designates an object. /24/ When an objectis said to have a particular type, the type is specified by the lvalueused to designate the object. A modifiable lvalue is an lvalue thatdoes not have array type, does not have an incomplete type, does nothave a const-qualified type, and if it is a structure or union, doesnot have any member (including, recursively, any member of allcontained structures or unions) with a const-qualified type. Except when it is the operand of the sizeof operator, the unary &operator, the ++ operator, the -- operator, or the left operand of the .operator or an assignment operator, an lvalue that does not havearray type is converted to the value stored in the designated object(and is no longer an lvalue). If the lvalue has qualified type, thevalue has the unqualified version of the type of the lvalue; otherwisethe value has the type of the lvalue. If the lvalue has an incompletetype and does not have array type, the behavior is undefined. Except when it is the operand of the sizeof operator or the unary &operator, or is a character string literal used to initialize an arrayof character type, or is a wide string literal used to initialize anarray with element type compatible with wchar_t, an lvalue that hastype ``array of type '' is converted to an expression that has type``pointer to type '' that points to the initial member of the arrayobject and is not an lvalue. A function designator is an expression that has function type.Except when it is the operand of the sizeof operator /25/ or the unary& operator, a function designator with type ``function returning type'' is converted to an expression that has type ``pointer to functionreturning type .''Forward references: address and indirection operators ($3.3.3.2),assignment operators ($3.3.16), common definitions <stddef.h>($4.1.5), initialization ($3.5.7), postfix increment and decrementoperators ($3.3.2.4), prefix increment and decrement operators($3.3.3.1), the sizeof operator ($3.3.3.4), structure and unionmembers ($3.3.2.3).3.2.2.2 void The (nonexistent) value of a void expression (an expression thathas type void) shall not be used in any way, and implicit or explicitconversions (except to void ) shall not be applied to such anexpression. If an expression of any other type occurs in a contextwhere a void expression is required, its value or designator isdiscarded. (A void expression is evaluated for its side effects.)3.2.2.3 Pointers A pointer to void may be converted to or from a pointer to anyincomplete or object type. A pointer to any incomplete or object typemay be converted to a pointer to void and back again; the result shallcompare equal to the original pointer. A pointer to a non-q-qualified type may be converted to a pointerto the q-qualified version of the type; the values stored in theoriginal and converted pointers shall compare equal. An integral constant expression with the value 0, or such anexpression cast to type void * , is called a null pointer constant. Ifa null pointer constant is assigned to or compared for equality to apointer, the constant is converted to a pointer of that type. Such apointer, called a null pointer, is guaranteed to compare unequal to apointer to any object or function. Two null pointers, converted through possibly different sequencesof casts to pointer types, shall compare equal.Forward references: cast operators ($3.3.4), equality operators($3.3.9), simple assignment ($3.3.16.1).3.3 EXPRESSIONS An expression is a sequence of operators and operands thatspecifies computation of a value, or that designates an object or afunction, or that generates side effects, or that performs acombination thereof. Between the previous and next sequence point an object shall haveits stored value modified at most once by the evaluation of anexpression. Furthermore, the prior value shall be accessed only todetermine the value to be stored. /26/ Except as indicated by the syntax /27/ or otherwise specified later(for the function-call operator () , && , || , ?: , and commaoperators), the order of evaluation of subexpressions and the order inwhich side effects take place are both unspecified. Some operators (the unary operator ~ , and the binary operators << ,>> , & , ^ , and | , collectively described as bitwise operators)shall have operands that have integral type. These operators returnvalues that depend on the internal representations of integers, andthus have implementation-defined aspects for signed types. If an exception occurs during the evaluation of an expression (thatis, if the result is not mathematically defined or not representable),the behavior is undefined. An object shall have its stored value accessed only by an lvaluethat has one of the following types: /28/ * the declared type of the object, * a qualified version of the declared type of the object, * a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the declared type of the object, * a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a qualified version of the declared type of the object, * an aggregate or union type that includes one of the aforementioned types among its members (including, recursively, a member of a subaggregate or contained union), or * a character type. 3.3.1 Primary expressionsSyntax primary-expression: identifier constant string-literal ( expression )Semantics An identifier is a primary expression, provided it has beendeclared as designating an object (in which case it is an lvalue) or afunction (in which case it is a function designator). A constant is a primary expression. Its type depends on its form,as detailed in $3.1.3. A string literal is a primary expression. It is an lvalue withtype as detailed in $3.1.4. A parenthesized expression is a primary expression. Its type andvalue are identical to those of the unparenthesized expression. It isan lvalue, a function designator, or a void expression if theunparenthesized expression is, respectively, an lvalue, a functiondesignator, or a void expression.Forward references: declarations ($3.5). 3.3.2 Postfix operatorsSyntax postfix-expression: primary-expression postfix-expression [ expression ] postfix-expression ( argument-expression-list<opt> ) postfix-expression . identifier postfix-expression -> identifier postfix-expression ++ postfix-expression -- argument-expression-list: assignment-expression argument-expression-list , assignment-expression3.3.2.1 Array subscriptingConstraints One of the expressions shall have type ``pointer to object type ,''the other expression shall have integral type, and the result has type`` type .''Semantics A postfix expression followed by an expression in square brackets[] is a subscripted designation of a member of an array object. Thedefinition of the subscript operator [] is that E1[E2] is identical to(*(E1+(E2))) . Because of the conversion rules that apply to thebinary + operator, if E1 is an array object (equivalently, a pointerto the initial member of an array object) and E2 is an integer, E1[E2]designates the E2 -th member of E1 (counting from zero). Successive subscript operators designate a member of amulti-dimensional array object. If E is an n -dimensional array ( n>=2) with dimensions i x j "x ... x" k , then E (used as other than anlvalue) is converted to a pointer to an ( n -1)-dimensional array withdimensions j "x ... x" k . If the unary * operator is applied to thispointer explicitly, or implicitly as a result of subscripting, theresult is the pointed-to ( n -1)-dimensional array, which itself isconverted into a pointer if used as other than an lvalue. It followsfrom this that arrays are stored in row-major order (last subscriptvaries fastest).Example Consider the array object defined by the declaration int x[3][5];Here x is a 3x5 array of int s; more precisely, x is an array of threemember objects, each of which is an array of five int s. In theexpression x[i] , which is equivalent to (*(x+(i))) , x is firstconverted to a pointer to the initial array of five int s. Then i isadjusted according to the type of x , which conceptually entailsmultiplying i by the size of the object to which the pointer points,namely an array of five int objects. The results are added andindirection is applied to yield an array of five int s. When used inthe expression x[i][j] , that in turn is converted to a pointer to thefirst of the int s, so x[i][j] yields an int.Forward references: additive operators ($3.3.6), address andindirection operators ($3.3.3.2), array declarators ($3.5.4.2).3.3.2.2 Function callsConstraints The expression that denotes the called function/29/ shall have typepointer to function returning void or returning an object type otherthan array. If the expression that denotes the called function has a type thatincludes a prototype, the number of arguments shall agree with thenumber of parameters. Each argument shall have a type such that itsvalue may be assigned to an object with the unqualified version of thetype of its corresponding parameter.Semantics A postfix expression followed by parentheses () containing apossibly empty, comma-separated list of expressions is a functioncall. The postfix expression denotes the called function. The listof expressions specifies the arguments to the function. If the expression that precedes the parenthesized argument list ina function call consists solely of an identifier, and if nodeclaration is visible for this identifier, the identifier isimplicitly declared exactly as if, in the innermost block containingthe function call, the declaration extern int identifier();appeared. /30/ An argument may be an expression of any object type. In preparingfor the call to a function, the arguments are evaluated, and eachparameter is assigned the value of the corresponding argument./31/ Thevalue of the function call expression is specified in $3.6.6.4. If the expression that denotes the called function has a type thatdoes not include a prototype, the integral promotions are performed oneach argument and arguments that have type float are promoted todouble. These are called the default argument promotions. If thenumber of arguments does not agree with the number of parameters, thebehavior is undefined. If the function is defined with a type thatdoes not include a prototype, and the types of the arguments afterpromotion are not compatible with those of the parameters afterpromotion, the behavior is undefined. If the function is defined witha type that includes a prototype, and the types of the arguments afterpromotion are not compatible with the types of the parameters, or ifthe prototype ends with an ellipsis ( ", ..." ), the behavior isundefined. If the expression that denotes the called function has a type thatincludes a prototype, the arguments are implicitly converted, as if byassignment, to the types of the corresponding parameters. Theellipsis notation in a function prototype declarator causes argumenttype conversion to stop after the last declared parameter. Thedefault argument promotions are performed on trailing arguments. Ifthe function is defined with a type that is not compatible with thetype (of the expression) pointed to by the expression that denotes thecalled function, the behavior is undefined. No other conversions are performed implicitly; in particular, thenumber and types of arguments are not compared with those of theparameters in a function definition that does not include a functionprototype declarator. The order of evaluation of the function designator, the arguments,and subexpressions within the arguments is unspecified, but there is asequence point before the actual call. Recursive function calls shall be permitted, both directly andindirectly through any chain of other functions.Example In the function call (*pf[f1()]) (f2(), f3() + f4())the functions f1 , f2 , f3 , and f4 may be called in any order. Allside effects shall be completed before the function pointed to bypf[f1()] is entered.Forward references: function declarators (including prototypes)($3.5.4.3), function definitions ($3.7.1), the return statement($3.6.6.4), simple assignment ($3.3.16.1).3.3.2.3 Structure and union membersConstraints The first operand of the . operator shall have a qualified orunqualified structure or union type, and the second operand shall namea member of that type. The first operand of the -> operator shall have type ``pointer toqualified or unqualified structure'' or ``pointer to qualified orunqualified union,'' and the second operand shall name a member of thetype pointed to.Semantics A postfix expression followed by a dot . and an identifierdesignates a member of a structure or union object. The value is thatof the named member, and is an lvalue if the first expression is anlvalue. If the first expression has qualified type, the result hasthe so-qualified version of the type of the designated member. A postfix expression followed by an arrow -> and an identifierdesignates a member of a structure or union object. The value is thatof the named member of the object to which the first expressionpoints, and is an lvalue./32/ If the first expression is a pointer toa qualified type, the result has the so-qualified version of the typeof the designated member. With one exception, if a member of a union object is accessed aftera value has been stored in a different member of the object, thebehavior is implementation-defined./33/ One special guarantee is madein order to simplify the use of unions: If a union contains severalstructures that share a common initial sequence, and if the unionobject currently contains one of these structures, it is permitted toinspect the common initial part of any of them. Two structures sharea common initial sequence if corresponding members have compatibletypes for a sequence of one or more initial members.Example If f is a function returning a structure or union, and x is amember of that structure or union, f().x is a valid postfix expressionbut is not an lvalue. The following is a valid fragment: union { struct { int alltypes; } n; struct { int type; int intnode; } ni; struct { int type; double doublenode; } nf; } u; /*...*/ u.nf.type = 1; u.nf.doublenode = 3.14; /*...*/ if (u.n.alltypes == 1) /*...*/ sin(u.nf.doublenode) /*...*/Forward references: address and indirection operators ($3.3.3.2),structure and union specifiers ($3.5.2.1).3.3.2.4 Postfix increment and decrement operatorsConstraints The operand of the postfix increment or decrement operator shallhave qualified or unqualified scalar type and shall be a modifiablelvalue.Semantics The result of the postfix ++ operator is the value of the operand.After the result is obtained, the value of the operand is incremented.(That is, the value 1 of the appropriate type is added to it.) See thediscussions of additive operators and compound assignment forinformation on constraints, types and conversions and the effects ofoperations on pointers. The side effect of updating the stored valueof the operand shall occur between the previous and the next sequencepoint. The postfix -- operator is analogous to the postfix ++ operator,except that the value of the operand is decremented (that is, thevalue 1 of the appropriate type is subtracted from it).Forward references: additive operators ($3.3.6), compound assignment($3.3.16.2).3.3.3 Unary operatorsSyntax unary-expression: postfix-expression ++ unary-expression -- unary-expression unary-operator cast-expression sizeof unary-expression sizeof ( type-name ) unary-operator: one of & * + - ~ !3.3.3.1 Prefix increment and decrement operatorsConstraints The operand of the prefix increment or decrement operator shallhave qualified or unqualified scalar type and shall be a modifiablelvalue.Semantics The value of the operand of the prefix ++ operator is incremented.The result is the new value of the operand after incrementation. Theexpression ++E is equivalent to (E+=1) . See the discussions ofadditive operators and compound assignment for information onconstraints, types, side effects, and conversions and the effects ofoperations on pointers. The prefix -- operator is analogous to the prefix ++ operator,except that the value of the operand is decremented.Forward references: additive operators ($3.3.6), compound assignment($3.3.16.2).3.3.3.2 Address and indirection operatorsConstraints The operand of the unary & operator shall be either a functiondesignator or an lvalue that designates an object that is not abit-field and is not declared with the register storage-classspecifier. The operand of the unary * operator shall have pointer type. Semantics The result of the unary & (address-of) operator is a pointer to theobject or function designated by its operand. If the operand has type`` type ,'' the result has type ``pointer to type .'' The unary * operator denotes indirection. If the operand points toa function, the result is a function designator; if it points to anobject, the result is an lvalue designating the object. If theoperand has type ``pointer to type ,'' the result has type `` type .''If an invalid value has been assigned to the pointer, the behavior ofthe unary * operator is undefined./34/Forward references: storage-class specifiers ($3.5.1), structure andunion specifiers ($3.5.2.1).3.3.3.3 Unary arithmetic operatorsConstraints The operand of the unary + or - operator shall have arithmetictype; of the ~ operator, integral type; of the ! operator, scalartype.Semantics The result of the unary + operator is the value of its operand.The integral promotion is performed on the operand, and the result hasthe promoted type. The result of the unary - operator is the negative of its operand.The integral promotion is performed on the operand, and the result hasthe promoted type. The result of the ~ operator is the bitwise complement of itsoperand (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if thecorresponding bit in the converted operand is not set). The integralpromotion is performed on the operand, and the result has the promotedtype. The expression ~E is equivalent to (ULONG_MAX-E) if E ispromoted to type unsigned long , to (UINT_MAX-E) if E is promoted totype unsigned int . (The constants ULONG_MAX and UINT_MAX are definedin the header <limits.h> .) The result of the logical negation operator ! is 0 if the value ofits operand compares unequal to 0, 1 if the value of its operandcompares equal to 0. The result has type int . The expression !E isequivalent to (0==E) .Forward references: limits <float.h> and <limits.h> ($4.1.4). 3.3.3.4 The sizeof operatorConstraints The sizeof operator shall not be applied to an expression that hasfunction type or an incomplete type, to the parenthesized name of sucha type, or to an lvalue that designates a bit-field object.Semantics The sizeof operator yields the size (in bytes) of its operand,which may be an expression or the parenthesized name of a type. Thesize is determined from the type of the operand, which is not itselfevaluated. The result is an integer constant. When applied to an operand that has type char , unsigned char , orsigned char , (or a qualified version thereof) the result is 1. Whenapplied to an operand that has array type, the result is the totalnumber of bytes in the array./35/ When applied to an operand that hasstructure or union type, the result is the total number of bytes insuch an object, including internal and trailing padding. The value of the result is implementation-defined, and its type (anunsigned integral type) is size_t defined in the <stddef.h> header.Examples A principal use of the sizeof operator is in communication withroutines such as storage allocators and I/O systems. Astorage-allocation function might accept a size (in bytes) of anobject to allocate and return a pointer to void. For example: extern void *alloc(); double *dp = alloc(sizeof *dp);The implementation of the alloc function should ensure that its returnvalue is aligned suitably for conversion to a pointer to double. Another use of the sizeof operator is to compute the number ofmembers in an array: sizeof array / sizeof array[0]Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5),declarations ($3.5), structure and union specifiers ($3.5.2.1), typenames ($3.5.5).3.3.4 Cast operatorsSyntax cast-expression: unary-expression ( type-name ) cast-expressionConstraints Unless the type name specifies void type, the type name shallspecify qualified or unqualified scalar type and the operand shallhave scalar type.Semantics Preceding an expression by a parenthesized type name converts thevalue of the expression to the named type. This construction iscalled a cast. /36/ A cast that specifies an implicit conversion or noconversion has no effect on the type or value of an expression. Conversions that involve pointers (other than as permitted by theconstraints of $3.3.16.1) shall be specified by means of an explicitcast; they have implementation-defined aspects: A pointer may beconverted to an integral type. The size of integer required and theresult are implementation-defined. If the space provided is not longenough, the behavior is undefined. An arbitrary integer may beconverted to a pointer. The result is implementation-defined./37/ Apointer to an object or incomplete type may be converted to a pointerto a different object type or a different incomplete type. Theresulting pointer might not be valid if it is improperly aligned forthe type pointed to. It is guaranteed, however, that a pointer to anobject of a given alignment may be converted to a pointer to an objectof the same alignment or a less strict alignment and back again; theresult shall compare equal to the original pointer. (An object thathas character type has the least strict alignment.) A pointer to afunction of one type may be converted to a pointer to a function ofanother type and back again; the result shall compare equal to theoriginal pointer. If a converted pointer is used to call a functionthat has a type that is not compatible with the type of the calledfunction, the behavior is undefined.Forward references: equality operators ($3.3.9), function declarators(including prototypes) ($3.5.4.3), simple assignment ($3.3.16.1), typenames ($3.5.5).3.3.5 Multiplicative operatorsSyntax multiplicative-expression: cast-expression multiplicative-expression * cast-expression multiplicative-expression / cast-expression multiplicative-expression % cast-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have arithmetic type. The operands ofthe % operator shall have integral type.Semantics The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands. The result of the binary * operator is the product of the operands. The result of the / operator is the quotient from the division ofthe first operand by the second; the result of the % operator is theremainder. In both operations, if the value of the second operand iszero, the behavior is undefined. When integers are divided and the division is inexact, if bothoperands are positive the result of the / operator is the largestinteger less than the algebraic quotient and the result of the %operator is positive. If either operand is negative, whether theresult of the / operator is the largest integer less than thealgebraic quotient or the smallest integer greater than the algebraicquotient is implementation-defined, as is the sign of the result ofthe % operator. If the quotient a/b is representable, the expression(a/b)*b + a%b shall equal a .3.3.6 Additive operatorsSyntax additive-expression: multiplicative-expression additive-expression + multiplicative-expression additive-expression - multiplicative-expressionConstraints For addition, either both operands shall have arithmetic type, orone operand shall be a pointer to an object type and the other shallhave integral type. (Incrementing is equivalent to adding 1.) For subtraction, one of the following shall hold: * both operands have arithmetic type; * both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of compatible object types; or * the left operand is a pointer to an object type and the right operand has integral type. (Decrementing is equivalent to subtracting 1.)Semantics If both operands have arithmetic type, the usual arithmeticconversions are performed on them. The result of the binary + operator is the sum of the operands. The result of the binary - operator is the difference resultingfrom the subtraction of the second operand from the first. When an expression that has integral type is added to or subtractedfrom a pointer, the integral value is first multiplied by the size ofthe object pointed to. The result has the type of the pointeroperand. If the pointer operand points to a member of an arrayobject, and the array object is large enough, the result points to amember of the same array object, appropriately offset from theoriginal member. Thus if P points to a member of an array object, theexpression P+1 points to the next member of the array object. Unlessboth the pointer operand and the result point to a member of the samearray object, or one past the last member of the array object, thebehavior is undefined. Unless both the pointer operand and the resultpoint to a member of the same array object, or the pointer operandpoints one past the last member of an array object and the resultpoints to a member of the same array object, the behavior is undefinedif the result is used as the operand of a unary * operator. When two pointers to members of the same array object aresubtracted, the difference is divided by the size of a member. Theresult represents the difference of the subscripts of the two arraymembers. The size of the result is implementation-defined, and itstype (a signed integral type) is ptrdiff_t defined in the <stddef.h>header. As with any other arithmetic overflow, if the result does notfit in the space provided, the behavior is undefined. If two pointersthat do not point to members of the same array object are subtracted,the behavior is undefined. However, if P points either to a member ofan array object or one past the last member of an array object, and Qpoints to the last member of the same array object, the expression(Q+1) - P has the same value as (Q-P) + 1 , even though Q+1 does notpoint to a member of the array object.Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5). 3.3.7 Bitwise shift operatorsSyntax shift-expression: additive-expression shift-expression << additive-expression shift-expression >> additive-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have integral type. Semantics The integral promotions are performed on each of the operands. Thetype of the result is that of the promoted left operand. If the valueof the right operand is negative or is greater than or equal to thewidth in bits of the promoted left operand, the behavior is undefined. The result of E1 << E2 is E1 left-shifted E2 bit positions; vacatedbits are filled with zeros. If E1 has an unsigned type, the value ofthe result is E1 multiplied by the quantity, 2 raised to the power E2,reduced modulo ULONG_MAX+1 if E1 has type unsigned long, UINT_MAX+1otherwise. (The constants ULONG_MAX and UINT_MAX are defined in theheader <limits.h> .) The result of E1 >> E2 is E1 right-shifted E2 bit positions. If E1has an unsigned type or if E1 has a signed type and a nonnegativevalue, the value of the result is the integral part of the quotient ofE1 divided by the quantity, 2 raised to the power E2 . If E1 has asigned type and a negative value, the resulting value isimplementation-defined.3.3.8 Relational operatorsSyntax relational-expression: shift-expression relational-expression < shift-expression relational-expression > shift-expression relational-expression <= shift-expression relational-expression >= shift-expressionConstraints One of the following shall hold: * both operands have arithmetic type; * both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of compatible object types; or * both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of compatible incomplete types.Semantics If both of the operands have arithmetic type, the usual arithmeticconversions are performed. When two pointers are compared, the result depends on the relativelocations in the address space of the objects pointed to. If theobjects pointed to are members of the same aggregate object, pointersto structure members declared later compare higher than pointers tomembers declared earlier in the structure, and pointers to arrayelements with larger subscript values compare higher than pointers toelements of the same array with lower subscript values. All pointersto members of the same union object compare equal. If the objectspointed to are not members of the same aggregate or union object, theresult is undefined, with the following exception. If P points to thelast member of an array object and Q points to a member of the samearray object, the pointer expression P+1 compares higher than Q , eventhough P+1 does not point to a member of the array object. Each of the operators < (less than), > (greater than), <= (lessthan or equal to), and >= (greater than or equal to) shall yield 1 ifthe specified relation is true and 0 if it is false./38/ The resulthas type int.3.3.9 Equality operatorsSyntax equality-expression: relational-expression equality-expression == relational-expression equality-expression != relational-expressionConstraints One of the following shall hold: * both operands have arithmetic type; * both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of compatible types; * one operand is a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the other is a qualified or unqualified version of void ; or * one operand is a pointer and the other is a null pointer constant. Semantics The == (equal to) and the != (not equal to) operators are analogousto the relational operators except for their lower precedence./39/ If two pointers to object or incomplete types compare equal, theypoint to the same object. If two pointers to functions compare equal,they point to the same function. If two pointers point to the sameobject or function, they compare equal./40/ If one of the operands isa pointer to an object or incomplete type and the other has typepointer to a qualified or unqualified version of void , the pointer toan object or incomplete type is converted to the type of the otheroperand.3.3.10 Bitwise AND operatorSyntax AND-expression: equality-expression AND-expression & equality-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have integral type. Semantics The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands. The result of the binary & operator is the bitwise AND of theoperands (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if eachof the corresponding bits in the converted operands is set).3.3.11 Bitwise exclusive OR operatorSyntax exclusive-OR-expression: AND-expression exclusive-OR-expression ^ AND-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have integral type. Semantics The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands. The result of the ^ operator is the bitwise exclusive OR of theoperands (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only ifexactly one of the corresponding bits in the converted operands isset).3.3.12 Bitwise inclusive OR operatorSyntax inclusive-OR-expression: exclusive-OR-expression inclusive-OR-expression | exclusive-OR-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have integral type. Semantics The usual arithmetic conversions are performed on the operands. The result of the | operator is the bitwise inclusive OR of theoperands (that is, each bit in the result is set if and only if atleast one of the corresponding bits in the converted operands is set).3.3.13 Logical AND operatorSyntax logical-AND-expression: inclusive-OR-expression logical-AND-expression && inclusive-OR-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have scalar type. Semantics The && operator shall yield 1 if both of its operands compareunequal to 0, otherwise it yields 0. The result has type int. Unlike the bitwise binary & operator, the && operator guaranteesleft-to-right evaluation; there is a sequence point after theevaluation of the first operand. If the first operand compares equalto 0, the second operand is not evaluated.3.3.14 Logical OR operatorSyntax logical-OR-expression: logical-AND-expression logical-OR-expression || logical-AND-expressionConstraints Each of the operands shall have scalar type. Semantics The || operator shall yield 1 if either of its operands compareunequal to 0, otherwise it yields 0. The result has type int. Unlike the bitwise | operator, the || operator guaranteesleft-to-right evaluation; there is a sequence point after theevaluation of the first operand. If the first operand comparesunequal to 0, the second operand is not evaluated.3.3.15 Conditional operatorSyntax conditional-expression: logical-OR-expression logical-OR-expression ? expression : conditional-expressionConstraints The first operand shall have scalar type. One of the following shall hold for the second and third operands: * both operands have arithmetic type; * both operands have compatible structure or union types; * both operands have void type; * both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of compatible types; * one operand is a pointer and the other is a null pointer constant; or * one operand is a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the other is a pointer to a qualified or unqualified version of void .Semantics The first operand is evaluated; there is a sequence point after itsevaluation. The second operand is evaluated only if the firstcompares unequal to 0; the third operand is evaluated only if thefirst compares equal to 0; the value of the second or third operand(whichever is evaluated) is the result./41/ If both the second and third operands have arithmetic type, theusual arithmetic conversions are performed to bring them to a commontype and the result has that type. If both the operands havestructure or union type, the result has that type. If both operandshave void type, the result has void type. If both the second and third operands are pointers or one is a nullpointer constant and the other is a pointer, the result type is apointer to a type qualified with all the type qualifiers of the typespointed-to by both operands. Furthermore, if both operands arepointers to compatible types or differently qualified versions of acompatible type, the result has the composite type; if one operand isa null pointer constant, the result has the type of the other operand;otherwise, one operand is a pointer to void or a qualified version ofvoid, in which case the other operand is converted to type pointer tovoid, and the result has that type.3.3.16 Assignment operatorsSyntax assignment-expression: conditional-expression unary-expression assignment-operator assignment-expression assignment-operator: one of = *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=Constraints An assignment operator shall have a modifiable lvalue as its left operand. Semantics An assignment operator stores a value in the object designated bythe left operand. An assignment expression has the value of the leftoperand after the assignment, but is not an lvalue. The type of anassignment expression is the type of the left operand unless the leftoperand has qualified type, in which case it is the unqualifiedversion of the type of the left operand. The side effect of updatingthe stored value of the left operand shall occur between the previousand the next sequence point. The order of evaluation of the operands is unspecified. 3.3.16.1 Simple assignmentConstraints One of the following shall hold:/42/ * the left operand has qualified or unqualified arithmetic type and the right has arithmetic type; * the left operand has a qualified or unqualified version of a structure or union type compatible with the type of the right; * both operands are pointers to qualified or unqualified versions of compatible types, and the type pointed to by the left has all the qualifiers of the type pointed to by the right; * one operand is a pointer to an object or incomplete type and the other is a pointer to a qualified or unqualified version of void, and the type pointed to by the left has all the qualifiers of the type pointed to by the right; or * the left operand is a pointer and the right is a null pointer constant. Semantics In simple assignment ( = ), the value of the right operand is converted to the type of the assignment expression and replaces the value stored in the object designated by the left operand. If the value being stored in an object is accessed from another object that overlaps in any way the storage of the first object, then the overlap shall be exact and the two objects shall have qualified or unqualified versions of a compatible type; otherwise the behavior is undefined.Example In the program fragment int f(void); char c; /*...*/ /*...*/ ((c = f()) == -1) /*...*/the int value returned by the function may be truncated when stored inthe char, and then converted back to int width prior to thecomparison. In an implementation in which ``plain'' char has the samerange of values as unsigned char (and char is narrower than int ), theresult of the conversion cannot be negative, so the operands of thecomparison can never compare equal. Therefore, for full portabilitythe variable c should be declared as int.3.3.16.2 Compound assignmentConstraints For the operators += and -= only, either the left operand shall bea pointer to an object type and the right shall have integral type, orthe left operand shall have qualified or unqualified arithmetic typeand the right shall have arithmetic type. For the other operators, each operand shall have arithmetic typeconsistent with those allowed by the corresponding binary operator.Semantics A compound assignment of the form E1 op = E2 differs from thesimple assignment expression E1 = E1 op (E2) only in that the lvalueE1 is evaluated only once.3.3.17 Comma operatorSyntax expression: assignment-expression expression , assignment-expressionSemantics The left operand of a comma operator is evaluated as a voidexpression; there is a sequence point after its evaluation. Then theright operand is evaluated; the result has its type and value./43/Example As indicated by the syntax, in contexts where a comma is apunctuator (in lists of arguments to functions and lists ofinitializers) the comma operator as described in this section cannotappear. On the other hand, it can be used within a parenthesizedexpression or within the second expression of a conditional operatorin such contexts. In the function call f(a, (t=3, t+2), c)the function has three arguments, the second of which has the value 5. Forward references: initialization ($3.5.7). 3.4 CONSTANT EXPRESSIONSSyntax constant-expression: conditional-expressionDescription A constant expression can be evaluated during translation ratherthan runtime, and accordingly may be used in any place that a constantmay be.Constraints Constant expressions shall not contain assignment, increment,decrement, function-call, or comma operators, except when they arecontained within the operand of a sizeof operator./44/ Each constant expression shall evaluate to a constant that is inthe range of representable values for its type.Semantics An expression that evaluates to a constant is required in severalcontexts./45/ If the expression is evaluated in the translationenvironment, the arithmetic precision and range shall be at least asgreat as if the expression were being evaluated in the executionenvironment. An integral constant expression shall have integral type and shallonly have operands that are integer constants, enumeration constants,character constants, sizeof expressions, and floating constants thatare the immediate operands of casts. Cast operators in an integralconstant expression shall only convert arithmetic types to integraltypes, except as part of an operand to the sizeof operator. More latitude is permitted for constant expressions ininitializers. Such a constant expression shall evaluate to one of thefollowing: * an arithmetic constant expression, * an address constant, or * an address constant for an object type plus or minus an integral constant expression. An arithmetic constant expression shall have arithmetic type andshall only have operands that are integer constants, floatingconstants, enumeration constants, character constants, and sizeofexpressions. Cast operators in an arithmetic constant expressionshall only convert arithmetic types to arithmetic types, except aspart of an operand to the sizeof operator. An address constant is a pointer to an lvalue designating an objectof static storage duration, or to a function designator; it shall becreated explicitly, using the unary & operator, or implicitly, by theuse of an expression of array or function type. The array-subscript[] and member-access . and -> operators, the address & andindirection * unary operators, and pointer casts may be used in thecreation an address constant, but the value of an object shall not beaccessed by use of these operators. The semantic rules for the evaluation of a constant expression arethe same as for non-constant expressions./46/Forward references: initialization ($3.5.7). 3.5 DECLARATIONSSyntax declaration: declaration-specifiers init-declarator-list<opt> ; declaration-specifiers: storage-class-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt> type-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt> type-qualifier declaration-specifiers<opt> init-declarator-list: init-declarator init-declarator-list , init-declarator init-declarator: declarator declarator = initializerConstraints A declaration shall declare at least a declarator, a tag, or themembers of an enumeration. If an identifier has no linkage, there shall be no more than onedeclaration of the identifier (in a declarator or type specifier) withthe same scope and in the same name space, except for tags asspecified in $3.5.2.3. All declarations in the same scope that refer to the same object orfunction shall specify compatible types.Semantics A declaration specifies the interpretation and attributes of a setof identifiers. A declaration that also causes storage to be reservedfor an object or function named by an identifier is a definition ./47/ The declaration specifiers consist of a sequence of specifiers thatindicate the linkage, storage duration, and part of the type of theentities that the declarators denote. The init-declarator-list is acomma-separated sequence of declarators, each of which may haveadditional type information, or an initializer, or both. Thedeclarators contain the identifiers (if any) being declared. If an identifier for an object is declared with no linkage, thetype for the object shall be complete by the end of its declarator, orby the end of its init-declarator if it has an initializer.Forward references: declarators ($3.5.4), enumeration specifiers($3.5.2.2), initialization ($3.5.7), tags ($3.5.2.3).3.5.1 Storage-class specifiersSyntax storage-class-specifier: typedef extern static auto registerConstraints At most one storage-class specifier may be given in the declarationspecifiers in a declaration./48/Semantics The typedef specifier is called a ``storage-class specifier'' forsyntactic convenience only; it is discussed in $3.5.6. The meaningsof the various linkages and storage durations were discussed in$3.1.2.2 and $3.1.2.4. A declaration of an identifier for an object with storage-classspecifier register suggests that access to the object be as fast aspossible. The extent to which such suggestions are effective isimplementation-defined./49/ The declaration of an identifier for a function that has blockscope shall have no explicit storage-class specifier other than extern.Forward references: type definitions ($3.5.6). 3.5.2 Type specifiersSyntax type-specifier: void char short int long float double signed unsigned struct-or-union-specifier enum-specifier typedef-nameConstraintsEach list of type specifiers shall be one of the following sets; thetype specifiers may occur in any order, possibly intermixed with theother declaration specifiers. * void * char * signed char * unsigned char * short , signed short , short int , or signed short int * unsigned short , or unsigned short int * int , signed , signed int , or no type specifiers * unsigned , or unsigned int * long , signed long , long int , or signed long int * unsigned long , or unsigned long int * float * double * long double * struct-or-union specifier * enum-specifier * typedef-name Semantics Specifiers for structures, unions, and enumerations are discussedin $3.5.2.1 through $3.5.2.3. Declarations of typedef names arediscussed in $3.5.6. The characteristics of the other types arediscussed in $3.1.2.5. Each of the above comma-separated lists designates the same type,except that for bit-field declarations, signed int (or signed ) maydiffer from int (or no type specifiers).Forward references: enumeration specifiers ($3.5.2.2), structure andunion specifiers ($3.5.2.1), tags ($3.5.2.3), type definitions ($3.5.6).3.5.2.1 Structure and union specifiersSyntax struct-or-union-specifier: struct-or-union identifier<opt> { struct-declaration-list } struct-or-union identifier struct-or-union: struct union struct-declaration-list: struct-declaration struct-declaration-list struct-declaration struct-declaration: specifier-qualifier-list struct-declarator-list ; specifier-qualifier-list: type-specifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt> type-qualifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt> struct-declarator-list: struct-declarator struct-declarator-list , struct-declarator struct-declarator: declarator declarator<opt> : constant-expressionConstraints A structure or union shall not contain a member with incomplete orfunction type. Hence it shall not contain an instance of itself (butmay contain a pointer to an instance of itself). The expression that specifies the width of a bit-field shall be anintegral constant expression that has nonnegative value that shall notexceed the number of bits in an ordinary object of compatible type.If the value is zero, the declaration shall have no declarator.Semantics As discussed in $3.1.2.5, a structure is a type consisting of asequence of named members, whose storage is allocated in an orderedsequence, and a union is a type consisting of a sequence of namedmembers, whose storage overlap. Structure and union specifiers have the same form. The presence of a struct-declaration-list in astruct-or-union-specifier declares a new type, within a translationunit. The struct-declaration-list is a sequence of declarations forthe members of the structure or union. The type is incomplete untilafter the } that terminates the list. A member of a structure or union may have any object type. Inaddition, a member may be declared to consist of a specified number ofbits (including a sign bit, if any). Such a member is called abit-field ;/50/ its width is preceded by a colon. A bit-field may have type int , unsigned int , or signed int .Whether the high-order bit position of a ``plain'' int bit-field istreated as a sign bit is implementation-defined. A bit-field isinterpreted as an integral type consisting of the specified number ofbits. An implementation may allocate any addressable storage unit largeenough to hold a bit-field. If enough space remains, a bit-field thatimmediately follows another bit-field in a structure shall be packedinto adjacent bits of the same unit. If insufficient space remains,whether a bit-field that does not fit is put into the next unit oroverlaps adjacent units is implementation-defined. The order ofallocation of bit-fields within a unit (high-order to low-order orlow-order to high-order) is implementation-defined. The alignment ofthe addressable storage unit is unspecified. A bit-field declaration with no declarator, but only a colon and awidth, indicates an unnamed bit-field./51/ As a special case of this,a bit-field with a width of 0 indicates that no further bit-field isto be packed into the unit in which the previous bit-field, if any,was placed. Each non-bit-field member of a structure or union object is alignedin an implementation-defined manner appropriate to its type. Within a structure object, the non-bit-field members and the unitsin which bit-fields reside have addresses that increase in the orderin which they are declared. A pointer to a structure object, suitablycast, points to its initial member (or if that member is a bit-field,then to the unit in which it resides), and vice versa. There maytherefore be unnamed holes within a structure object, but not at itsbeginning, as necessary to achieve the appropriate alignment. The size of a union is sufficient to contain the largest of itsmembers. The value of at most one of the members can be stored in aunion object at any time. A pointer to a union object, suitably cast,points to each of its members (or if a member is a bit-field, then tothe unit in which it resides), and vice versa. There may also be unnamed padding at the end of a structure orunion, as necessary to achieve the appropriate alignment were thestructure or union to be a member of an array.3.5.2.2 Enumeration specifiersSyntax enum-specifier: enum identifier<opt> { enumerator-list } enum identifier enumerator-list: enumerator enumerator-list , enumerator enumerator: enumeration-constant enumeration-constant = constant-expressionConstraints The expression that defines the value of an enumeration constantshall be an integral constant expression that has a valuerepresentable as an int.Semantics The identifiers in an enumerator list are declared as constantsthat have type int and may appear wherever such are permitted./52/ Anenumerator with = defines its enumeration constant as the value of theconstant expression. If the first enumerator has no = , the value ofits enumeration constant is 0. Each subsequent enumerator with no =defines its enumeration constant as the value of the constantexpression obtained by adding 1 to the value of the previousenumeration constant. (A combination of both forms of enumerators mayproduce enumeration constants with values that duplicate other valuesin the same enumeration.) The enumerators of an enumeration are alsoknown as its members. Each enumerated type shall be compatible with an integer type; thechoice of type is implementation-defined.Example enum hue { chartreuse, burgundy, claret=20, winedark }; /*...*/ enum hue col, *cp; /*...*/ col = claret; cp = &col; /*...*/ /*...*/ (*cp != burgundy) /*...*/makes hue the tag of an enumeration, and then declares col as anobject that has that type and cp as a pointer to an object that hasthat type. The enumerated values are in the set {0, 1, 20, 21}.3.5.2.3 Tags A type specifier of the form struct-or-union identifier { struct-declaration-list } enum identifier { enumerator-list }declares the identifier to be the tag of the structure, union, orenumeration specified by the list. The list defines the structurecontent ,union content ,or enumeration content .If this declaration ofthe tag is visible, a subsequent declaration that uses the tag andthat omits the bracketed list specifies the declared structure, union,or enumerated type. Subsequent declarations in the same scope shallomit the bracketed list. If a type specifier of the form struct-or-union identifieroccurs prior to the declaration that defines the content, thestructure or union is an incomplete type./53/ It declares a tag thatspecifies a type that may be used only when the size of an object ofthe specified type is not needed./54/ If the type is to be completed,another declaration of the tag in the same scope (but not in anenclosed block, which declares a new type known only within thatblock) shall define the content. A declaration of the form struct-or-union identifier ;specifies a structure or union type and declares a tag, both visibleonly within the scope in which the declaration occurs. It specifies anew type distinct from any type with the same tag in an enclosingscope (if any). A type specifier of the form struct-or-union { struct-declaration-list } enum { enumerator-list }specifies a new structure, union, or enumerated type, within thetranslation unit, that can only be referred to by the declaration ofwhich it is a part./55/Examples This mechanism allows declaration of a self-referential structure. struct tnode { int count; struct tnode *left, *right; };specifies a structure that contains an integer and two pointers toobjects of the same type. Once this declaration has been given, thedeclaration struct tnode s, *sp;declares s to be an object of the given type and sp to be a pointer toan object of the given type. With these declarations, the expressionsp->left refers to the left struct tnode pointer of the object towhich sp points; the expression s.right->count designates the countmember of the right struct tnode pointed to from s . The following alternative formulation uses the typedef mechanism: typedef struct tnode TNODE; struct tnode { int count; TNODE *left, *right; }; TNODE s, *sp; To illustrate the use of prior declaration of a tag to specify apair of mutually-referential structures, the declarations struct s1 { struct s2 *s2p; /*...*/ }; /* D1 */ struct s2 { struct s1 *s1p; /*...*/ }; /* D2 */specify a pair of structures that contain pointers to each other.Note, however, that if s2 were already declared as a tag in anenclosing scope, the declaration D1 would refer to it, not to the tags2 declared in D2 . To eliminate this context sensitivity, theotherwise vacuous declaration struct s2;may be inserted ahead of D1. This declares a new tag s2 in the innerscope; the declaration D2 then completes the specification of the new type.Forward references: type definitions ($3.5.6). 3.5.3 Type qualifiersSyntax type-qualifier: const volatileConstraints The same type qualifier shall not appear more than once in the samespecifier list or qualifier list, either directly or via one or moretypedef s.Semantics The properties associated with qualified types are meaningful onlyfor expressions that are lvalues./56/ If an attempt is made to modify an object defined with aconst-qualified type through use of an lvalue with non-const-qualifiedtype, the behavior is undefined. If an attempt is made to refer to anobject defined with a volatile-qualified type through use of an lvaluewith non-volatile-qualified type, the behavior is undefined./57/ An object that has volatile-qualified type may be modified in waysunknown to the implementation or have other unknown side effects.Therefore any expression referring to such an object shall beevaluated strictly according to the rules of the abstract machine, asdescribed in $2.1.2.3. Furthermore, at every sequence point the valuelast stored in the object shall agree with that prescribed by theabstract machine, except as modified by the unknown factors mentionedpreviously./58/ What constitutes an access to an object that hasvolatile-qualified type is implementation-defined. If the specification of an array type includes any type qualifiers,the element type is so-qualified, not the array type. If thespecification of a function type includes any type qualifiers, thebehavior is undefined./59/ For two qualified types to be compatible, both shall have theidentically qualified version of a compatible type; the order of typequalifiers within a list of specifiers or qualifiers does not affectthe specified type.Examples An object declared extern const volatile int real_time_clock;may be modifiable by hardware, but cannot be assigned to, incremented,or decremented. The following declarations and expressions illustrate the behaviorwhen type qualifiers modify an aggregate type: const struct s { int mem; } cs = { 1 }; struct s ncs; /* the object ncs is modifiable */ typedef int A[2][3]; const A a = {{4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}}; /* array of array of const int */ int *pi; const int *pci; ncs = cs; /* valid */ cs = ncs; /* violates modifiable lvalue constraint for = */ pi = &ncs.mem; /* valid */ pi = &cs.mem; /* violates type constraints for = */ pci = &cs.mem; /* valid */ pi = a[0]; /* invalid: a[0] has type ``const int * '' */3.5.4 DeclaratorsSyntax declarator: pointer<opt> direct-declarator direct-declarator: identifier ( declarator ) direct-declarator [ constant-expression<opt> ] direct-declarator ( parameter-type-list ) direct-declarator ( identifier-list<opt> ) pointer: * type-qualifier-list<opt> * type-qualifier-list<opt> pointer type-qualifier-list: type-qualifier type-qualifier-list type-qualifier parameter-type-list: parameter-list parameter-list , ... parameter-list: parameter-declaration parameter-list , parameter-declaration parameter-declaration: declaration-specifiers declarator declaration-specifiers abstract-declarator<opt> identifier-list: identifier identifier-list , identifierSemantics Each declarator declares one identifier, and asserts that when anoperand of the same form as the declarator appears in an expression,it designates a function or object with the scope, storage duration,and type indicated by the declaration specifiers. In the following subsections, consider a declaration T D1where T contains the declaration specifiers that specify a type T(such as int) and D1 is a declarator that contains an identifierident . The type specified for the identifier ident in the variousforms of declarator is described inductively using this notation. If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form identifierthen the type specified for ident is T . If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form ( D )then ident has the type specified by the declaration `` T D .'' Thus,a declarator in parentheses is identical to the unparenthesizeddeclarator, but the binding of complex declarators may be altered byparentheses."Implementation limits" The implementation shall allow the specification of types that haveat least 12 pointer, array, and function declarators (in any validcombinations) modifying an arithmetic, a structure, a union, or anincomplete type, either directly or via one or more typedef s.Forward references: type definitions ($3.5.6). 3.5.4.1 Pointer declaratorsSemantics If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form * type-qualifier-list<opt> Dand the type specified for ident in the declaration `` T D '' is ``"derived-declarator-type-list T" ,'' then the type specified for identis `` "derived-declarator-type-list type-qualifier-list" pointer to T.''For each type qualifier in the list, ident is a so-qualified pointer. For two pointer types to be compatible, both shall be identicallyqualified and both shall be pointers to compatible types.Examples The following pair of declarations demonstrates the differencebetween a ``variable pointer to a constant value'' and a ``constantpointer to a variable value.'' const int *ptr_to_constant; int *const constant_ptr;The contents of the const int pointed to by ptr_to_constant shall notbe modified, but ptr_to_constant itself may be changed to point toanother const int . Similarly, the contents of the int pointed to byconstant_ptr may be modified, but constant_ptr itself shall alwayspoint to the same location. The declaration of the constant pointer constant_ptr may beclarified by including a definition for the type ``pointer to int .'' typedef int *int_ptr; const int_ptr constant_ptr;declares constant_ptr as an object that has type ``const-qualifiedpointer to int .''3.5.4.2 Array declaratorsConstraints The expression that specifies the size of an array shall be anintegral constant expression that has a value greater than zero.Semantics If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form D[ constant-expression<opt>]and the type specified for ident in the declaration `` T D '' is ``"derived-declarator-type-list T" ,'' then the type specified for identis `` derived-declarator-type-list array of T .''/60/ If the size isnot present, the array type is an incomplete type. For two array types to be compatible, both shall have compatibleelement types, and if both size specifiers are present, they shallhave the same value.Examples float fa[11], *afp[17];declares an array of float numbers and an array of pointers to floatnumbers. Note the distinction between the declarations extern int *x; extern int y[];The first declares x to be a pointer to int ; the second declares y tobe an array of int of unspecified size (an incomplete type), thestorage for which is defined elsewhere.Forward references: function definitions ($3.7.1), initialization ($3.5.7). 3.5.4.3 Function declarators (including prototypes)Constraints A function declarator shall not specify a return type that is afunction type or an array type. The only storage-class specifier that shall occur in a parameterdeclaration is register. An identifier list in a function declarator that is not part of afunction definition shall be empty.Semantics If, in the declaration `` T D1 ,'' D1 has the form D( parameter-type-list) D( identifier-list<opt>)and the type specified for ident in the declaration `` T D '' is ``"derived-declarator-type-list T" ,'' then the type specified for identis `` derived-declarator-type-list function returning T .'' A parameter type list specifies the types of, and may declareidentifiers for, the parameters of the function. If the listterminates with an ellipsis ( , ... ), no information about the numberor types of the parameters after the comma is supplied./61/ Thespecial case of void as the only item in the list specifies that thefunction has no parameters. In a parameter declaration, a single typedef name in parentheses istaken to be an abstract declarator that specifies a function with asingle parameter, not as redundant parentheses around the identifierfor a declarator. The storage-class specifier in the declaration specifiers for aparameter declaration, if present, is ignored unless the declaredparameter is one of the members of the parameter type list for afunction definition. An identifier list declares only the identifiers of the parametersof the function. An empty list in a function declarator that is partof a function definition specifies that the function has noparameters. The empty list in a function declarator that is not partof a function definition specifies that no information about thenumber or types of the parameters is supplied./62/ For two function types to be compatible, both shall specifycompatible return types./63/ Moreover, the parameter type lists, ifboth are present, shall agree in the number of parameters and in useof the ellipsis terminator; corresponding parameters shall havecompatible types. If one type has a parameter type list and the othertype is specified by a function declarator that is not part of afunction definition and that contains an empty identifier list, theparameter list shall not have an ellipsis terminator and the type ofeach parameter shall be compatible with the type that results from theapplication of the default argument promotions. If one type has aparameter type list and the other type is specified by a functiondefinition that contains a (possibly empty) identifier list, bothshall agree in the number of parameters, and the type of eachprototype parameter shall be compatible with the type that resultsfrom the application of the default argument promotions to the type ofthe corresponding identifier. (For each parameter declared withfunction or array type, its type for these comparisons is the one thatresults from conversion to a pointer type, as in $3.7.1. For eachparameter declared with qualified type, its type for these comparisonsis the unqualified version of its declared type.)Examples The declaration int f(void), *fip(), (*pfi)();declares a function f with no parameters returning an int , a functionfip with no parameter specification returning a pointer to an int ,and a pointer pfi to a function with no parameter specificationreturning an int . It is especially useful to compare the last two.The binding of *fip() is *(fip()) , so that the declaration suggests,and the same construction in an expression requires, the calling of afunction fip , and then using indirection through the pointer resultto yield an int . In the declarator (*pfi)() , the extra parenthesesare necessary to indicate that indirection through a pointer to afunction yields a function designator, which is then used to call thefunction; it returns an int. If the declaration occurs outside of any function, the identifiershave file scope and external linkage. If the declaration occursinside a function, the identifiers of the functions f and fip haveblock scope and external linkage, and the identifier of the pointerpfi has block scope and no linkage. Here are two more intricate examples. int (*apfi[3])(int *x, int *y);declares an array apfi of three pointers to functions returning int .Each of these functions has two parameters that are pointers to int .The identifiers x and y are declared for descriptive purposes only andgo out of scope at the end of the declaration of apfi . Thedeclaration int (*fpfi(int (*)(long), int))(int, ...);declares a function fpfi that returns a pointer to a functionreturning an int. The function fpfi has two parameters: a pointer toa function returning an int (with one parameter of type long ), and anint . The pointer returned by fpfi points to a function that has atleast one parameter, which has type int .Forward references: function definitions ($3.7.1), type names ($3.5.5). 3.5.5 Type namesSyntax type-name: specifier-qualifier-list abstract-declarator<opt> abstract-declarator: pointer pointer<opt> direct-abstract-declarator direct-abstract-declarator: ( abstract-declarator ) direct-abstract-declarator<opt> [ constant-expression<opt> ] direct-abstract-declarator<opt> ( parameter-type-list<opt> )Semantics In several contexts it is desired to specify a type. This isaccomplished using a type name, which is syntactically a declarationfor a function or an object of that type that omits theidentifier./64/Examples The constructions (a) int (b) int * (c) int *[3] (d) int (*)[3] (e) int *() (f) int (*)(void) (g) int (*const [])(unsigned int, ...)name respectively the types (a) int , (b) pointer to int , (c) arrayof three pointers to int , (d) pointer to an array of three int's, (e)function with no parameter specification returning a pointer to int ,(f) pointer to function with no parameters returning an int , and (g)array of an unspecified number of constant pointers to functions, eachwith one parameter that has type unsigned int and an unspecifiednumber of other parameters, returning an int .3.5.6 Type definitionsSyntax typedef-name: identifierSemantics In a declaration whose storage-class specifier is typedef , eachdeclarator defines an identifier to be a typedef name that specifiesthe type specified for the identifier in the way described in $3.5.4.A typedef declaration does not introduce a new type, only a synonymfor the type so specified. That is, in the following declarations: typedef T type_ident; type_ident D;type_ident is defined as a typedef name with the type specified by thedeclaration specifiers in T (known as T ), and the identifier in D hasthe type `` "derived-declarator-type-list T" '' where thederived-declarator-type-list is specified by the declarators of D . Atypedef name shares the same name space as other identifiers declaredin ordinary declarators. If the identifier is redeclared in an innerscope or is declared as a member of a structure or union in the sameor an inner scope, the type specifiers shall not be omitted in theinner declaration.Examples After typedef int MILES, KLICKSP(); typedef struct { double re, im; } complex;the constructions MILES distance; extern KLICKSP *metricp; complex x; complex z, *zp;are all valid declarations. The type of distance is int , that ofmetricp is ``pointer to function with no parameter specificationreturning int ,'' and that of x and z is the specified structure; zpis a pointer to such a structure. The object distance has a typecompatible with any other int object. After the declarations typedef struct s1 { int x; } t1, *tp1; typedef struct s2 { int x; } t2, *tp2;type t1 and the type pointed to by tp1 are compatible. Type t1 isalso compatible with type struct s1 , but not compatible with thetypes struct s2 , t2 , the type pointed to by tp2 , and int . The following constructions typedef signed int t; typedef int plain; struct tag { unsigned t:4; const t:5; plain r:5; };declare a typedef name t with type signed int , a typedef name plainwith type int , and a structure with three bit-field members, onenamed t that contains values in the range [0,15], an unnamedconst-qualified bit-field which (if it could be accessed) wouldcontain values in at least the range [-15,+15], and one named r thatcontains values in the range [0,31] or values in at least the range[-15,+15]. (The choice of range is implementation-defined.) If thesedeclarations are followed in an inner scope by t f(t (t)); long t;then a function f is declared with type ``function returning signedint with one unnamed parameter with type pointer to function returningsigned int with one unnamed parameter with type signed int ,'' and anidentifier t with type long .3.5.7 InitializationSyntax initializer: assignment-expression { initializer-list } { initializer-list , } initializer-list: initializer initializer-list , initializerConstraints There shall be no more initializers in an initializer list thanthere are objects to be initialized. The type of the entity to be initialized shall be an object type oran array of unknown size. All the expressions in an initializer for an object that has staticstorage duration or in an initializer list for an object that hasaggregate or union type shall be constant expressions. If the declaration of an identifier has block scope, and theidentifier has external or internal linkage, there shall be noinitializer for the identifier.Semantics An initializer specifies the initial value stored in an object. All unnamed structure or union members are ignored during initialization. If an object that has static storage duration is not initializedexplicitly, it is initialized implicitly as if every member that hasarithmetic type were assigned 0 and every member that has pointer typewere assigned a null pointer constant. If an object that hasautomatic storage duration is not initialized explicitly, its value isindeterminate./65/ The initializer for a scalar shall be a single expression,optionally enclosed in braces. The initial value of the object isthat of the expression; the same type constraints and conversions asfor simple assignment apply. A brace-enclosed initializer for a union object initializes themember that appears first in the declaration list of the union type. The initializer for a structure or union object that has automaticstorage duration either shall be an initializer list as describedbelow, or shall be a single expression that has compatible structureor union type. In the latter case, the initial value of the object isthat of the expression. The rest of this section deals with initializers for objects thathave aggregate or union type. An array of character type may be initialized by a character stringliteral, optionally enclosed in braces. Successive characters of thecharacter string literal (including the terminating null character ifthere is room or if the array is of unknown size) initialize themembers of the array. An array with element type compatible with wchar_t may beinitialized by a wide string literal, optionally enclosed in braces.Successive codes of the wide string literal (including the terminatingzero-valued code if there is room or if the array is of unknown size)initialize the members of the array. Otherwise, the initializer for an object that has aggregate typeshall be a brace-enclosed list of initializers for the members of theaggregate, written in increasing subscript or member order; and theinitializer for an object that has union type shall be abrace-enclosed initializer for the first member of the union. If the aggregate contains members that are aggregates or unions, orif the first member of a union is an aggregate or union, the rulesapply recursively to the subaggregates or contained unions. If theinitializer of a subaggregate or contained union begins with a leftbrace, the initializers enclosed by that brace and its matching rightbrace initialize the members of the subaggregate or the first memberof the contained union. Otherwise, only enough initializers from thelist are taken to account for the members of the first subaggregate orthe first member of the contained union; any remaining initializersare left to initialize the next member of the aggregate of which thecurrent subaggregate or contained union is a part. If there are fewer initializers in a list than there are members ofan aggregate, the remainder of the aggregate shall be initializedimplicitly the same as objects that have static storage duration. If an array of unknown size is initialized, its size is determinedby the number of initializers provided for its members. At the end ofits initializer list, the array no longer has incomplete type.Examples The declaration int x[] = { 1, 3, 5 };defines and initializes x as a one-dimensional array object that hasthree members, as no size was specified and there are threeinitializers. float y[4][3] = { { 1, 3, 5 }, { 2, 4, 6 }, { 3, 5, 7 }, };is a definition with a fully bracketed initialization: 1, 3, and 5initialize the first row of the array object y[0] , namely y[0][0] ,y[0][1] , and y[0][2] . Likewise the next two lines initialize y[1]and y[2] . The initializer ends early, so y[3] is initialized withzeros. Precisely the same effect could have been achieved by float y[4][3] = { 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, 3, 5, 7 };The initializer for y[0] does not begin with a left brace, so threeitems from the list are used. Likewise the next three are takensuccessively for y[1] and y[2] . Also, float z[4][3] = { { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, { 4 } };initializes the first column of z as specified and initializes therest with zeros. struct { int a[3], b; } w[] = { { 1 }, 2 };is a definition with an inconsistently bracketed initialization. Itdefines an array with two member structures: w[0].a[0] is 1 andw[1].a[0] is 2; all the other elements are zero. The declaration short q[4][3][2] = { { 1 }, { 2, 3 }, { 4, 5, 6 } };contains an incompletely but consistently bracketed initialization.It defines a three-dimensional array object: q[0][0][0] is 1,q[1][0][0] is 2, q[1][0][1] is 3, and 4, 5, and 6 initializeq[2][0][0] , q[2][0][1] , and q[2][1][0] , respectively; all the restare zero. The initializer for q[0][0][0] does not begin with a leftbrace, so up to six items from the current list may be used. There isonly one, so the values for the remaining five members are initializedwith zero. Likewise, the initializers for q[1][0][0] and q[2][0][0]do not begin with a left brace, so each uses up to six items,initializing their respective two-dimensional subaggregates. If therehad been more than six items in any of the lists, a diagnostic messagewould occur. The same initialization result could have been achievedby: short q[4][3][2] = { 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6 };or by: short q[4][3][2] = { { { 1 }, }, { { 2, 3 }, }, { { 4, 5 }, { 6 }, } };in a fully-bracketed form. Note that the fully-bracketed and minimally-bracketed forms ofinitialization are, in general, less likely to cause confusion. Finally, the declaration char s[] = "abc", t[3] = "abc";defines ``plain'' char array objects s and t whose members areinitialized with character string literals. This declaration isidentical to char s[] = { 'a', 'b', 'c', '\0' }, t[] = { 'a', 'b', 'c' };The contents of the arrays are modifiable. On the other hand, thedeclaration char *p = "abc";defines p with type ``pointer to char '' that is initialized to pointto an object with type ``array of char '' whose members areinitialized with a character string literal. If an attempt is made touse p to modify the contents of the array, the behavior is undefined.Forward references: common definitions <stddef.h> ($4.1.5). 3.6 STATEMENTSSyntax statement: labeled-statement compound-statement expression-statement selection-statement iteration-statement jump-statementSemantics A statement specifies an action to be performed. Except asindicated, statements are executed in sequence. A full expression is an expression that is not part of anotherexpression. Each of the following is a full expression: aninitializer; the expression in an expression statement; thecontrolling expression of a selection statement ( if or switch ); thecontrolling expression of a while or do statement; each of the threeexpressions of a for statement; the expression in a return statement.The end of a full expression is a sequence point.Forward references: expression and null statements ($3.6.3), selectionstatements ($3.6.4), iteration statements ($3.6.5), the returnstatement ($3.6.6.4).3.6.1 Labeled statementsSyntax labeled-statement: identifier : statement case constant-expression : statement default : statementConstraints A case or default label shall appear only in a switch statement.Further constraints on such labels are discussed under the switchstatement.Semantics Any statement may be preceded by a prefix that declares anidentifier as a label name. Labels in themselves do not alter theflow of control, which continues unimpeded across them.Forward references: the goto statement ($3.6.6.1), the switchstatement ($3.6.4.2).3.6.2 Compound statement, or blockSyntax compound-statement: { declaration-list<opt> statement-list<opt> } declaration-list: declaration declaration-list declaration statement-list: statement statement-list statementSemantics A compound statement (also called a block )allows a set ofstatements to be grouped into one syntactic unit, which may have itsown set of declarations and initializations (as discussed in$3.1.2.4). The initializers of objects that have automatic storageduration are evaluated and the values are stored in the objects in theorder their declarators appear in the translation unit.3.6.3 Expression and null statementsSyntax expression-statement: expression<opt> ;Semantics The expression in an expression statement is evaluated as a voidexpression for its side effects./66/ A null statement (consisting of just a semicolon) performs nooperations.Examples If a function call is evaluated as an expression statement for itsside effects only, the discarding of its value may be made explicit byconverting the expression to a void expression by means of a cast: int p(int); /*...*/ (void)p(0); In the program fragment char *s; /*...*/ while (*s++ != '\0') ;a null statement is used to supply an empty loop body to the iterationstatement. A null statement may also be used to carry a label just before theclosing } of a compound statement. while (loop1) { /*...*/ while (loop2) { /*...*/ if (want_out) goto end_loop1; /*...*/ } /*...*/ end_loop1: ; }Forward references: iteration statements ($3.6.5). 3.6.4 Selection statementsSyntax selection-statement: if ( expression ) statement if ( expression ) statement else statement switch ( expression ) statementSemantics A selection statement selects among a set of statements dependingon the value of a controlling expression.3.6.4.1 The if statementConstraints The controlling expression of an if statement shall have scalar type. Semantics In both forms, the first substatement is executed if the expressioncompares unequal to 0. In the else form, the second substatement isexecuted if the expression compares equal to 0. If the firstsubstatement is reached via a label, the second substatement is notexecuted. An else is associated with the lexically immediately preceding else-less if that is in the same block (but not in an enclosed block).3.6.4.2 The switch statementConstraints The controlling expression of a switch statement shall haveintegral type. The expression of each case label shall be an integralconstant expression. No two of the case constant expressions in thesame switch statement shall have the same value after conversion.There may be at most one default label in a switch statement. (Anyenclosed switch statement may have a default label or case constantexpressions with values that duplicate case constant expressions inthe enclosing switch statement.)Semantics A switch statement causes control to jump to, into, or past thestatement that is the switch body, depending on the value of acontrolling expression, and on the presence of a default label and thevalues of any case labels on or in the switch body. A case or defaultlabel is accessible only within the closest enclosing switchstatement. The integral promotions are performed on the controllingexpression. The constant expression in each case label is convertedto the promoted type of the controlling expression. If a convertedvalue matches that of the promoted controlling expression, controljumps to the statement following the matched case label. Otherwise,if there is a default label, control jumps to the labeled statement.If no converted case constant expression matches and there is nodefault label, no part of the switch body is executed."Implementation limits" As discussed previously ($2.2.4.1), the implementation may limitthe number of case values in a switch statement.3.6.5 Iteration statementsSyntax iteration-statement: while ( expression ) statement do statement while ( expression ) ; for ( expression<opt> ; expression<opt> ; expression<opt> ) statementConstraints The controlling expression of an iteration statement shall have scalar type. Semantics An iteration statement causes a statement called the loop body tobe executed repeatedly until the controlling expression compares equalto 0.3.6.5.1 The while statement The evaluation of the controlling expression takes place beforeeach execution of the loop body.3.6.5.2 The do statement The evaluation of the controlling expression takes place after eachexecution of the loop body.3.6.5.3 The for statement Except for the behavior of a continue statement in the loop body,the statement for ( expression-1 ; expression-2 ; expression-3 ) statementand the sequence of statements expression-1 ; while ( expression-2) { statement expression-3 ; }are equivalent./67/ expression-1 expression-2 , expression-3 Both expression-1 and expression-3 may be omitted. Each isevaluated as a void expression. An omitted expression-2 is replacedby a nonzero constant.Forward references: the continue statement ($3.6.6.2). 3.6.6 Jump statementsSyntax jump-statement: goto identifier ; continue ; break ; return expression<opt> ;Semantics A jump statement causes an unconditional jump to another place. 3.6.6.1 The goto statementConstraints The identifier in a goto statement shall name a label locatedsomewhere in the current function.Semantics A goto statement causes an unconditional jump to the statementprefixed by the named label in the current function.3.6.6.2 The continue statementConstraints A continue statement shall appear only in or as a loop body. Semantics A continue statement causes a jump to the loop-continuation portionof the smallest enclosing iteration statement; that is, to the end ofthe loop body. More precisely, in each of the statements while (/*...*/) { do { for (/*...*/) { /*...*/ /*...*/ /*...*/ continue; continue; continue; /*...*/ /*...*/ /*...*/ contin: ; contin: ; contin: ; } } while (/*...*/); }unless the continue statement shown is in an enclosed iterationstatement (in which case it is interpreted within that statement), itis equivalent to goto contin; ./68/3.6.6.3 The break statementConstraints A break statement shall appear only in or as a switch body or loop body. Semantics A break statement terminates execution of the smallest enclosingswitch or iteration statement.3.6.6.4 The return statementConstraints A return statement with an expression shall not appear in afunction whose return type is void .Semantics A return statement terminates execution of the current function andreturns control to its caller. A function may have any number ofreturn statements, with and without expressions. If a return statement with an expression is executed, the value ofthe expression is returned to the caller as the value of the functioncall expression. If the expression has a type different from that ofthe function in which it appears, it is converted as if it wereassigned to an object of that type. If a return statement without an expression is executed, and thevalue of the function call is used by the caller, the behavior isundefined. Reaching the } that terminates a function is equivalent toexecuting a return statement without an expression.3.7 EXTERNAL DEFINITIONSSyntax translation-unit: external-declaration translation-unit external-declaration external-declaration: function-definition declarationConstraints The storage-class specifiers auto and register shall not appear inthe declaration specifiers in an external declaration. There shall be no more than one external definition for eachidentifier declared with internal linkage in a translation unit.Moreover, if an identifier declared with internal linkage is used inan expression (other than as a part of the operand of a sizeofoperator), there shall be exactly one external definition for theidentifier in the translation unit.Semantics As discussed in $2.1.1.1, the unit of program text afterpreprocessing is a translation unit, which consists of a sequence ofexternal declarations. These are described as ``external'' becausethey appear outside any function (and hence have file scope). Asdiscussed in $3.5, a declaration that also causes storage to bereserved for an object or a function named by the identifier is adefinition. An external definition is an external declaration that is also adefinition of a function or an object. If an identifier declared withexternal linkage is used in an expression (other than as part of theoperand of a sizeof operator), somewhere in the entire program thereshall be exactly one external definition for the identifier./69/3.7.1 Function definitionsSyntax function-definition: declaration-specifiers<opt> declarator declaration-list<opt> compound-statementConstraints The identifier declared in a function definition (which is the nameof the function) shall have a function type, as specified by thedeclarator portion of the function definition./70/ The return type of a function shall be void or an object type otherthan array. The storage-class specifier, if any, in the declaration specifiersshall be either extern or static . If the declarator includes a parameter type list, the declarationof each parameter shall include an identifier (except for the specialcase of a parameter list consisting of a single parameter of type void,in which there shall not be an identifier). No declaration listshall follow. If the declarator includes an identifier list, only the identifiersit names shall be declared in the declaration list. An identifierdeclared as a typedef name shall not be redeclared as a parameter.The declarations in the declaration list shall contain nostorage-class specifier other than register and no initializations.Semantics The declarator in a function definition specifies the name of thefunction being defined and the identifiers of its parameters. If thedeclarator includes a parameter type list, the list also specifies thetypes of all the parameters; such a declarator also serves as afunction prototype for later calls to the same function in the sametranslation unit. If the declarator includes an identifier list,/71/the types of the parameters may be declared in a following declarationlist. Any parameter that is not declared has type int . If a function that accepts a variable number of arguments isdefined without a parameter type list that ends with the ellipsisnotation, the behavior is undefined. On entry to the function the value of each argument expressionshall be converted to the type of its corresponding parameter, as ifby assignment to the parameter. Array expressions and functiondesignators as arguments are converted to pointers before the call. Adeclaration of a parameter as ``array of type '' shall be adjusted to``pointer to type ,'' and a declaration of a parameter as ``functionreturning type '' shall be adjusted to ``pointer to function returningtype ,'' as in $3.2.2.1. The resulting parameter type shall be anobject type. Each parameter has automatic storage duration. Its identifier isan lvalue./72/ The layout of the storage for parameters isunspecified.Examples extern int max(int a, int b) { return a > b ? a : b; }Here extern is the storage-class specifier and int is the typespecifier (each of which may be omitted as those are the defaults);max(int a, int b) is the function declarator; and { return a > b ? a : b; }is the function body. The following similar definition uses theidentifier-list form for the parameter declarations: extern int max(a, b) int a, b; { return a > b ? a : b; }Here int a, b; is the declaration list for the parameters, which maybe omitted because those are the defaults. The difference betweenthese two definitions is that the first form acts as a prototypedeclaration that forces conversion of the arguments of subsequentcalls to the function, whereas the second form may not. To pass one function to another, one might say int f(void); /*...*/ g(f);Note that f must be declared explicitly in the calling function, asits appearance in the expression g(f) was not followed by ( . Thenthe definition of g might read g(int (*funcp)(void)) { /*...*/ (*funcp)() /* or funcp() ... */ }or, equivalently, g(int func(void)) { /*...*/ func() /* or (*func)() ... */ }3.7.2 External object definitionsSemantics If the declaration of an identifier for an object has file scopeand an initializer, the declaration is an external definition for theidentifier. A declaration of an identifier for an object that has file scopewithout an initializer, and without a storage-class specifier or withthe storage-class specifier static , constitutes a tentativedefinition. If a translation unit contains one or more tentativedefinitions for an identifier, and the translation unit contains noexternal definition for that identifier, then the behavior is exactlyas if the translation unit contains a file scope declaration of thatidentifier, with the composite type as of the end of the translationunit, with an initializer equal to 0. If the declaration of an identifier for an object is a tentativedefinition and has internal linkage, the declared type shall not be anincomplete type.Examples int i1 = 1; /* definition, external linkage */ static int i2 = 2; /* definition, internal linkage */ extern int i3 = 3; /* definition, external linkage */ int i4; /* tentative definition, external linkage */ static int i5; /* tentative definition, internal linkage */ int i1; /* valid tentative definition, refers to previous */ int i2; /* $3.1.2.2 renders undefined, linkage disagreement */ int i3; /* valid tentative definition, refers to previous */ int i4; /* valid tentative definition, refers to previous */ int i5; /* $3.1.2.2 renders undefined, linkage disagreement */ extern int i1; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is external */ extern int i2; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is internal */ extern int i3; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is external */ extern int i4; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is external */ extern int i5; /* refers to previous, whose linkage is internal */3.8 PREPROCESSING DIRECTIVESSyntax preprocessing-file: group<opt> group: group-part group group-part group-part: pp-tokens<opt> new-line if-section control-line if-section: if-group elif-groups<opt> else-group<opt> endif-line if-group: # if constant-expression new-line group<opt> # ifdef identifier new-line group<opt> # ifndef identifier new-line group<opt> elif-groups: elif-group elif-groups elif-group elif-group: # elif constant-expression new-line group<opt> else-group: # else new-line group<opt> endif-line: # endif new-line control-line: # include pp-tokens new-line # define identifier replacement-list new-line # define identifier lparen identifier-list<opt> ) replacement-list new-line # undef identifier new-line # line pp-tokens new-line # error pp-tokens<opt> new-line # pragma pp-tokens<opt> new-line # new-line lparen: the left-parenthesis character without preceding white-space replacement-list: pp-tokens<opt> pp-tokens: preprocessing-token pp-tokens preprocessing-token new-line: the new-line characterDescription A preprocessing directive consists of a sequence of preprocessingtokens that begins with a # preprocessing token that is either thefirst character in the source file (optionally after white spacecontaining no new-line characters) or that follows white spacecontaining at least one new-line character, and is ended by the nextnew-line character./73/Constraints The only white-space characters that shall appear betweenpreprocessing tokens within a preprocessing directive (from just afterthe introducing # preprocessing token through just before theterminating new-line character) are space and horizontal-tab(including spaces that have replaced comments in translation phase 3).Semantics The implementation can process and skip sections of source filesconditionally, include other source files, and replace macros. Thesecapabilities are called preprocessing , because conceptually theyoccur before translation of the resulting translation unit. The preprocessing tokens within a preprocessing directive are notsubject to macro expansion unless otherwise stated.3.8.1 Conditional inclusionConstraints The expression that controls conditional inclusion shall be anintegral constant expression except that: it shall not contain a cast;identifiers (including those lexically identical to keywords) areinterpreted as described below;/74/ and it may contain unary operatorexpressions of the form defined identifier defined ( identifier )which evaluate to 1 if the identifier is currently defined as a macroname (that is, if it is predefined or if it has been the subject of a#define preprocessing directive without an intervening #undefdirective with the same subject identifier), 0 if it is not. Each preprocessing token that remains after all macro replacementshave occurred shall be in the lexical form of a token.Semantics Preprocessing directives of the forms # if constant-expression new-line group<opt> # elif constant-expression new-line group<opt>check whether the controlling constant expression evaluates tononzero. Prior to evaluation, macro invocations in the list of preprocessingtokens that will become the controlling constant expression arereplaced (except for those macro names modified by the defined unaryoperator), just as in normal text. If the token defined is generatedas a result of this replacement process, the behavior is undefined.After all replacements are finished, the resulting preprocessingtokens are converted into tokens, and then all remaining identifiersare replaced with 0 . The resulting tokens comprise the controllingconstant expression which is evaluated according to the rules of $3.4using arithmetic that has at least the ranges specified in $2.2.4.2,except that int and unsigned int act as if they have the samerepresentation as, respectively, long and unsigned long . Thisincludes interpreting character constants, which may involveconverting escape sequences into execution character set members.Whether the numeric value for these character constants matches thevalue obtained when an identical character constant occurs in anexpression (other than within a #if or #elif directive) isimplementation-defined./75/ Also, whether a single-character characterconstant may have a negative value is implementation-defined. Preprocessing directives of the forms # ifdef identifier new-line group<opt> # ifndef identifier new-line group<opt>check whether the identifier is or is not currently defined as a macroname. Their conditions are equivalent to #if defined identifier and#if !defined identifier respectively. Each directive's condition is checked in order. If it evaluates tofalse (zero), the group that it controls is skipped: directives areprocessed only through the name that determines the directive in orderto keep track of the level of nested conditionals; the rest of thedirectives' preprocessing tokens are ignored, as are the otherpreprocessing tokens in the group. Only the first group whose controlcondition evaluates to true (nonzero) is processed. If none of theconditions evaluates to true, and there is a #else directive, thegroup controlled by the #else is processed; lacking a #else directive,all the groups until the #endif are skipped./76/Forward references: macro replacement ($3.8.3), source file inclusion($3.8.2).3.8.2 Source file inclusionConstraints A #include directive shall identify a header or source file thatcan be processed by the implementation.Semantics A preprocessing directive of the form # include <h-char-sequence> new-linesearches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a headeridentified uniquely by the specified sequence between the < and >delimiters, and causes the replacement of that directive by the entirecontents of the header. How the places are specified or the headeridentified is implementation-defined. A preprocessing directive of the form # include "q-char-sequence" new-linecauses the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of thesource file identified by the specified sequence between thedelimiters. The named source file is searched for in animplementation-defined manner. If this search is not supported, or ifthe search fails, the directive is reprocessed as if it read # include <h-char-sequence> new-linewith the identical contained sequence (including > characters, if any)from the original directive. A preprocessing directive of the form # include pp-tokens new-line(that does not match one of the two previous forms) is permitted. Thepreprocessing tokens after include in the directive are processed justas in normal text. (Each identifier currently defined as a macro nameis replaced by its replacement list of preprocessing tokens.) Thedirective resulting after all replacements shall match one of the twoprevious forms./77/ The method by which a sequence of preprocessingtokens between a < and a > preprocessing token pair or a pair ofcharacters is combined into a single header name preprocessing tokenis implementation-defined. There shall be an implementation-defined mapping between thedelimited sequence and the external source file name. Theimplementation shall provide unique mappings for sequences consistingof one or more letters (as defined in $2.2.1) followed by a period (.) and a single letter. The implementation may ignore the distinctions of alphabetical case and restrict the mapping to six significantcharacters before the period. A #include preprocessing directive may appear in a source file thathas been read because of a #include directive in another file, up toan implementation-defined nesting limit (see $2.2.4.1).Examples The most common uses of #include preprocessing directives are as inthe following: #include <stdio.h> #include "myprog.h" This example illustrates a macro-replaced #include directive: #if VERSION == 1 #define INCFILE "vers1.h" #elif VERSION == 2 #define INCFILE "vers2.h" /* and so on */ #else #define INCFILE "versN.h" #endif /*...*/ #include INCFILEForward references: macro replacement ($3.8.3). 3.8.3 Macro replacementConstraints Two replacement lists are identical if and only if thepreprocessing tokens in both have the same number, ordering, spelling,and white-space separation, where all white-space separations areconsidered identical. An identifier currently defined as a macro without use of lparen(an object-like macro) may be redefined by another #definepreprocessing directive provided that the second definition is anobject-like macro definition and the two replacement lists areidentical. An identifier currently defined as a macro using lparen (afunction-like macro) may be redefined by another #define preprocessingdirective provided that the second definition is a function-like macrodefinition that has the same number and spelling of parameters, andthe two replacement lists are identical. The number of arguments in an invocation of a function-like macroshall agree with the number of parameters in the macro definition, andthere shall exist a ) preprocessing token that terminates theinvocation. A parameter identifier in a function-like macro shall be uniquelydeclared within its scope.Semantics The identifier immediately following the define is called the macroname. Any white-space characters preceding or following thereplacement list of preprocessing tokens are not considered part ofthe replacement list for either form of macro. If a # preprocessing token, followed by an identifier, occurslexically at the point at which a preprocessing directive could begin,the identifier is not subject to macro replacement. A preprocessing directive of the form # define identifier replacement-list new-linedefines an object-like macro that causes each subsequent instance ofthe macro name/78/ to be replaced by the replacement list ofpreprocessing tokens that constitute the remainder of the directive.The replacement list is then rescanned for more macro names asspecified below. A preprocessing directive of the form # define identifier lparen identifier-list<opt> ) replacement-list new-linedefines a function-like macro with arguments, similar syntactically toa function call. The parameters are specified by the optional list ofidentifiers, whose scope extends from their declaration in theidentifier list until the new-line character that terminates the#define preprocessing directive. Each subsequent instance of thefunction-like macro name followed by a ( as the next preprocessingtoken introduces the sequence of preprocessing tokens that is replacedby the replacement list in the definition (an invocation of themacro). The replaced sequence of preprocessing tokens is terminatedby the matching ) preprocessing token, skipping intervening matchedpairs of left and right parenthesis preprocessing tokens. Within thesequence of preprocessing tokens making up an invocation of afunction-like macro, new-line is considered a normal white-spacecharacter. The sequence of preprocessing tokens bounded by the outside-mostmatching parentheses forms the list of arguments for the function-likemacro. The individual arguments within the list are separated bycomma preprocessing tokens, but comma preprocessing tokens bounded bynested parentheses do not separate arguments. If (before argumentsubstitution) any argument consists of no preprocessing tokens, thebehavior is undefined. If there are sequences of preprocessing tokenswithin the list of arguments that would otherwise act as preprocessingdirectives, the behavior is undefined.3.8.3.1 Argument substitution After the arguments for the invocation of a function-like macrohave been identified, argument substitution takes place. A parameterin the replacement list, unless preceded by a # or ## preprocessingtoken or followed by a ## preprocessing token (see below), is replacedby the corresponding argument after all macros contained therein havebeen expanded. Before being substituted, each argument'spreprocessing tokens are completely macro replaced as if they formedthe rest of the source file; no other preprocessing tokens areavailable.3.8.3.2 The # operatorConstraints Each # preprocessing token in the replacement list for afunction-like macro shall be followed by a parameter as the nextpreprocessing token in the replacement list.Semantics If, in the replacement list, a parameter is immediately preceded bya # preprocessing token, both are replaced by a single characterstring literal preprocessing token that contains the spelling of thepreprocessing token sequence for the corresponding argument. Eachoccurrence of white space between the argument's preprocessing tokensbecomes a single space character in the character string literal.White space before the first preprocessing token and after the lastpreprocessing token comprising the argument is deleted. Otherwise,the original spelling of each preprocessing token in the argument isretained in the character string literal, except for special handlingfor producing the spelling of string literals and character constants:a \ character is inserted before each and \ character of a characterconstant or string literal (including the delimiting characters). Ifthe replacement that results is not a valid character string literal,the behavior is undefined. The order of evaluation of # and ##operators is unspecified.3.8.3.3 The ## operatorConstraints A ## preprocessing token shall not occur at the beginning or at theend of a replacement list for either form of macro definition.Semantics If, in the replacement list, a parameter is immediately preceded orfollowed by a ## preprocessing token, the parameter is replaced by thecorresponding argument's preprocessing token sequence. For both object-like and function-like macro invocations, beforethe replacement list is reexamined for more macro names to replace,each instance of a ## preprocessing token in the replacement list (notfrom an argument) is deleted and the preceding preprocessing token isconcatenated with the following preprocessing token. If the result isnot a valid preprocessing token, the behavior is undefined. Theresulting token is available for further macro replacement. The orderof evaluation of ## operators is unspecified.3.8.3.4 Rescanning and further replacement After all parameters in the replacement list have been substituted,the resulting preprocessing token sequence is rescanned with the restof the source file's preprocessing tokens for more macro names toreplace. If the name of the macro being replaced is found during this scanof the replacement list (not including the rest of the source file'spreprocessing tokens), it is not replaced. Further, if any nestedreplacements encounter the name of the macro being replaced, it is notreplaced. These nonreplaced macro name preprocessing tokens are nolonger available for further replacement even if they are later(re)examined in contexts in which that macro name preprocessing tokenwould otherwise have been replaced. The resulting completely macro-replaced preprocessing tokensequence is not processed as a preprocessing directive even if itresembles one.3.8.3.5 Scope of macro definitions A macro definition lasts (independent of block structure) until acorresponding #undef directive is encountered or (if none isencountered) until the end of the translation unit. A preprocessing directive of the form # undef identifier new-linecauses the specified identifier no longer to be defined as a macroname. It is ignored if the specified identifier is not currentlydefined as a macro name.Examples The simplest use of this facility is to define a ``manifestconstant,'' as in #define TABSIZE 100 int table[TABSIZE]; The following defines a function-like macro whose value is themaximum of its arguments. It has the advantages of working for anycompatible types of the arguments and of generating in-line codewithout the overhead of function calling. It has the disadvantages ofevaluating one or the other of its arguments a second time (includingside effects) and of generating more code than a function if invokedseveral times. #define max(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))The parentheses ensure that the arguments and the resulting expressionare bound properly. To illustrate the rules for redefinition and reexamination, thesequence #define x 3 #define f(a) f(x * (a)) #undef x #define x 2 #define g f #define z z[0] #define h g(~ #define m(a) a(w) #define w 0,1 #define t(a) a f(y+1) + f(f(z)) % t(t(g)(0) + t)(1); g(x+(3,4)-w) | h 5) & m (f)^m(m);results in f(2 * (y+1)) + f(2 * (f(2 * (z[0])))) % f(2 * (0)) + t(1); f(2 * (2+(3,4)-0,1)) | f(2 * (~ 5)) & f(2 * (0,1))^m(0,1); To illustrate the rules for creating character string literals andconcatenating tokens, the sequence #define str(s) # s #define xstr(s) str(s) #define debug(s, t) printf("x" # s "= %d, x" # t "= %s", \ x ## s, x ## t) #define INCFILE(n) vers ## n /* from previous #include example */ #define glue(a, b) a ## b #define xglue(a, b) glue(a, b) #define HIGHLOW "hello" #define LOW LOW ", world" debug(1, 2); fputs(str(strncmp("abc\0d", "abc", '\4') /* this goes away */ == 0) str(: @\n), s); #include xstr(INCFILE(2).h) glue(HIGH, LOW); xglue(HIGH, LOW)results in printf("x" "1" "= %d, x" "2" "= %s", x1, x2); fputs("strncmp(\"abc\\0d\", \"abc\", '\\4') == 0" ": @\n", s); #include "vers2.h" (after macro replacement, before file access) "hello"; "hello" ", world"or, after concatenation of the character string literals, printf("x1= %d, x2= %s", x1, x2); fputs("strncmp(\"abc\\0d\", \"abc\", '\\4') == 0: @\n", s); #include "vers2.h" (after macro replacement, before file access) "hello"; "hello, world"Space around the # and ## tokens in the macro definition is optional. And finally, to demonstrate the redefinition rules, the followingsequence is valid. #define OBJ_LIKE (1-1) #define OBJ_LIKE /* white space */ (1-1) /* other */ #define FTN_LIKE(a) ( a ) #define FTN_LIKE( a )( /* note the white space */ \ a /* other stuff on this line */ )But the following redefinitions are invalid: #define OBJ_LIKE (0) /* different token sequence */ #define OBJ_LIKE (1 - 1) /* different white space */ #define FTN_LIKE(b) ( a ) /* different parameter usage */ #define FTN_LIKE(b) ( b ) /* different parameter spelling */3.8.4 Line controlConstraints The string literal of a #line directive, if present, shall be acharacter string literal.Semantics The line number of the current source line is one greater than thenumber of new-line characters read or introduced in translation phase1 ($2.1.1.2) while processing the source file to the current token. A preprocessing directive of the form # line digit-sequence new-linecauses the implementation to behave as if the following sequence ofsource lines begins with a source line that has a line number asspecified by the digit sequence (interpreted as a decimal integer). A preprocessing directive of the form # line digit-sequence " s-char-sequence<opt>" new-linesets the line number similarly and changes the presumed name of thesource file to be the contents of the character string literal. A preprocessing directive of the form # line pp-tokens new-line(that does not match one of the two previous forms) is permitted. Thepreprocessing tokens after line on the directive are processed just asin normal text (each identifier currently defined as a macro name isreplaced by its replacement list of preprocessing tokens). Thedirective resulting after all replacements shall match one of the twoprevious forms and is then processed as appropriate.3.8.5 Error directiveSemantics A preprocessing directive of the form # error pp-tokens<opt> new-linecauses the implementation to produce a diagnostic message thatincludes the specified sequence of preprocessing tokens.3.8.6 Pragma directiveSemantics A preprocessing directive of the form # pragma pp-tokens<opt> new-linecauses the implementation to behave in an implementation-definedmanner. Any pragma that is not recognized by the implementation isignored.3.8.7 Null directiveSemantics A preprocessing directive of the form # new-linehas no effect. 3.8.8 Predefined macro names The following macro names shall be defined by the implementation:The line number of the current source line (a decimal constant). Thepresumed name of the source file (a character string literal). Thedate of translation of the source file (a character string literal ofthe form Mmm dd yyyy , where the names of the months are the same asthose generated by the asctime function, and the first character of ddis a space character if the value is less than 10). If the date oftranslation is not available, an implementation-defined valid dateshall be supplied. The time of translation of the source file (acharacter string literal of the form hh:mm:ss as in the time generatedby the asctime function). If the time of translation is notavailable, an implementation-defined valid time shall be supplied.the decimal constant 1./79/ The values of the predefined macros (except for __LINE__ and__FILE__ ) remain constant throughout the translation unit. None of these macro names, nor the identifier defined , shall bethe subject of a #define or a #undef preprocessing directive. Allpredefined macro names shall begin with a leading underscore followedby an upper-case letter or a second underscore.Forward references: the asctime function ($4.12.3.1). 3.9 FUTURE LANGUAGE DIRECTIONS3.9.1 External names Restriction of the significance of an external name to fewer than31 characters or to only one case is an obsolescent feature that is aconcession to existing implementations.3.9.2 Character escape sequences Lower-case letters as escape sequences are reserved for futurestandardization. Other characters may be used in extensions.3.9.3 Storage-class specifiers The placement of a storage-class specifier other than at thebeginning of the declaration specifiers in a declaration is anobsolescent feature.3.9.4 Function declarators The use of function declarators with empty parentheses (notprototype-format parameter type declarators) is an obsolescentfeature.3.9.5 Function definitions The use of function definitions with separate parameter identifierand declaration lists (not prototype-format parameter type andidentifier declarators) is an obsolescent feature.4. LIBRARY4.1 INTRODUCTION4.1.1 Definitions of terms A string is a contiguous sequence of characters terminated by andincluding the first null character. It is represented by a pointer toits initial (lowest addressed) character and its length is the numberof characters preceding the null character. A letter is a printing character in the execution character setcorresponding to any of the 52 required lower-case and upper-caseletters in the source character set, listed in $2.2.1. The decimal-point character is the character used by functions thatconvert floating-point numbers to or from character sequences todenote the beginning of the fractional part of such charactersequences./80/ It is represented in the text and examples by a period,but may be changed by the setlocale function.Forward references: character handling ($4.3), the setlocale function($4.4.1.1).4.1.2 Standard headers Each library function is declared in a header, /81/ whose contentsare made available by the #include preprocessing directive. Theheader declares a set of related functions, plus any necessary typesand additional macros needed to facilitate their use. Each headerdeclares and defines only those identifiers listed in its associatedsection. All external identifiers declared in any of the headers arereserved, whether or not the associated header is included. Allexternal identifiers that begin with an underscore are reserved. Allother identifiers that begin with an underscore and either anupper-case letter or another underscore are reserved. If the programdefines an external identifier with the same name as a reservedexternal identifier, even in a semantically equivalent form, thebehavior is undefined./82/ The standard headers are <assert.h> <locale.h> <stddef.h> <ctype.h> <math.h> <stdio.h> <errno.h> <setjmp.h> <stdlib.h> <float.h> <signal.h> <string.h> <limits.h> <stdarg.h> <time.h> If a file with the same name as one of the above < and > delimitedsequences, not provided as part of the implementation, is placed inany of the standard places for a source file to be included, thebehavior is undefined. Headers may be included in any order; each may be included morethan once in a given scope, with no effect different from beingincluded only once, except that the effect of including <assert.h>depends on the definition of NDEBUG . If used, a header shall beincluded outside of any external declaration or definition, and itshall first be included before the first reference to any of thefunctions or objects it declares, or to any of the types or macros itdefines. Furthermore, the program shall not have any macros withnames lexically identical to keywords currently defined prior to theinclusion.Forward references: diagnostics ($4.2). 4.1.3 Errors <errno.h> The header <errno.h> defines several macros, all relating to thereporting of error conditions. The macros are EDOM ERANGEwhich expand to distinct nonzero integral constant expressions; and errnowhich expands to a modifiable lvalue/83/ that has type int , the valueof which is set to a positive error number by several libraryfunctions. It is unspecified whether errno is a macro or anidentifier declared with external linkage. If a macro definition issuppressed in order to access an actual object, or a program definesan external identifier with the name errno , the behavior isundefined. The value of errno is zero at program startup, but is never set tozero by any library function./84/ The value of errno may be set tononzero by a library function call whether or not there is an error,provided the use of errno is not documented in the description of thefunction in the Standard. Additional macro definitions, beginning with E and a digit or E andan upper-case letter,/85/ may also be specified by the implementation.4.1.4 Limits <float.h> and <limits.h> The headers <float.h> and <limits.h> define several macros thatexpand to various limits and parameters. The macros, their meanings, and their minimum magnitudes are listedin $2.2.4.2.4.1.5 Common definitions <stddef.h> The following types and macros are defined in the standard header<stddef.h> . Some are also defined in other headers, as noted intheir respective sections. The types are ptrdiff_twhich is the signed integral type of the result of subtracting twopointers; size_twhich is the unsigned integral type of the result of the sizeofoperator; and wchar_twhich is an integral type whose range of values can represent distinctcodes for all members of the largest extended character set specifiedamong the supported locales; the null character shall have the codevalue zero and each member of the basic character set defined in$2.2.1 shall have a code value equal to its value when used as thelone character in an integer character constant. The macros are NULLwhich expands to an implementation-defined null pointer constant; and offsetof( type, member-designator)which expands to an integral constant expression that has type size_t, the value of which is the offset in bytes, to the structure member(designated by member-designator ), from the beginning of itsstructure (designated by type ). The member-designator shall be suchthat given static type t;then the expression &(t. member-designator ) evaluates to an addressconstant. (If the specified member is a bit-field, the behavior isundefined.)Forward references: localization ($4.4). 4.1.6 Use of library functions Each of the following statements applies unless explicitly statedotherwise in the detailed descriptions that follow. If an argument toa function has an invalid value (such as a value outside the domain ofthe function, or a pointer outside the address space of the program,or a null pointer), the behavior is undefined. Any function declaredin a header may be implemented as a macro defined in the header, so alibrary function should not be declared explicitly if its header isincluded. Any macro definition of a function can be suppressedlocally by enclosing the name of the function in parentheses, becausethe name is then not followed by the left parenthesis that indicatesexpansion of a macro function name. For the same syntactic reason, itis permitted to take the address of a library function even if it isalso defined as a macro./86/ The use of #undef to remove any macrodefinition will also ensure that an actual function is referred to.Any invocation of a library function that is implemented as a macrowill expand to code that evaluates each of its arguments exactly once,fully protected by parentheses where necessary, so it is generallysafe to use arbitrary expressions as arguments. Likewise, thosefunction-like macros described in the following sections may beinvoked in an expression anywhere a function with a compatible returntype could be called./87/ Provided that a library function can be declared without referenceto any type defined in a header, it is also permissible to declare thefunction, either explicitly or implicitly, and use it withoutincluding its associated header. If a function that accepts avariable number of arguments is not declared (explicitly or byincluding its associated header), the behavior is undefined.Examples The function atoi may be used in any of several ways: * by use of its associated header (possibly generating a macro expansion) #include <stdlib.h> const char *str; /*...*/ i = atoi(str); * by use of its associated header (assuredly generating a truefunction reference) #include <stdlib.h> #undef atoi const char *str; /*...*/ i = atoi(str);or #include <stdlib.h> const char *str; /*...*/ i = (atoi)(str); * by explicit declaration extern int atoi(const char *); const char *str; /*...*/ i = atoi(str); * by implicit declaration const char *str; /*...*/ i = atoi(str);4.2 DIAGNOSTICS <assert.h> The header <assert.h> defines the assert macro and refers toanother macro, NDEBUGwhich is not defined by <assert.h> . If NDEBUG is defined as a macroname at the point in the source file where <assert.h> is included, theassert macro is defined simply as #define assert(ignore) ((void)0) The assert macro shall be implemented as a macro, not as an actualfunction. If the macro definition is suppressed in order to access anactual function, the behavior is undefined.4.2.1 Program diagnostics4.2.1.1 The assert macroSynopsis #include <assert.h> void assert(int expression);Description The assert macro puts diagnostics into programs. When it isexecuted, if expression is false (that is, compares equal to 0), theassert macro writes information about the particular call that failed(including the text of the argument, the name of the source file, andthe source line number EM the latter are respectively the values ofthe preprocessing macros __FILE__ and __LINE__ ) on the standard errorfile in an implementation-defined format./88/ expression , xyz , nnn It then calls the abort function. Returns The assert macro returns no value. Forward references: the abort function ($4.10.4.1). 4.3 CHARACTER HANDLING <ctype.h> The header <ctype.h> declares several functions useful for testingand mapping characters./89/ In all cases the argument is an int , thevalue of which shall be representable as an unsigned char or shallequal the value of the macro EOF . If the argument has any othervalue, the behavior is undefined. The behavior of these functions is affected by the current locale.Those functions that have no implementation-defined aspects in the Clocale are noted below. The term printing character refers to a member of animplementation-defined set of characters, each of which occupies oneprinting position on a display device; the term control characterrefers to a member of an implementation-defined set of characters thatare not printing characters./90/Forward references: EOF ($4.9.1), localization ($4.4). 4.3.1 Character testing functions The functions in this section return nonzero (true) if and only ifthe value of the argument c conforms to that in the description of thefunction.4.3.1.1 The isalnum functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isalnum(int c);Description The isalnum function tests for any character for which isalpha orisdigit is true.4.3.1.2 The isalpha functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isalpha(int c);Description The isalpha function tests for any character for which isupper orislower is true, or any of an implementation-defined set of charactersfor which none of iscntrl , isdigit , ispunct , or isspace is true.In the C locale, isalpha returns true only for the characters forwhich isupper or islower is true.4.3.1.3 The iscntrl functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int iscntrl(int c);Description The iscntrl function tests for any control character. 4.3.1.4 The isdigit functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isdigit(int c);Description The isdigit function tests for any decimal-digit character (asdefined in $2.2.1).4.3.1.5 The isgraph functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isgraph(int c);Description The isgraph function tests for any printing character except space (' '). 4.3.1.6 The islower functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int islower(int c);Description The islower function tests for any lower-case letter or any of animplementation-defined set of characters for which none of iscntrl ,isdigit , ispunct , or isspace is true. In the C locale, islowerreturns true only for the characters defined as lower-case letters (asdefined in $2.2.1).4.3.1.7 The isprint functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isprint(int c);Description The isprint function tests for any printing character includingspace (' ').4.3.1.8 The ispunct functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int ispunct(int c);Description The ispunct function tests for any printing character except space(' ') or a character for which isalnum is true.4.3.1.9 The isspace functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isspace(int c);Description The isspace function tests for the standard white-space charactersor for any of an implementation-defined set of characters for whichisalnum is false. The standard white-space characters are thefollowing: space (' '), form feed ('\f'), new-line ('\n'), carriagereturn ('\r'), horizontal tab ('\t'), and vertical tab ('\v'). In theC locale, isspace returns true only for the standard white-spacecharacters.4.3.1.10 The isupper functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isupper(int c);Description The isupper function tests for any upper-case letter or any of animplementation-defined set of characters for which none of iscntrl ,isdigit , ispunct , or isspace is true. In the C locale, isupperreturns true only for the characters defined as upper-case letters (asdefined in $2.2.1).4.3.1.11 The isxdigit functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int isxdigit(int c);Description The isxdigit function tests for any hexadecimal-digit character (asdefined in $3.1.3.2).4.3.2 Character case mapping functions4.3.2.1 The tolower functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int tolower(int c);Description The tolower function converts an upper-case letter to thecorresponding lower-case letter.Returns If the argument is an upper-case letter, the tolower functionreturns the corresponding lower-case letter if there is one; otherwisethe argument is returned unchanged. In the C locale, tolower mapsonly the characters for which isupper is true to the correspondingcharacters for which islower is true.4.3.2.2 The toupper functionSynopsis #include <ctype.h> int toupper(int c);Description The toupper function converts a lower-case letter to the corresponding upper-case letter. Returns If the argument is a lower-case letter, the toupper functionreturns the corresponding upper-case letter if there is one; otherwisethe argument is returned unchanged. In the C locale, toupper mapsonly the characters for which islower is true to the correspondingcharacters for which isupper is true.4.4 LOCALIZATION <locale.h> The header <locale.h> declares two functions, one type, and definesseveral macros. The type is struct lconvwhich contains members related to the formatting of numeric values.The structure shall contain at least the following members, in anyorder. The semantics of the members and their normal ranges isexplained in $4.4.2.1. In the C locale, the members shall have thevalues specified in the comments. char *decimal_point; /* "." */ char *thousands_sep; /* "" */ char *grouping; /* "" */ char *int_curr_symbol; /* "" */ char *currency_symbol; /* "" */ char *mon_decimal_point; /* "" */ char *mon_thousands_sep; /* "" */ char *mon_grouping; /* "" */ char *positive_sign; /* "" */ char *negative_sign; /* "" */ char int_frac_digits; /* CHAR_MAX */ char frac_digits; /* CHAR_MAX */ char p_cs_precedes; /* CHAR_MAX */ char p_sep_by_space; /* CHAR_MAX */ char n_cs_precedes; /* CHAR_MAX */ char n_sep_by_space; /* CHAR_MAX */ char p_sign_posn; /* CHAR_MAX */ char n_sign_posn; /* CHAR_MAX */ The macros defined are NULL (described in $4.1.5); and LC_ALL LC_COLLATE LC_CTYPE LC_MONETARY LC_NUMERIC LC_TIMEwhich expand to distinct integral constant expressions, suitable foruse as the first argument to the setlocale function. Additional macrodefinitions, beginning with the characters LC_ and an upper-caseletter,/91/ may also be specified by the implementation.4.4.1 Locale control4.4.1.1 The setlocale functionSynopsis #include <locale.h> char *setlocale(int category, const char *locale);Description The setlocale function selects the appropriate portion of theprogram's locale as specified by the category and locale arguments.The setlocale function may be used to change or query the program'sentire current locale or portions thereof. The value LC_ALL forcategory names the program's entire locale; the other values forcategory name only a portion of the program's locale. LC_COLLATEaffects the behavior of the strcoll and strxfrm functions. LC_CTYPEaffects the behavior of the character handling functions/92/ and themultibyte functions. LC_MONETARY affects the monetary formattinginformation returned by the localeconv function. LC_NUMERIC affectsthe decimal-point character for the formatted input/output functionsand the string conversion functions, as well as the non-monetaryformatting information returned by the localeconv function. LC_TIMEaffects the behavior of the strftime function. A value of "C" for locale specifies the minimal environment for Ctranslation; a value of "" for locale specifies the implementation-definednative environment. Other implementation-defined strings may be passedas the second argument to setlocale . At program startup, the equivalent of setlocale(LC_ALL, "C");is executed. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thesetlocale function.Returns If a pointer to a string is given for locale and the selection canbe honored, the setlocale function returns the string associated withthe specified category for the new locale. If the selection cannot behonored, the setlocale function returns a null pointer and theprogram's locale is not changed. A null pointer for locale causes the setlocale function to returnthe string associated with the category for the program's currentlocale; the program's locale is not changed. The string returned by the setlocale function is such that asubsequent call with that string and its associated category willrestore that part of the program's locale. The string returned shallnot be modified by the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequentcall to the setlocale function.Forward references: formatted input/output functions ($4.9.6), themultibyte character functions ($4.10.7), the multibyte stringfunctions ($4.10.8), string conversion functions ($4.10.1), thestrcoll function ($4.11.4.3), the strftime function ($4.12.3.5), thestrxfrm function ($4.11.4.5).4.4.2 Numeric formatting convention inquiry4.4.2.1 The localeconv functionSynopsis #include <locale.h> struct lconv *localeconv(void);Description The localeconv function sets the components of an object with typestruct lconv with values appropriate for the formatting of numericquantities (monetary and otherwise) according to the rules of thecurrent locale. The members of the structure with type char * are strings, any ofwhich (except decimal_point ) can point to , to indicate that thevalue is not available in the current locale or is of zero length.The members with type char are nonnegative numbers, any of which canbe CHAR_MAX to indicate that the value is not available in the currentlocale. The members include the following: The decimal-pointcharacter used to format non-monetary quantities. The character usedto separate groups of digits to the left of the decimal-pointcharacter in formatted non-monetary quantities. A string whoseelements indicate the size of each group of digits in formattednon-monetary quantities. The international currency symbol applicableto the current locale. The first three characters contain thealphabetic international currency symbol in accordance with thosespecified in ISO 4217 Codes for the Representation of Currency andFunds .The fourth character (immediately preceding the null character)is the character used to separate the international currency symbolfrom the monetary quantity. The local currency symbol applicable tothe current locale. The decimal-point used to format monetaryquantities. The separator for groups of digits to the left of thedecimal-point in formatted monetary quantities. A string whoseelements indicate the size of each group of digits in formattedmonetary quantities. The string used to indicate a nonnegative-valuedformatted monetary quantity. The string used to indicate anegative-valued formatted monetary quantity. The number of fractionaldigits (those to the right of the decimal-point) to be displayed in ainternationally formatted monetary quantity. The number of fractionaldigits (those to the right of the decimal-point) to be displayed in aformatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if the currency_symbolrespectively precedes or succeeds the value for a nonnegativeformatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if the currency_symbolrespectively is or is not separated by a space from the value for anonnegative formatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if thecurrency_symbol respectively precedes or succeeds the value for anegative formatted monetary quantity. Set to 1 or 0 if thecurrency_symbol respectively is or is not separated by a space fromthe value for a negative formatted monetary quantity. Set to a valueindicating the positioning of the positive_sign for a nonnegativeformatted monetary quantity. Set to a value indicating thepositioning of the negative_sign for a negative formatted monetaryquantity. The elements of grouping and mon_grouping are interpreted accordingto the following: No further grouping is to be performed. Theprevious element is to be repeatedly used for the remainder of thedigits. The value is the number of digits that comprise the currentgroup. The next element is examined to determine the size of the nextgroup of digits to the left of the current group. The value of p_sign_posn and n_sign_posn is interpreted accordingto the following: Parentheses surround the quantity andcurrency_symbol. The sign string precedes the quantity andcurrency_symbol. The sign string succeeds the quantity andcurrency_symbol. The sign string immediately precedes thecurrency_symbol. The sign string immediately succeeds thecurrency_symbol. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thelocaleconv function.Returns The localeconv function returns a pointer to the filled-in object.The structure pointed to by the return value shall not be modified bythe program, but may be overwritten by a subsequent call to thelocaleconv function. In addition, calls to the setlocale functionwith categories LC_ALL , LC_MONETARY , or LC_NUMERIC may overwrite thecontents of the structure.Examples The following table illustrates the rules used by four countries toformat monetary quantities. Country Positive format Negative format International format Italy L.1.234 -L.1.234 ITL.1.234 Netherlands F 1.234,56 F -1.234,56 NLG 1.234,56 Norway kr1.234,56 kr1.234,56- NOK 1.234,56 Switzerland SFrs.1,234.56 SFrs.1,234.56C CHF 1,234.56 For these four countries, the respective values for the monetarymembers of the structure returned by localeconv are: Italy Netherlands Norway Switzerland int_curr_symbol "ITL." "NLG " "NOK " "CHF " currency_symbol "L." "F" "kr" "SFrs." mon_decimal_point "" "," "," "." mon_thousands_sep "." "." "." "," mon_grouping "\3" "\3" "\3" "\3" positive_sign "" "" "" "" negative_sign "-" "-" "-" "C" int_frac_digits 0 2 2 2 frac_digits 0 2 2 2 p_cs_precedes 1 1 1 1 p_sep_by_space 0 1 0 0 n_cs_precedes 1 1 1 1 n_sep_by_space 0 1 0 0 p_sign_posn 1 1 1 1 n_sign_posn 1 4 2 24.5 MATHEMATICS <math.h> The header <math.h> declares several mathematical functions anddefines one macro. The functions take double-precision arguments andreturn double-precision values./93/ Integer arithmetic functions andconversion functions are discussed later. The macro defined is HUGE_VALwhich expands to a positive double expression, not necessarilyrepresentable as a float .Forward references: integer arithmetic functions ($4.10.6), the atoffunction ($4.10.1.1), the strtod function ($4.10.1.4).4.5.1 Treatment of error conditions The behavior of each of these functions is defined for allrepresentable values of its input arguments. Each function shallexecute as if it were a single operation, without generating anyexternally visible exceptions. For all functions, a domain error occurs if an input argument isoutside the domain over which the mathematical function is defined.The description of each function lists any required domain errors; animplementation may define additional domain errors, provided that sucherrors are consistent with the mathematical definition of thefunction./94/ On a domain error, the function returns animplementation-defined value; the value of the macro EDOM is stored inerrno . Similarly, a range error occurs if the result of the functioncannot be represented as a double value. If the result overflows (themagnitude of the result is so large that it cannot be represented inan object of the specified type), the function returns the value ofthe macro HUGE_VAL , with the same sign as the correct value of thefunction; the value of the macro ERANGE is stored in errno . If theresult underflows (the magnitude of the result is so small that itcannot be represented in an object of the specified type), thefunction returns zero; whether the integer expression errno acquiresthe value of the macro ERANGE is implementation-defined.4.5.2 Trigonometric functions4.5.2.1 The acos functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double acos(double x);Description The acos function computes the principal value of the arc cosine of x.A domain error occurs for arguments not in the range [-1, +1].Returns The acos function returns the arc cosine in the range [0, PI] radians. 4.5.2.2 The asin functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double asin(double x);Description The asin function computes the principal value of the arc sine of x.A domain error occurs for arguments not in the range [-1, +1].Returns The asin function returns the arc sine in the range [-PI/2, +PI/2]radians.4.5.2.3 The atan functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double atan(double x);Description The atan function computes the principal value of the arc tangent of x. Returns The atan function returns the arc tangent in the range [-PI/2, +PI/2]radians.4.5.2.4 The atan2 functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double atan2(double y, double x);Description The atan2 function computes the principal value of the arc tangentof y/x , using the signs of both arguments to determine the quadrantof the return value. A domain error may occur if both arguments arezero.Returns The atan2 function returns the arc tangent of y/x , in the range[-PI, +PI] radians.4.5.2.5 The cos functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double cos(double x);Description The cos function computes the cosine of x (measured in radians). Alarge magnitude argument may yield a result with little or nosignificance.Returns The cos function returns the cosine value. 4.5.2.6 The sin functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double sin(double x);Description The sin function computes the sine of x (measured in radians). Alarge magnitude argument may yield a result with little or nosignificance.Returns The sin function returns the sine value. 4.5.2.7 The tan functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double tan(double x);Description The tan function returns the tangent of x (measured in radians). A large magnitude argument may yield a result with little or no significance. Returns The tan function returns the tangent value. 4.5.3 Hyperbolic functions4.5.3.1 The cosh functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double cosh(double x);Description The cosh function computes the hyperbolic cosine of x. A rangeerror occurs if the magnitude of x is too large.Returns The cosh function returns the hyperbolic cosine value. 4.5.3.2 The sinh functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double sinh(double x);Description The sinh function computes the hyperbolic sine of x . A range error occurs if the magnitude of x is too large. Returns The sinh function returns the hyperbolic sine value. 4.5.3.3 The tanh functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double tanh(double x);Description The tanh function computes the hyperbolic tangent of x . Returns The tanh function returns the hyperbolic tangent value. 4.5.4 Exponential and logarithmic functions4.5.4.1 The exp functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double exp(double x);Description The exp function computes the exponential function of x . A rangeerror occurs if the magnitude of x is too large.Returns The exp function returns the exponential value. 4.5.4.2 The frexp functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double frexp(double value, int *exp);Description The frexp function breaks a floating-point number into a normalizedfraction and an integral power of 2. It stores the integer in the intobject pointed to by exp .Returns The frexp function returns the value x , such that x is a doublewith magnitude in the interval [1/2, 1) or zero, and value equals xtimes 2 raised to the power *exp . If value is zero, both parts ofthe result are zero.4.5.4.3 The ldexp functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double ldexp(double x, int exp);Description The ldexp function multiplies a floating-point number by anintegral power of 2. A range error may occur.Returns The ldexp function returns the value of x times 2 raised to thepower exp .4.5.4.4 The log functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double log(double x);Description The log function computes the natural logarithm of x. A domainerror occurs if the argument is negative. A range error occurs if theargument is zero and the logarithm of zero cannot be represented.Returns The log function returns the natural logarithm. 4.5.4.5 The log10 functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double log10(double x);Description The log10 function computes the base-ten logarithm of x . A domainerror occurs if the argument is negative. A range error occurs if theargument is zero and the logarithm of zero cannot be represented.Returns The log10 function returns the base-ten logarithm. 4.5.4.6 The modf functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double modf(double value, double *iptr);Description The modf function breaks the argument value into integral andfractional parts, each of which has the same sign as the argument. Itstores the integral part as a double in the object pointed to by iptr.Returns The modf function returns the signed fractional part of value . 4.5.5 Power functions4.5.5.1 The pow functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double pow(double x, double y);Description The pow function computes x raised to the power y . A domain erroroccurs if x is negative and y is not an integer. A domain erroroccurs if the result cannot be represented when x is zero and y isless than or equal to zero. A range error may occur.Returns The pow function returns the value of x raised to the power y . 4.5.5.2 The sqrt functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double sqrt(double x);Description The sqrt function computes the nonnegative square root of x . Adomain error occurs if the argument is negative.Returns The sqrt function returns the value of the square root. 4.5.6 Nearest integer, absolute value, and remainder functions4.5.6.1 The ceil functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double ceil(double x);Description The ceil function computes the smallest integral value not less than x . Returns The ceil function returns the smallest integral value not less thanx , expressed as a double.4.5.6.2 The fabs functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double fabs(double x);Description The fabs function computes the absolute value of a floating-pointnumber x .Returns The fabs function returns the absolute value of x. 4.5.6.3 The floor functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double floor(double x);Description The floor function computes the largest integral value not greaterthan x .Returns The floor function returns the largest integral value not greaterthan x , expressed as a double.4.5.6.4 The fmod functionSynopsis #include <math.h> double fmod(double x, double y);Description The fmod function computes the floating-point remainder of x/y . Returns The fmod function returns the value x i y , for some integer i suchthat, if y is nonzero, the result has the same sign as x and magnitudeless than the magnitude of y . If y is zero, whether a domain erroroccurs or the fmod function returns zero is implementation-defined.4.6 NON-LOCAL JUMPS <setjmp.h> The header <setjmp.h> defines the macro setjmp , and declares onefunction and one type, for bypassing the normal function call andreturn discipline./95/ The type declared is jmp_bufwhich is an array type suitable for holding the information needed torestore a calling environment. It is unspecified whether setjmp is a macro or an identifierdeclared with external linkage. If a macro definition is suppressedin order to access an actual function, or a program defines anexternal identifier with the name setjmp , the behavior is undefined.4.6.1 Save calling environment4.6.1.1 The setjmp macroSynopsis #include <setjmp.h> int setjmp(jmp_buf env);Description The setjmp macro saves its calling environment in its jmp_bufargument for later use by the longjmp function.Returns If the return is from a direct invocation, the setjmp macro returnsthe value zero. If the return is from a call to the longjmp function,the setjmp macro returns a nonzero value."Environmental constraint" An invocation of the setjmp macro shall appear only in one of thefollowing contexts: * the entire controlling expression of a selection or iteration statement; * one operand of a relational or equality operator with the other operand an integral constant expression, with the resulting expression being the entire controlling expression of a selection or iteration statement; * the operand of a unary ! operator with the resulting expression being the entire controlling expression of a selection or iteration statement; or * the entire expression of an expression statement (possibly cast to void). 4.6.2 Restore calling environment4.6.2.1 The longjmp functionSynopsis #include <setjmp.h> void longjmp(jmp_buf env, int val);Description The longjmp function restores the environment saved by the mostrecent invocation of the setjmp macro in the same invocation of theprogram, with the corresponding jmp_buf argument. If there has beenno such invocation, or if the function containing the invocation ofthe setjmp macro has terminated execution/96/ in the interim, thebehavior is undefined. All accessible objects have values as of the time longjmp wascalled, except that the values of objects of automatic storageduration that do not have volatile type and have been changed betweenthe setjmp invocation and longjmp call are indeterminate. As it bypasses the usual function call and return mechanisms, thelongjmp function shall execute correctly in contexts of interrupts,signals and any of their associated functions. However, if thelongjmp function is invoked from a nested signal handler (that is,from a function invoked as a result of a signal raised during thehandling of another signal), the behavior is undefined.Returns After longjmp is completed, program execution continues as if thecorresponding invocation of the setjmp macro had just returned thevalue specified by val . The longjmp function cannot cause the setjmpmacro to return the value 0; if val is 0, the setjmp macro returns thevalue 1.4.7 SIGNAL HANDLING <signal.h> The header <signal.h> declares a type and two functions and definesseveral macros, for handling various signals (conditions that may bereported during program execution). The type defined is sig_atomic_twhich is the integral type of an object that can be accessed as anatomic entity, even in the presence of asynchronous interrupts. The macros defined are SIG_DFL SIG_ERR SIG_IGNwhich expand to distinct constant expressions that have typecompatible with the second argument to and the return value of thesignal function, and whose value compares unequal to the address ofany declarable function; and the following, each of which expands to apositive integral constant expression that is the signal numbercorresponding to the specified condition:SIGABRT abnormal termination, such as is initiated by the abort functionSIGFPE an erroneous arithmetic operation, such as zero divide or an operation resulting in overflowSIGILL detection of an invalid function image, such as an illegal instructionSIGINT receipt of an interactive attention signal SIGSEGV an invalid access to storage SIGTERM a termination request sent to the program An implementation need not generate any of these signals, except asa result of explicit calls to the raise function. Additional signalsand pointers to undeclarable functions, with macro definitionsbeginning, respectively, with the letters SIG and an upper-case letteror with SIG_ and an upper-case letter,/97/ may also be specified bythe implementation. The complete set of signals, their semantics, andtheir default handling is implementation-defined; all signal valuesshall be positive.4.7.1 Specify signal handling4.7.1.1 The signal functionSynopsis #include <signal.h> void (*signal(int sig, void (*func)(int)))(int);Description The signal function chooses one of three ways in which receipt ofthe signal number sig is to be subsequently handled. If the value offunc is SIG_DFL , default handling for that signal will occur. If thevalue of func is SIG_IGN , the signal will be ignored. Otherwise,func shall point to a function to be called when that signal occurs.Such a function is called a signal handler . When a signal occurs, if func points to a function, first theequivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is executed or animplementation-defined blocking of the signal is performed. (If thevalue of sig is SIGILL, whether the reset to SIG_DFL occurs isimplementation-defined.) Next the equivalent of (*func)(sig); isexecuted. The function func may terminate by executing a returnstatement or by calling the abort , exit , or longjmp function. Iffunc executes a return statement and the value of sig was SIGFPE orany other implementation-defined value corresponding to acomputational exception, the behavior is undefined. Otherwise, theprogram will resume execution at the point it was interrupted. If the signal occurs other than as the result of calling the abortor raise function, the behavior is undefined if the signal handlercalls any function in the standard library other than the signalfunction itself or refers to any object with static storage durationother than by assigning a value to a static storage duration variableof type volatile sig_atomic_t . Furthermore, if such a call to thesignal function results in a SIG_ERR return, the value of errno isindeterminate. At program startup, the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_IGN);may be executed for some signals selected in an implementation-definedmanner; the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL);is executed for all other signals defined by the implementation. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thesignal function.Returns If the request can be honored, the signal function returns thevalue of func for the most recent call to signal for the specifiedsignal sig . Otherwise, a value of SIG_ERR is returned and a positivevalue is stored in errno .Forward references: the abort function ($4.10.4.1). 4.7.2 Send signal4.7.2.1 The raise functionSynopsis #include <signal.h> int raise(int sig);Description The raise function sends the signal sig to the executing program. Returns The raise function returns zero if successful, nonzero if unsuccessful. 4.8 VARIABLE ARGUMENTS <stdarg.h> The header <stdarg.h> declares a type and defines three macros, foradvancing through a list of arguments whose number and types are notknown to the called function when it is translated. A function may be called with a variable number of arguments ofvarying types. As described in $3.7.1, its parameter list containsone or more parameters. The rightmost parameter plays a special rolein the access mechanism, and will be designated parmN in thisdescription. The type declared is va_listwhich is a type suitable for holding information needed by the macrosva_start , va_arg , and va_end . If access to the varying argumentsis desired, the called function shall declare an object (referred toas ap in this section) having type va_list . The object ap may bepassed as an argument to another function; if that function invokesthe va_arg macro with parameter ap , the value of ap in the callingfunction is indeterminate and shall be passed to the va_end macroprior to any further reference to ap .4.8.1 Variable argument list access macros The va_start and va_arg macros described in this section shall beimplemented as macros, not as actual functions. It is unspecifiedwhether va_end is a macro or an identifier declared with externallinkage. If a macro definition is suppressed in order to access anactual function, or a program defines an external identifier with thename va_end , the behavior is undefined. The va_start and va_endmacros shall be invoked in the function accepting a varying number ofarguments, if access to the varying arguments is desired.4.8.1.1 The va_start macroSynopsis #include <stdarg.h> void va_start(va_list ap, parmN);Description The va_start macro shall be invoked before any access to theunnamed arguments. The va_start macro initializes ap for subsequent use by va_arg andva_end . The parameter parmN is the identifier of the rightmost parameter inthe variable parameter list in the function definition (the one justbefore the , ... ). If the parameter parmN is declared with theregister storage class, with a function or array type, or with a typethat is not compatible with the type that results after application ofthe default argument promotions, the behavior is undefined.Returns The va_start macro returns no value. 4.8.1.2 The va_arg macroSynopsis #include <stdarg.h> type va_arg(va_list ap, type);Description The va_arg macro expands to an expression that has the type andvalue of the next argument in the call. The parameter ap shall be thesame as the va_list ap initialized by va_start . Each invocation ofva_arg modifies ap so that the values of successive arguments arereturned in turn. The parameter type is a type name specified suchthat the type of a pointer to an object that has the specified typecan be obtained simply by postfixing a * to type . If there is noactual next argument, or if type is not compatible with the type ofthe actual next argument (as promoted according to the defaultargument promotions), the behavior is undefined.Returns The first invocation of the va_arg macro after that of the va_startmacro returns the value of the argument after that specified by parmN.Successive invocations return the values of the remaining argumentsin succession.4.8.1.3 The va_end macroSynopsis #include <stdarg.h> void va_end(va_list ap);Description The va_end macro facilitates a normal return from the functionwhose variable argument list was referred to by the expansion ofva_start that initialized the va_list ap . The va_end macro maymodify ap so that it is no longer usable (without an interveninginvocation of va_start ). If there is no corresponding invocation ofthe va_start macro, or if the va_end macro is not invoked before thereturn, the behavior is undefined.Returns The va_end macro returns no value. Example The function f1 gathers into an array a list of arguments that arepointers to strings (but not more than MAXARGS arguments), then passesthe array as a single argument to function f2 . The number ofpointers is specified by the first argument to f1 . #include <stdarg.h> #define MAXARGS 31 void f1(int n_ptrs, ...) { va_list ap; char *array[MAXARGS]; int ptr_no = 0; if (n_ptrs > MAXARGS) n_ptrs = MAXARGS; va_start(ap, n_ptrs); while (ptr_no < n_ptrs) array[ptr_no++] = va_arg(ap, char *); va_end(ap); f2(n_ptrs, array); }Each call to f1 shall have visible the definition of the function or adeclaration such as void f1(int, ...);4.9 INPUT/OUTPUT <stdio.h>4.9.1 Introduction The header <stdio.h> declares three types, several macros, and manyfunctions for performing input and output. The types declared are size_t (described in $4.1.5); FILEwhich is an object type capable of recording all the informationneeded to control a stream, including its file position indicator, apointer to its associated buffer, an error indicator that recordswhether a read/write error has occurred, and an end-of-file indicatorthat records whether the end of the file has been reached; and fpos_twhich is an object type capable of recording all the informationneeded to specify uniquely every position within a file. The macros are NULL (described in $4.1.5); _IOFBF _IOLBF _IONBFwhich expand to distinct integral constant expressions, suitable foruse as the third argument to the setvbuf function; BUFSIZwhich expands to an integral constant expression, which is the size ofthe buffer used by the setbuf function; EOFwhich expands to a negative integral constant expression that isreturned by several functions to indicate end-of-file ,that is, nomore input from a stream; FOPEN_MAXwhich expands to an integral constant expression that is the minimumnumber of files that the implementation guarantees can be opensimultaneously; FILENAME_MAXwhich expands to an integral constant expression that is the maximumlength for a file name string that the implementation guarantees canbe opened;/98/ L_tmpnamwhich expands to an integral constant expression that is the size ofan array of char large enough to hold a temporary file name stringgenerated by the tmpnam function; SEEK_CUR SEEK_END SEEK_SETwhich expand to distinct integral constant expressions, suitable foruse as the third argument to the fseek function; TMP_MAXwhich expands to an integral constant expression that is the minimumnumber of unique file names that shall be generated by the tmpnamfunction; stderr stdin stdoutwhich are expressions of type ``pointer to FILE '' that point to theFILE objects associated, respectively, with the standard error, input,and output streams.Forward references: files ($4.9.3), the fseek function ($4.9.9.2),streams ($4.9.2), the tmpnam function ($4.9.4.4).4.9.2 Streams Input and output, whether to or from physical devices such asterminals and tape drives, or whether to or from files supported onstructured storage devices, are mapped into logical data streams,whose properties are more uniform than their various inputs andoutputs. Two forms of mapping are supported, for text streams and forbinary streams ./99/ A text stream is an ordered sequence of characters composed intolines , each line consisting of zero or more characters plus aterminating new-line character. Whether the last line requires aterminating new-line character is implementation-defined. Charactersmay have to be added, altered, or deleted on input and output toconform to differing conventions for representing text in the hostenvironment. Thus, there need not be a one-to-one correspondencebetween the characters in a stream and those in the externalrepresentation. Data read in from a text stream will necessarilycompare equal to the data that were earlier written out to that streamonly if: the data consist only of printable characters and the controlcharacters horizontal tab and new-line; no new-line character isimmediately preceded by space characters; and the last character is anew-line character. Whether space characters that are written outimmediately before a new-line character appear when read in isimplementation-defined. A binary stream is an ordered sequence of characters that cantransparently record internal data. Data read in from a binary streamshall compare equal to the data that were earlier written out to thatstream, under the same implementation. Such a stream may, however,have an implementation-defined number of null characters appended."Environmental limits" An implementation shall support text files with lines containing atleast 254 characters, including the terminating new-line character.The value of the macro BUFSIZ shall be at least 256.4.9.3 Files A stream is associated with an external file (which may be aphysical device) by opening a file, which may involve creating a newfile. Creating an existing file causes its former contents to bediscarded, if necessary, so that it appears as if newly created. If afile can support positioning requests (such as a disk file, as opposedto a terminal), then a file position indicator /100/ associated withthe stream is positioned at the start (character number zero) of thefile, unless the file is opened with append mode in which case it isimplementation-defined whether the file position indicator ispositioned at the beginning or the end of the file. The file positionindicator is maintained by subsequent reads, writes, and positioningrequests, to facilitate an orderly progression through the file. Allinput takes place as if characters were read by successive calls to thefgetc function; all output takes place as if characters were written bysuccessive calls to the fputc function. Binary files are not truncated, except as defined in $4.9.5.3.Whether a write on a text stream causes the associated file to betruncated beyond that point is implementation-defined. When a stream is unbuffered, characters are intended to appearfrom the source or at the destination as soon as possible. Otherwisecharacters may be accumulated and transmitted to or from the hostenvironment as a block. When a stream is fully buffered, charactersare intended to be transmitted to or from the host environment as ablock when a buffer is filled. When a stream is line buffered,characters are intended to be transmitted to or from the hostenvironment as a block when a new-line character is encountered.Furthermore, characters are intended to be transmitted as a block tothe host environment when a buffer is filled, when input is requestedon an unbuffered stream, or when input is requested on a line bufferedstream that requires the transmission of characters from the hostenvironment. Support for these characteristics isimplementation-defined, and may be affected via the setbuf and setvbuffunctions. A file may be disassociated from its controlling stream by closingthe file. Output streams are flushed (any unwritten buffer contentsare transmitted to the host environment) before the stream isdisassociated from the file. The value of a pointer to a FILE objectis indeterminate after the associated file is closed (including thestandard text streams). Whether a file of zero length (on which nocharacters have been written by an output stream) actually exists isimplementation-defined. The file may be subsequently reopened, by the same or anotherprogram execution, and its contents reclaimed or modified (if it canbe repositioned at its start). If the main function returns to itsoriginal caller, or if the exit function is called, all open files areclosed (hence all output streams are flushed) before programtermination. Other paths to program termination, such as calling theabort function, need not close all files properly. The address of the FILE object used to control a stream may besignificant; a copy of a FILE object may not necessarily serve inplace of the original. At program startup, three text streams are predefined and need notbe opened explicitly --- standard input (for reading conventionalinput), standard output (for writing conventional output), andstandard error (for writing diagnostic output). When opened, thestandard error stream is not fully buffered; the standard input andstandard output streams are fully buffered if and only if the streamcan be determined not to refer to an interactive device. Functions that open additional (nontemporary) files require a filename, which is a string. The rules for composing valid file names areimplementation-defined. Whether the same file can be simultaneouslyopen multiple times is also implementation-defined."Environmental limits" The value of the macro FOPEN_MAX shall be at least eight, includingthe three standard text streams.Forward references: the exit function ($4.10.4.3), the fgetc function($4.9.7.1), the fopen function ($4.9.5.3), the fputc function($4.9.7.3), the setbuf function ($4.9.5.5), the setvbuf function($4.9.5.6).4.9.4 Operations on files4.9.4.1 The remove functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int remove(const char *filename);Description The remove function causes the file whose name is the stringpointed to by filename to be no longer accessible by that name. Asubsequent attempt to open that file using that name will fail, unlessit is created anew. If the file is open, the behavior of the removefunction is implementation-defined.Returns The remove function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzeroif it fails.4.9.4.2 The rename functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int rename(const char *old, const char *new);Description The rename function causes the file whose name is the stringpointed to by old to be henceforth known by the name given by thestring pointed to by new . The file named old is effectively removed.If a file named by the string pointed to by new exists prior to thecall to the rename function, the behavior is implementation-defined.Returns The rename function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzeroif it fails,/101/ in which case if the file existed previously it isstill known by its original name.4.9.4.3 The tmpfile functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> FILE *tmpfile(void);Description The tmpfile function creates a temporary binary file that willautomatically be removed when it is closed or at program termination.If the program terminates abnormally, whether an open temporary fileis removed is implementation-defined. The file is opened for updatewith wb+ mode.Returns The tmpfile function returns a pointer to the stream of the filethat it created. If the file cannot be created, the tmpfile functionreturns a null pointer.Forward references: the fopen function ($4.9.5.3). 4.9.4.4 The tmpnam functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> char *tmpnam(char *s);Description The tmpnam function generates a string that is a valid file nameand that is not the same as the name of an existing file./102/ The tmpnam function generates a different string each time it iscalled, up to TMP_MAX times. If it is called more than TMP_MAX times,the behavior is implementation-defined. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thetmpnam function.Returns If the argument is a null pointer, the tmpnam function leaves itsresult in an internal static object and returns a pointer to thatobject. Subsequent calls to the tmpnam function may modify the sameobject. If the argument is not a null pointer, it is assumed to pointto an array of at least L_tmpnam char s; the tmpnam function writesits result in that array and returns the argument as its value."Environmental limits" The value of the macro TMP_MAX shall be at least 25. 4.9.5 File access functions4.9.5.1 The fclose functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fclose(FILE *stream);Description The fclose function causes the stream pointed to by stream to beflushed and the associated file to be closed. Any unwritten buffereddata for the stream are delivered to the host environment to bewritten to the file; any unread buffered data are discarded. Thestream is disassociated from the file. If the associated buffer wasautomatically allocated, it is deallocated.Returns The fclose function returns zero if the stream was successfullyclosed, or EOF if any errors were detected.4.9.5.2 The fflush functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fflush(FILE *stream);Description If stream points to an output stream or an update stream in whichthe most recent operation was output, the fflush function causes anyunwritten data for that stream to be delivered to the host environmentto be written to the file; otherwise, the behavior is undefined. If stream is a null pointer, the fflush function performs thisflushing action on all streams for which the behavior is definedabove.Returns The fflush function returns EOF if a write error occurs, otherwise zero. Forward references: the ungetc function ($4.9.7.11). 4.9.5.3 The fopen functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);Description The fopen function opens the file whose name is the string pointedto by filename , and associates a stream with it. The argument mode points to a string beginning with one of thefollowing sequences:/103/"r" open text file for reading"w" truncate to zero length or create text file for writing"a" append; open or create text file for writing at end-of-file"rb" open binary file for reading"wb" truncate to zero length or create binary file for writing"ab" append; open or create binary file for writing at end-of-file"r+" open text file for update (reading and writing)"w+" truncate to zero length or create text file for update"a+" append; open or create text file for update, writing at end-of-file"r+b" or "rb+" open binary file for update (reading and writing)"w+b" or "wb+" truncate to zero length or create binary file for update"a+b" or "ab+" append; open or create binary file for update, writing at end-of-file Opening a file with read mode ('r' as the first character in themode argument) fails if the file does not exist or cannot be read. Opening a file with append mode ('a' as the first character in themode argument) causes all subsequent writes to the file to be forcedto the then current end-of-file, regardless of intervening calls tothe fseek function. In some implementations, opening a binary filewith append mode ('b' as the second or third character in the modeargument) may initially position the file position indicator for thestream beyond the last data written, because of null characterpadding. When a file is opened with update mode ('+' as the second or thirdcharacter in the mode argument), both input and output may beperformed on the associated stream. However, output may not bedirectly followed by input without an intervening call to the fflushfunction or to a file positioning function ( fseek , fsetpos , orrewind ), and input may not be directly followed by output without anintervening call to a file positioning function, unless the inputoperation encounters end-of-file. Opening a file with update mode mayopen or create a binary stream in some implementations. When opened, a stream is fully buffered if and only if it can bedetermined not to refer to an interactive device. The error andend-of-file indicators for the stream are cleared.Returns The fopen function returns a pointer to the object controlling thestream. If the open operation fails, fopen returns a null pointer.Forward references: file positioning functions ($4.9.9). 4.9.5.4 The freopen functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode, FILE *stream);Description The freopen function opens the file whose name is the stringpointed to by filename and associates the stream pointed to by streamwith it. The mode argument is used just as in the fopenfunction./104/ The freopen function first attempts to close any file that isassociated with the specified stream. Failure to close the filesuccessfully is ignored. The error and end-of-file indicators for thestream are cleared.Returns The freopen function returns a null pointer if the open operationfails. Otherwise, freopen returns the value of stream .4.9.5.5 The setbuf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf);Description Except that it returns no value, the setbuf function is equivalentto the setvbuf function invoked with the values _IOFBF for mode andBUFSIZ for size , or (if buf is a null pointer), with the value _IONBFfor mode .Returns The setbuf function returns no value. Forward references: the setvbuf function ($4.9.5.6). 4.9.5.6 The setvbuf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size);Description The setvbuf function may be used after the stream pointed to bystream has been associated with an open file but before any otheroperation is performed on the stream. The argument mode determineshow stream will be buffered, as follows: _IOFBF causes input/output tobe fully buffered; _IOLBF causes output to be line buffered; _IONBFcauses input/output to be unbuffered. If buf is not a null pointer,the array it points to may be used instead of a buffer allocated bythe setvbuf function./105/ The argument size specifies the size of thearray. The contents of the array at any time are indeterminate.Returns The setvbuf function returns zero on success, or nonzero if aninvalid value is given for mode or if the request cannot be honored.4.9.6 Formatted input/output functions4.9.6.1 The fprintf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);Description The fprintf function writes output to the stream pointed to bystream , under control of the string pointed to by format thatspecifies how subsequent arguments are converted for output. If thereare insufficient arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined.If the format is exhausted while arguments remain, the excessarguments are evaluated (as always) but are otherwise ignored. Thefprintf function returns when the end of the format string isencountered. The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning andending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero ormore directives: ordinary multibyte characters (not % ), which arecopied unchanged to the output stream; and conversion specifications,each of which results in fetching zero or more subsequent arguments.Each conversion specification is introduced by the character % .After the % , the following appear in sequence: * Zero or more flags that modify the meaning of the conversion specification. * An optional decimal integer specifying a minimum field width ./106/ If the converted value has fewer characters than the field width, it will be padded with spaces on the left (or right, if the left adjustment flag, described later, has been given) to the field width. * An optional precision that gives the minimum number of digits to appear for the d , i , o , u , x , and X conversions, the number of digits to appear after the decimal-point character for e , E , and f conversions, the maximum number of significant digits for the g and G conversions, or the maximum number of characters to be written from a string in s conversion. The precision takes the form of a period (.) followed by an optional decimal integer; if the integer is omitted, it is treated as zero. * An optional h specifying that a following d , i , o , u , x , or X conversion specifier applies to a short int or unsigned short int argument (the argument will have been promoted according to the integral promotions, and its value shall be converted to short int or unsigned short int before printing); an optional h specifying that a following n conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a short int argument; an optional l (ell) specifying that a following d , i , o , u , x , or X conversion specifier applies to a long int or unsigned long int argument; an optional l specifying that a following n conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a long int argument; or an optional L specifying that a following e , E , f , g , or G conversion specifier applies to a long double argument. If an h , l , or L appears with any other conversion specifier, the behavior is undefined. * A character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied. A field width or precision, or both, may be indicated by anasterisk * instead of a digit string. In this case, an int argumentsupplies the field width or precision. The arguments specifying fieldwidth or precision, or both, shall appear (in that order) before theargument (if any) to be converted. A negative field width argument istaken as a - flag followed by a positive field width. A negativeprecision argument is taken as if it were missing. The flag characters and their meanings are - The result of the conversion will be left-justified within the field. + The result of a signed conversion will always begin with a plus or minus sign. space If the first character of a signed conversion is not a sign, or if a signed conversion results in no characters, a space will be prepended to the result. If the space and + flags both appear, the space flag will be ignored.# The result is to be converted to an ``alternate form.'' For o conversion, it increases the precision to force the first digit of the result to be a zero. For x (or X ) conversion, a nonzero result will have 0x (or 0X ) prepended to it. For e , E , f , g , and G conversions, the result will always contain a decimal-point character, even if no digits follow it (normally, a decimal-point character appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows it). For g and G conversions, trailing zeros will not be removed from the result. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined. 0 For d, i, o, u, x, X, e, E, f, g and G conversions, leading zeros (following any indication of sign or base) are used to pad to the field width; no space padding is performed. If the 0 and - flags both appear, the 0 flag will be ignored. For d, i, o, u, x and X conversions, if a precision is specified, the 0 flag will be ignored. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined. The conversion specifiers and their meanings ared, i, o, u, x, X The int argument is converted to signed decimal ( d or i ), unsigned octal ( o ), unsigned decimal ( u ), or unsigned hexadecimal notation ( x or X ); the letters abcdef are used for x conversion and the letters ABCDEF for X conversion. The precision specifies the minimum number of digits to appear; if the value being converted can be represented in fewer digits, it will be expanded with leading zeros. The default precision is 1. The result of converting a zero value with an explicit precision of zero is no characters.f The double argument is converted to decimal notation in the style [-]ddd.ddd , where the number of digits after the decimal-point character is equal to the precision specification. If the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is explicitly zero, no decimal-point character appears. If a decimal-point character appears, at least one digit appears before it. The value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits.e, E The double argument is converted in the style [-]d.ddde+- dd , where there is one digit before the decimal-point character (which is nonzero if the argument is nonzero) and the number of digits after it is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is zero, no decimal-point character appears. The value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits. The E conversion specifier will produce a number with E instead of e introducing the exponent. The exponent always contains at least two digits. If the value is zero, the exponent is zero.g, G The double argument is converted in style f or e (or in style E in the case of a G conversion specifier), with the precision specifying the number of significant digits. If an explicit precision is zero, it is taken as 1. The style used depends on the value converted; style e will be used only if the exponent resulting from such a conversion is less than -4 or greater than or equal to the precision. Trailing zeros are removed from the fractional portion of the result; a decimal-point character appears only if it is followed by a digit.c The int argument is converted to an unsigned char , and the resulting character is written.s The argument shall be a pointer to an array of character type./107/ Characters from the array are written up to (but not including) a terminating null character; if the precision is specified, no more than that many characters are written. If the precision is not specified or is greater than the size of the array, the array shall contain a null character.p The argument shall be a pointer to void . The value of the pointer is converted to a sequence of printable characters, in an implementation-defined manner.n The argument shall be a pointer to an integer into which is written the number of characters written to the output stream so far by this call to fprintf . No argument is converted.% A % is written. No argument is converted. The complete conversion specification shall be %% . If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior isundefined./108/ If any argument is, or points to, a union or an aggregate (exceptfor an array of character type using %s conversion, or a pointer castto be a pointer to void using %p conversion), the behavior isundefined. In no case does a nonexistent or small field width cause truncationof a field; if the result of a conversion is wider than the fieldwidth, the field is expanded to contain the conversion result.Returns The fprintf function returns the number of characters transmitted,or a negative value if an output error occurred."Environmental limit" The minimum value for the maximum number of characters produced byany single conversion shall be 509.Examples To print a date and time in the form ``Sunday, July 3, 10:02,''where weekday and month are pointers to strings: #include <stdio.h> fprintf(stdout, "%s, %s %d, %.2d:%.2d\n", weekday, month, day, hour, min);To print PI to five decimal places: #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> fprintf(stdout, "pi = %.5f\n", 4 * atan(1.0));4.9.6.2 The fscanf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);Description The fscanf function reads input from the stream pointed to bystream , under control of the string pointed to by format thatspecifies the admissible input sequences and how they are to beconverted for assignment, using subsequent arguments as pointers tothe objects to receive the converted input. If there are insufficientarguments for the format, the behavior is undefined. If the format isexhausted while arguments remain, the excess arguments are evaluated(as always) but are otherwise ignored. The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning andending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero ormore directives: one or more white-space characters; an ordinarymultibyte character (not % ); or a conversion specification. Eachconversion specification is introduced by the character % . After the %,the following appear in sequence: * An optional assignment-suppressing character * . * An optional decimal integer that specifies the maximum field width. * An optional h , l (ell) or L indicating the size of the receiving object. The conversion specifiers d , i , and n shall be preceded by h if the corresponding argument is a pointer to short int rather than a pointer to int , or by l if it is a pointer to long int . Similarly, the conversion specifiers o , u , and x shall be preceded by h if the corresponding argument is a pointer to unsigned short int rather than a pointer to unsigned int , or by l if it is a pointer to unsigned long int . Finally, the conversion specifiers e , f , and g shall be preceded by l if the corresponding argument is a pointer to double rather than a pointer to float , or by L if it is a pointer to long double . If an h , l , or L appears with any other conversion specifier, the behavior is undefined. * A character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied.The valid conversion specifiers are described below. The fscanf function executes each directive of the format in turn.If a directive fails, as detailed below, the fscanf function returns.Failures are described as input failures (due to the unavailability ofinput characters), or matching failures (due to inappropriate input). A directive composed of white space is executed by reading input upto the first non-white-space character (which remains unread), oruntil no more characters can be read. A directive that is an ordinary multibyte character is executed byreading the next characters of the stream. If one of the charactersdiffers from one comprising the directive, the directive fails, andthe differing and subsequent characters remain unread. A directive that is a conversion specification defines a set ofmatching input sequences, as described below for each specifier. Aconversion specification is executed in the following steps: Input white-space characters (as specified by the isspace function)are skipped, unless the specification includes a [ , c , or nspecifier. An input item is read from the stream, unless the specificationincludes an n specifier. An input item is defined as the longestsequence of input characters (up to any specified maximum field width)which is an initial subsequence of a matching sequence. The firstcharacter, if any, after the input item remains unread. If the lengthof the input item is zero, the execution of the directive fails: thiscondition is a matching failure, unless an error prevented input fromthe stream, in which case it is an input failure. Except in the case of a % specifier, the input item (or, in thecase of a %n directive, the count of input characters) is converted toa type appropriate to the conversion specifier. If the input item isnot a matching sequence, the execution of the directive fails: thiscondition is a matching failure. Unless assignment suppression wasindicated by a * , the result of the conversion is placed in theobject pointed to by the first argument following the format argumentthat has not already received a conversion result. If this objectdoes not have an appropriate type, or if the result of the conversioncannot be represented in the space provided, the behavior isundefined. The following conversion specifiers are valid:d Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtol function with the value 10 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer.i Matches an optionally signed integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtol function with the value 0 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer.o Matches an optionally signed octal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtoul function with the value 8 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer.u Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtoul function with the value 10 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer.x Matches an optionally signed hexadecimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the strtoul function with the value 16 for the base argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer.e,f,g Matches an optionally signed floating-point number, whose format is the same as expected for the subject string of the strtod function. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to floating.s Matches a sequence of non-white-space characters. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added automatically.[ Matches a nonempty sequence of characters from a set of expected characters (the scanset ). The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added automatically. The conversion specifier includes all subsequent characters in the format string, up to and including the matching right bracket ( ] ). The characters between the brackets (the scanlist ) comprise the scanset, unless the character after the left bracket is a circumflex ( ^ ), in which case the scanset contains all characters that do not appear in the scanlist between the circumflex and the right bracket. As a special case, if the conversion specifier begins with [] or [^] , the right bracket character is in the scanlist and the next right bracket character is the matching right bracket that ends the specification. If a - character is in the scanlist and is not the first, nor the second where the first character is a ^ , nor the last character, the behavior is implementation-defined.c Matches a sequence of characters of the number specified by the field width (1 if no field width is present in the directive). The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence. No null character is added.p Matches an implementation-defined set of sequences, which should be the same as the set of sequences that may be produced by the %p conversion of the fprintf function. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to a pointer to void . The interpretation of the input item is implementation-defined; however, for any input item other than a value converted earlier during the same program execution, the behavior of the %p conversion is undefined.n No input is consumed. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer into which is to be written the number of characters read from the input stream so far by this call to the fscanf function. Execution of a %n directive does not increment the assignment count returned at the completion of execution of the fscanf function.% Matches a single % ; no conversion or assignment occurs. The complete conversion specification shall be %% . If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior isundefined./110/ The conversion specifiers E , G , and X are also valid and behavethe same as, respectively, e , g , and x . If end-of-file is encountered during input, conversion isterminated. If end-of-file occurs before any characters matching thecurrent directive have been read (other than leading white space,where permitted), execution of the current directive terminates withan input failure; otherwise, unless execution of the current directiveis terminated with a matching failure, execution of the followingdirective (if any) is terminated with an input failure. If conversion terminates on a conflicting input character, theoffending input character is left unread in the input stream.Trailing white space (including new-line characters) is left unreadunless matched by a directive. The success of literal matches andsuppressed assignments is not directly determinable other than via the%n directive.Returns The fscanf function returns the value of the macro EOF if an inputfailure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the fscanf functionreturns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer thanprovided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure.Examples The call: #include <stdio.h> int n, i; float x; char name[50]; n = fscanf(stdin, "%d%f%s", &i, &x, name);with the input line: 25 54.32E-1 thompsonwill assign to n the value 3, to i the value 25, to x the value 5.432,and name will contain thompson\0 . Or: #include <stdio.h> int i; float x; char name[50]; fscanf(stdin, "%2d%f%*d %[0123456789]", &i, &x, name);with input: 56789 0123 56a72will assign to i the value 56 and to x the value 789.0, will skip0123, and name will contain 56\0 . The next character read from theinput stream will be a . To accept repeatedly from stdin a quantity, a unit of measure andan item name: #include <stdio.h> int count; float quant; char units[21], item[21]; while (!feof(stdin) && !ferror(stdin)) { count = fscanf(stdin, "%f%20s of %20s", &quant, units, item); fscanf(stdin,"%*[^\n]"); } If the stdin stream contains the following lines: 2 quarts of oil -12.8degrees Celsius lots of luck 10.0LBS of fertilizer 100ergs of energythe execution of the above example will be equivalent to the followingassignments: quant = 2; strcpy(units, "quarts"); strcpy(item, "oil"); count = 3; quant = -12.8; strcpy(units, "degrees"); count = 2; /* "C" fails to match "o" */ count = 0; /* "l" fails to match "%f" */ quant = 10.0; strcpy(units, "LBS"); strcpy(item, "fertilizer"); count = 3; count = 0; /* "100e" fails to match "%f" */ count = EOF;Forward references: the strtod function ($4.10.1.4), the strtolfunction ($4.10.1.5), the strtoul function ($4.10.1.6).4.9.6.3 The printf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int printf(const char *format, ...);Description The printf function is equivalent to fprintf with the argumentstdout interposed before the arguments to printf .Returns The printf function returns the number of characters transmitted,or a negative value if an output error occurred.4.9.6.4 The scanf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int scanf(const char *format, ...);Description The scanf function is equivalent to fscanf with the argument stdininterposed before the arguments to scanf .Returns The scanf function returns the value of the macro EOF if an inputfailure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the scanf functionreturns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer thanprovided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure.4.9.6.5 The sprintf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int sprintf(char *s, const char *format, ...);Description The sprintf function is equivalent to fprintf , except that theargument s specifies an array into which the generated output is to bewritten, rather than to a stream. A null character is written at theend of the characters written; it is not counted as part of thereturned sum. If copying takes place between objects that overlap,the behavior is undefined.Returns The sprintf function returns the number of characters written inthe array, not counting the terminating null character.4.9.6.6 The sscanf functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int sscanf(const char *s, const char *format, ...);Description The sscanf function is equivalent to fscanf , except that theargument s specifies a string from which the input is to be obtained,rather than from a stream. Reaching the end of the string isequivalent to encountering end-of-file for the fscanf function. Ifcopying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior isundefined.Returns The sscanf function returns the value of the macro EOF if an inputfailure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the sscanf functionreturns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer thanprovided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure.4.9.6.7 The vfprintf functionSynopsis #include <stdarg.h> #include <stdio.h> int vfprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, va_list arg);Description The vfprintf function is equivalent to fprintf , with the variableargument list replaced by arg , which has been initialized by theva_start macro (and possibly subsequent va_arg calls). The vfprintffunction does not invoke the va_end macro.Returns The vfprintf function returns the number of characters transmitted,or a negative value if an output error occurred.Example The following shows the use of the vfprintf function in a generalerror-reporting routine. #include <stdarg.h> #include <stdio.h> void error(char *function_name, char *format, ...) { va_list args; va_start(args, format); /* print out name of function causing error */ fprintf(stderr, "ERROR in %s: ", function_name); /* print out remainder of message */ vfprintf(stderr, format, args); va_end(args); }4.9.6.8 The vprintf functionSynopsis #include <stdarg.h> #include <stdio.h> int vprintf(const char *format, va_list arg);Description The vprintf function is equivalent to printf , with the variableargument list replaced by arg , which has been initialized by theva_start macro (and possibly subsequent va_arg calls). The vprintffunction does not invoke the va_end macro.rNReturns The vprintf function returns the number of characters transmitted,or a negative value if an output error occurred.4.9.6.9 The vsprintf functionSynopsis #include <stdarg.h> #include <stdio.h> int vsprintf(char *s, const char *format, va_list arg);Description The vsprintf function is equivalent to sprintf , with the variableargument list replaced by arg , which has been initialized by theva_start macro (and possibly subsequent va_arg calls). The vsprintffunction does not invoke the va_end macro.rN If copying takes placebetween objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined.Returns The vsprintf function returns the number of characters written inthe array, not counting the terminating null character.4.9.7 Character input/output functions4.9.7.1 The fgetc functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fgetc(FILE *stream);Description The fgetc function obtains the next character (if present) as anunsigned char converted to an int , from the input stream pointed toby stream , and advances the associated file position indicator forthe stream (if defined).Returns The fgetc function returns the next character from the input streampointed to by stream . If the stream is at end-of-file, theend-of-file indicator for the stream is set and fgetc returns EOF .If a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set andfgetc returns EOF ./112/4.9.7.2 The fgets functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream);Description The fgets function reads at most one less than the number ofcharacters specified by n from the stream pointed to by stream intothe array pointed to by s . No additional characters are read after anew-line character (which is retained) or after end-of-file. A nullcharacter is written immediately after the last character read intothe array.Returns The fgets function returns s if successful. If end-of-file isencountered and no characters have been read into the array, thecontents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned.If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents areindeterminate and a null pointer is returned.4.9.7.3 The fputc functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fputc(int c, FILE *stream);Description The fputc function writes the character specified by c (convertedto an unsigned char ) to the output stream pointed to by stream , atthe position indicated by the associated file position indicator forthe stream (if defined), and advances the indicator appropriately. Ifthe file cannot support positioning requests, or if the stream wasopened with append mode, the character is appended to the outputstream.Returns The fputc function returns the character written. If a write erroroccurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and fputc returns EOF.4.9.7.4 The fputs functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream);Description The fputs function writes the string pointed to by s to the streampointed to by stream . The terminating null character is not written.Returns The fputs function returns EOF if a write error occurs; otherwiseit returns a nonnegative value.4.9.7.5 The getc functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int getc(FILE *stream);Description The getc function is equivalent to fgetc , except that if it isimplemented as a macro, it may evaluate stream more than once, so theargument should never be an expression with side effects.Returns The getc function returns the next character from the input streampointed to by stream . If the stream is at end-of-file, theend-of-file indicator for the stream is set and getc returns EOF . Ifa read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set andgetc returns EOF .4.9.7.6 The getchar functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int getchar(void);Description The getchar function is equivalent to getc with the argument stdin . Returns The getchar function returns the next character from the inputstream pointed to by stdin . If the stream is at end-of-file, theend-of-file indicator for the stream is set and getchar returns EOF .If a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set andgetchar returns EOF .4.9.7.7 The gets functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> char *gets(char *s);Description The gets function reads characters from the input stream pointed toby stdin , into the array pointed to by s , until end-of-file isencountered or a new-line character is read. Any new-line characteris discarded, and a null character is written immediately after thelast character read into the array.Returns The gets function returns s if successful. If end-of-file isencountered and no characters have been read into the array, thecontents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned.If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents areindeterminate and a null pointer is returned.4.9.7.8 The putc functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int putc(int c, FILE *stream);Description The putc function is equivalent to fputc , except that if it isimplemented as a macro, it may evaluate stream more than once, so theargument should never be an expression with side effects.Returns The putc function returns the character written. If a write erroroccurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and putc returns EOF.4.9.7.9 The putchar functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int putchar(int c);Description The putchar function is equivalent to putc with the second argumentstdout.Returns The putchar function returns the character written. If a writeerror occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and putcharreturns EOF.4.9.7.10 The puts functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int puts(const char *s);Description The puts function writes the string pointed to by s to the streampointed to by stdout , and appends a new-line character to the output.The terminating null character is not written.Returns The puts function returns EOF if a write error occurs; otherwise itreturns a nonnegative value.4.9.7.11 The ungetc functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream);Description The ungetc function pushes the character specified by c (convertedto an unsigned char ) back onto the input stream pointed to by stream.The pushed-back characters will be returned by subsequent reads onthat stream in the reverse order of their pushing. A successfulintervening call (with the stream pointed to by stream ) to a filepositioning function ( fseek , fsetpos , or rewind ) discards anypushed-back characters for the stream. The external storagecorresponding to the stream is unchanged. One character of pushback is guaranteed. If the ungetc function iscalled too many times on the same stream without an intervening reador file positioning operation on that stream, the operation may fail. If the value of c equals that of the macro EOF , the operationfails and the input stream is unchanged. A successful call to the ungetc function clears the end-of-fileindicator for the stream. The value of the file position indicatorfor the stream after reading or discarding all pushed-back charactersshall be the same as it was before the characters were pushed back.For a text stream, the value of its file position indicator after asuccessful call to the ungetc function is unspecified until allpushed-back characters are read or discarded. For a binary stream,its file position indicator is decremented by each successful call tothe ungetc function; if its value was zero before a call, it isindeterminate after the call.Returns The ungetc function returns the character pushed back afterconversion, or EOF if the operation fails.Forward references: file positioning functions ($4.9.9). 4.9.8 Direct input/output functions4.9.8.1 The fread functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream);Description The fread function reads, into the array pointed to by ptr , up tonmemb members whose size is specified by size , from the streampointed to by stream . The file position indicator for the stream (ifdefined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully read.If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicatorfor the stream is indeterminate. If a partial member is read, itsvalue is indeterminate.Returns The fread function returns the number of members successfully read,which may be less than nmemb if a read error or end-of-file isencountered. If size or nmemb is zero, fread returns zero and thecontents of the array and the state of the stream remain unchanged.4.9.8.2 The fwrite functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream);Description The fwrite function writes, from the array pointed to by ptr , upto nmemb members whose size is specified by size , to the streampointed to by stream . The file position indicator for the stream (ifdefined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully written.If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicatorfor the stream is indeterminate.Returns The fwrite function returns the number of members successfullywritten, which will be less than nmemb only if a write error isencountered.4.9.9 File positioning functions4.9.9.1 The fgetpos functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos);Description The fgetpos function stores the current value of the file positionindicator for the stream pointed to by stream in the object pointed toby pos . The value stored contains unspecified information usable bythe fsetpos function for repositioning the stream to its position atthe time of the call to the fgetpos function.Returns If successful, the fgetpos function returns zero; on failure, thefgetpos function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-definedpositive value in errno .Forward references: the fsetpos function ($4.9.9.3). 4.9.9.2 The fseek functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence);Description The fseek function sets the file position indicator for the streampointed to by stream . For a binary stream, the new position, measured in characters fromthe beginning of the file, is obtained by adding offset to theposition specified by whence. The specified point is the beginningof the file for SEEK_SET, the current value of the file positionindicator for SEEK_CUR, or end-of-file for SEEK_END. A binarystream need not meaningfully support fseek calls with a whence valueof SEEK_END. For a text stream, either offset shall be zero, or offset shall bea value returned by an earlier call to the ftell function on the samestream and whence shall be SEEK_SET . A successful call to the fseek function clears the end-of-fileindicator for the stream and undoes any effects of the ungetc functionon the same stream. After an fseek call, the next operation on anupdate stream may be either input or output.Returns The fseek function returns nonzero only for a request that cannotbe satisfied.Forward references: the ftell function ($4.9.9.4). 4.9.9.3 The fsetpos functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int fsetpos(FILE *stream, const fpos_t *pos);Description The fsetpos function sets the file position indicator for thestream pointed to by stream according to the value of the objectpointed to by pos , which shall be a value returned by an earlier callto the fgetpos function on the same stream. A successful call to the fsetpos function clears the end-of-fileindicator for the stream and undoes any effects of the ungetc functionon the same stream. After an fsetpos call, the next operation on anupdate stream may be either input or output.Returns If successful, the fsetpos function returns zero; on failure, thefsetpos function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-definedpositive value in errno .4.9.9.4 The ftell functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> long int ftell(FILE *stream);Description The ftell function obtains the current value of the file positionindicator for the stream pointed to by stream . For a binary stream,the value is the number of characters from the beginning of the file.For a text stream, its file position indicator contains unspecifiedinformation, usable by the fseek function for returning the fileposition indicator for the stream to its position at the time of theftell call; the difference between two such return values is notnecessarily a meaningful measure of the number of characters writtenor read.Returns If successful, the ftell function returns the current value of thefile position indicator for the stream. On failure, the ftellfunction returns -1L and stores an implementation-defined positivevalue in errno .4.9.9.5 The rewind functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> void rewind(FILE *stream);Description The rewind function sets the file position indicator for the streampointed to by stream to the beginning of the file. It is equivalent to (void)fseek(stream, 0L, SEEK_SET)except that the error indicator for the stream is also cleared. Returns The rewind function returns no value. 4.9.10 Error-handling functions4.9.10.1 The clearerr functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> void clearerr(FILE *stream);Description The clearerr function clears the end-of-file and error indicatorsfor the stream pointed to by stream .Returns The clearerr function returns no value. 4.9.10.2 The feof functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int feof(FILE *stream);Description The feof function tests the end-of-file indicator for the streampointed to by stream .Returns The feof function returns nonzero if and only if the end-of-fileindicator is set for stream .4.9.10.3 The ferror functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> int ferror(FILE *stream);Description The ferror function tests the error indicator for the streampointed to by stream .Returns The ferror function returns nonzero if and only if the errorindicator is set for stream .4.9.10.4 The perror functionSynopsis #include <stdio.h> void perror(const char *s);Description The perror function maps the error number in the integer expressionerrno to an error message. It writes a sequence of characters to thestandard error stream thus: first (if s is not a null pointer and thecharacter pointed to by s is not the null character), the stringpointed to by s followed by a colon and a space; then an appropriateerror message string followed by a new-line character. The contentsof the error message strings are the same as those returned by thestrerror function with argument errno , which areimplementation-defined.Returns The perror function returns no value. Forward references: the strerror function ($4.11.6.2). 4.10 GENERAL UTILITIES <stdlib.h> The header <stdlib.h> declares four types and several functions ofgeneral utility, and defines several macros./113/ The types declared are size_t and wchar_t (both described in $4.1.5), div_twhich is a structure type that is the type of the value returned bythe div function, and ldiv_twhich is a structure type that is the type of the value returned bythe ldiv function. The macros defined are NULL (described in $4.1.5); EXIT_FAILUREand EXIT_SUCCESSwhich expand to integral expressions that may be used as the argumentto the exit function to return unsuccessful or successful terminationstatus, respectively, to the host environment; RAND_MAXwhich expands to an integral constant expression, the value of whichis the maximum value returned by the rand function; and MB_CUR_MAXwhich expands to a positive integer expression whose value is themaximum number of bytes in a multibyte character for the extendedcharacter set specified by the current locale (category LC_CTYPE ),and whose value is never greater than MB_LEN_MAX .4.10.1 String conversion functions The functions atof , atoi , and atol need not affect the value ofthe integer expression errno on an error. If the value of the resultcannot be represented, the behavior is undefined.4.10.1.1 The atof functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> double atof(const char *nptr);Description The atof function converts the initial portion of the stringpointed to by nptr to double representation. Except for the behavioron error, it is equivalent to strtod(nptr, (char **)NULL)Returns The atof function returns the converted value. Forward references: the strtod function ($4.10.1.4). 4.10.1.2 The atoi functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int atoi(const char *nptr);Description The atoi function converts the initial portion of the stringpointed to by nptr to int representation. Except for the behavior onerror, it is equivalent to (int)strtol(nptr, (char **)NULL, 10)Returns The atoi function returns the converted value. Forward references: the strtol function ($4.10.1.5). 4.10.1.3 The atol functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> long int atol(const char *nptr);Description The atol function converts the initial portion of the stringpointed to by nptr to long int representation. Except for thebehavior on error, it is equivalent to strtol(nptr, (char **)NULL, 10)Returns The atol function returns the converted value. Forward references: the strtol function ($4.10.1.5). 4.10.1.4 The strtod functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> double strtod(const char *nptr, char **endptr);Description The strtod function converts the initial portion of the stringpointed to by nptr to double representation. First it decomposes theinput string into three parts: an initial, possibly empty, sequence ofwhite-space characters (as specified by the isspace function), asubject sequence resembling a floating-point constant; and a finalstring of one or more unrecognized characters, including theterminating null character of the input string. Then it attempts toconvert the subject sequence to a floating-point number, and returnsthe result. The expected form of the subject sequence is an optional plus orminus sign, then a nonempty sequence of digits optionally containing adecimal-point character, then an optional exponent part as defined in$3.1.3.1, but no floating suffix. The subject sequence is defined asthe longest subsequence of the input string, starting with the firstnon-white-space character, that is an initial subsequence of asequence of the expected form. The subject sequence contains nocharacters if the input string is empty or consists entirely of whitespace, or if the first non-white-space character is other than a sign,a digit, or a decimal-point character. If the subject sequence has the expected form, the sequence ofcharacters starting with the first digit or the decimal-pointcharacter (whichever occurs first) is interpreted as a floatingconstant according to the rules of $3.1.3.1, except that thedecimal-point character is used in place of a period, and that ifneither an exponent part nor a decimal-point character appears, adecimal point is assumed to follow the last digit in the string. Ifthe subject sequence begins with a minus sign, the value resultingfrom the conversion is negated. A pointer to the final string isstored in the object pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr isnot a null pointer. In other than the C locale, additional implementation-definedsubject sequence forms may be accepted. If the subject sequence is empty or does not have the expectedform, no conversion is performed; the value of nptr is stored in theobject pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is not a nullpointer.Returns The strtod function returns the converted value, if any. If noconversion could be performed, zero is returned. If the correct valuewould cause overflow, plus or minus HUGE_VAL is returned (according tothe sign of the value), and the value of the macro ERANGE is stored inerrno . If the correct value would cause underflow, zero is returnedand the value of the macro ERANGE is stored in errno .4.10.1.5 The strtol functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> long int strtol(const char *nptr, char **endptr, int base);Description The strtol function converts the initial portion of the stringpointed to by nptr to long int representation. First it decomposesthe input string into three parts: an initial, possibly empty,sequence of white-space characters (as specified by the isspacefunction), a subject sequence resembling an integer represented insome radix determined by the value of base , and a final string of oneor more unrecognized characters, including the terminating nullcharacter of the input string. Then it attempts to convert thesubject sequence to an integer, and returns the result. If the value of base is zero, the expected form of the subjectsequence is that of an integer constant as described in $3.1.3.2,optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including aninteger suffix. If the value of base is between 2 and 36, theexpected form of the subject sequence is a sequence of letters anddigits representing an integer with the radix specified by base ,optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including aninteger suffix. The letters from a (or A ) through z (or Z ) areascribed the values 10 to 35; only letters whose ascribed values areless than that of base are permitted. If the value of base is 16, thecharacters 0x or 0X may optionally precede the sequence of letters anddigits, following the sign if present. The subject sequence is defined as the longest subsequence of theinput string, starting with the first non-white-space character, thatis an initial subsequence of a sequence of the expected form. Thesubject sequence contains no characters if the input string is emptyor consists entirely of white space, or if the first non-white-spacecharacter is other than a sign or a permissible letter or digit. If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of baseis zero, the sequence of characters starting with the first digit isinterpreted as an integer constant according to the rules of $3.1.3.2.If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of base isbetween 2 and 36, it is used as the base for conversion, ascribing toeach letter its value as given above. If the subject sequence beginswith a minus sign, the value resulting from the conversion is negated.A pointer to the final string is stored in the object pointed to byendptr , provided that endptr is not a null pointer. In other than the C locale, additional implementation-definedsubject sequence forms may be accepted. If the subject sequence is empty or does not have the expectedform, no conversion is performed; the value of nptr is stored in theobject pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is not a nullpointer.Returns The strtol function returns the converted value, if any. If noconversion could be performed, zero is returned. If the correct valuewould cause overflow, LONG_MAX or LONG_MIN is returned (according tothe sign of the value), and the value of the macro ERANGE is stored inerrno .4.10.1.6 The strtoul functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> unsigned long int strtoul(const char *nptr, char **endptr, int base);Description The strtoul function converts the initial portion of the stringpointed to by nptr to unsigned long int representation. First itdecomposes the input string into three parts: an initial, possiblyempty, sequence of white-space characters (as specified by the isspacefunction), a subject sequence resembling an unsigned integerrepresented in some radix determined by the value of base , and afinal string of one or more unrecognized characters, including theterminating null character of the input string. Then it attempts toconvert the subject sequence to an unsigned integer, and returns theresult. If the value of base is zero, the expected form of the subjectsequence is that of an integer constant as described in $3.1.3.2,optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including aninteger suffix. If the value of base is between 2 and 36, theexpected form of the subject sequence is a sequence of letters anddigits representing an integer with the radix specified by base ,optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign, but not including aninteger suffix. The letters from a (or A ) through z (or Z ) areascribed the values 10 to 35; only letters whose ascribed values areless than that of base are permitted. If the value of base is 16, thecharacters 0x or 0X may optionally precede the sequence of letters anddigits, following the sign if present. The subject sequence is defined as the longest subsequence of theinput string, starting with the first non-white-space character, thatis an initial subsequence of a sequence of the expected form. Thesubject sequence contains no characters if the input string is emptyor consists entirely of white space, or if the first non-white-spacecharacter is other than a sign or a permissible letter or digit. If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of baseis zero, the sequence of characters starting with the first digit isinterpreted as an integer constant according to the rules of $3.1.3.2.If the subject sequence has the expected form and the value of base isbetween 2 and 36, it is used as the base for conversion, ascribing toeach letter its value as given above. If the subject sequence beginswith a minus sign, the value resulting from the conversion is negated.A pointer to the final string is stored in the object pointed to byendptr , provided that endptr is not a null pointer. In other than the C locale, additional implementation-definedsubject sequence forms may be accepted. If the subject sequence is empty or does not have the expectedform, no conversion is performed; the value of nptr is stored in theobject pointed to by endptr , provided that endptr is not a nullpointer.Returns The strtoul function returns the converted value, if any. If noconversion could be performed, zero is returned. If the correct valuewould cause overflow, ULONG_MAX is returned, and the value of themacro ERANGE is stored in errno .4.10.2 Pseudo-random sequence generation functions4.10.2.1 The rand functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int rand(void);Description The rand function computes a sequence of pseudo-random integers inthe range 0 to RAND_MAX . The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls therand function.Returns The rand function returns a pseudo-random integer. "Environmental limit" The value of the RAND_MAX macro shall be at least 32767. 4.10.2.2 The srand functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void srand(unsigned int seed);Description The srand function uses the argument as a seed for a new sequenceof pseudo-random numbers to be returned by subsequent calls to rand .If srand is then called with the same seed value, the sequence ofpseudo-random numbers shall be repeated. If rand is called before anycalls to srand have been made, the same sequence shall be generated aswhen srand is first called with a seed value of 1. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thesrand function.Returns The srand function returns no value. Example The following functions define a portable implementation of randand srand. Specifying the semantics makes it possible to determinereproducibly the behavior of programs that use pseudo-randomsequences. This facilitates the testing of portable applications indifferent implementations. static unsigned long int next = 1; int rand(void) /* RAND_MAX assumed to be 32767 */ { next = next * 1103515245 + 12345; return (unsigned int)(next/65536) % 32768; } void srand(unsigned int seed) { next = seed; }4.10.3 Memory management functions The order and contiguity of storage allocated by successive callsto the calloc , malloc , and realloc functions is unspecified. Thepointer returned if the allocation succeeds is suitably aligned sothat it may be assigned to a pointer to any type of object and thenused to access such an object in the space allocated (until the spaceis explicitly freed or reallocated). Each such allocation shall yielda pointer to an object disjoint from any other object. The pointerreturned points to the start (lowest byte address) of the allocatedspace. If the space cannot be allocated, a null pointer is returned.If the size of the space requested is zero, the behavior isimplementation-defined; the value returned shall be either a nullpointer or a unique pointer. The value of a pointer that refers tofreed space is indeterminate.4.10.3.1 The calloc functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void *calloc(size_t nmemb, size_t size);Description The calloc function allocates space for an array of nmemb objects,each of whose size is size . The space is initialized to all bitszero./114/Returns The calloc function returns either a null pointer or a pointer tothe allocated space.4.10.3.2 The free functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void free(void *ptr);Description The free function causes the space pointed to by ptr to bedeallocated, that is, made available for further allocation. If ptris a null pointer, no action occurs. Otherwise, if the argument doesnot match a pointer earlier returned by the calloc , malloc , orrealloc function, or if the space has been deallocated by a call tofree or realloc , the behavior is undefined.Returns The free function returns no value. 4.10.3.3 The malloc functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void *malloc(size_t size);Description The malloc function allocates space for an object whose size isspecified by size and whose value is indeterminate.Returns The malloc function returns either a null pointer or a pointer tothe allocated space.4.10.3.4 The realloc functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t size);Description The realloc function changes the size of the object pointed to byptr to the size specified by size . The contents of the object shallbe unchanged up to the lesser of the new and old sizes. If the newsize is larger, the value of the newly allocated portion of the objectis indeterminate. If ptr is a null pointer, the realloc functionbehaves like the malloc function for the specified size. Otherwise,if ptr does not match a pointer earlier returned by the calloc ,malloc , or realloc function, or if the space has been deallocated bya call to the free or realloc function, the behavior is undefined. Ifthe space cannot be allocated, the object pointed to by ptr isunchanged. If size is zero and ptr is not a null pointer, the objectit points to is freed.Returns The realloc function returns either a null pointer or a pointer tothe possibly moved allocated space.4.10.4 Communication with the environment4.10.4.1 The abort functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void abort(void);Description The abort function causes abnormal program termination to occur,unless the signal SIGABRT is being caught and the signal handler doesnot return. Whether open output streams are flushed or open streamsclosed or temporary files removed is implementation-defined. Animplementation-defined form of the status unsuccessful termination isreturned to the host environment by means of the function callraise(SIGABRT) .Returns The abort function cannot return to its caller. 4.10.4.2 The atexit functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int atexit(void (*func)(void));Description The atexit function registers the function pointed to by func , tobe called without arguments at normal program termination."Implementation limits" The implementation shall support the registration of at least 32functions.Returns The atexit function returns zero if the registration succeeds,nonzero if it fails.Forward references: the exit function ($4.10.4.3). 4.10.4.3 The exit functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void exit(int status);Description The exit function causes normal program termination to occur. Ifmore than one call to the exit function is executed by a program, thebehavior is undefined. First, all functions registered by the atexit function are called,in the reverse order of their registration./115/ Next, all open output streams are flushed, all open streams areclosed, and all files created by the tmpfile function are removed. Finally, control is returned to the host environment. If the valueof status is zero or EXIT_SUCCESS , an implementation-defined form ofthe status successful termination is returned. If the value of statusis EXIT_FAILURE , an implementation-defined form of the statusunsuccessful termination is returned. Otherwise the status returnedis implementation-defined.Returns The exit function cannot return to its caller. 4.10.4.4 The getenv functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> char *getenv(const char *name);Description The getenv function searches an environment list, provided by thehost environment, for a string that matches the string pointed to byname . The set of environment names and the method for altering theenvironment list are implementation-defined. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thegetenv function.Returns The getenv function returns a pointer to a string associated withthe matched list member. The array pointed to shall not be modifiedby the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequent call to thegetenv function. If the specified name cannot be found, a nullpointer is returned.4.10.4.5 The system functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int system(const char *string);Description The system function passes the string pointed to by string to thehost environment to be executed by a command processor in animplementation-defined manner. A null pointer may be used for stringto inquire whether a command processor exists.Returns If the argument is a null pointer, the system function returnsnonzero only if a command processor is available. If the argument isnot a null pointer, the system function returns animplementation-defined value.4.10.5 Searching and sorting utilities4.10.5.1 The bsearch functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void *bsearch(const void *key, const void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size, int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));Description The bsearch function searches an array of nmemb objects, theinitial member of which is pointed to by base , for a member thatmatches the object pointed to by key . The size of each member of thearray is specified by size . The contents of the array shall be in ascending sorted orderaccording to a comparison function pointed to by compar ,/116/ induceswhich is called with two arguments that point to the key object and toan array member, in that order. The function shall return an integerless than, equal to, or greater than zero if the key object isconsidered, respectively, to be less than, to match, or to be greaterthan the array member.Returns The bsearch function returns a pointer to a matching member of thearray, or a null pointer if no match is found. If two members compareas equal, which member is matched is unspecified.4.10.5.2 The qsort functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size, int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));Description The qsort function sorts an array of nmemb objects, the initialmember of which is pointed to by base . The size of each object isspecified by size . The contents of the array are sorted in ascending order accordingto a comparison function pointed to by compar , which is called withtwo arguments that point to the objects being compared. The functionshall return an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero ifthe first argument is considered to be respectively less than, equalto, or greater than the second. If two members compare as equal, their order in the sorted array isunspecified.Returns The qsort function returns no value. 4.10.6 Integer arithmetic functions4.10.6.1 The abs functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int abs(int j);Description The abs function computes the absolute value of an integer j . Ifthe result cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined./117/Returns The abs function returns the absolute value. 4.10.6.2 The div functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> div_t div(int numer, int denom);Description The div function computes the quotient and remainder of thedivision of the numerator numer by the denominator denom . If thedivision is inexact, the sign of the resulting quotient is that of thealgebraic quotient, and the magnitude of the resulting quotient is thelargest integer less than the magnitude of the algebraic quotient. Ifthe result cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined;otherwise, quot * denom + rem shall equal numer .Returns The div function returns a structure of type div_t , comprisingboth the quotient and the remainder. The structure shall contain thefollowing members, in either order. int quot; /* quotient */ int rem; /* remainder */4.10.6.3 The labs functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> long int labs(long int j);Description The labs function is similar to the abs function, except that theargument and the returned value each have type long int .4.10.6.4 The ldiv functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> ldiv_t ldiv(long int numer, long int denom);Description The ldiv function is similar to the div function, except that thearguments and the members of the returned structure (which has typeldiv_t ) all have type long int .4.10.7 Multibyte character functions The behavior of the multibyte character functions is affected bythe LC_CTYPE category of the current locale. For a state-dependentencoding, each function is placed into its initial state by a call forwhich its character pointer argument, s , is a null pointer.Subsequent calls with s as other than a null pointer cause theinternal state of the function to be altered as necessary. A callwith s as a null pointer causes these functions to return a nonzerovalue if encodings have state dependency, and zero otherwise. Afterthe LC_CTYPE category is changed, the shift state of these functionsis indeterminate.4.10.7.1 The mblen functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int mblen(const char *s, size_t n);Description If s is not a null pointer, the mblen function determines thenumber of bytes comprising the multibyte character pointed to by s .Except that the shift state of the mbtowc function is not affected, itis equivalent to mbtowc((wchar_t *)0, s, n); The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls themblen function.Returns If s is a null pointer, the mblen function returns a nonzero orzero value, if multibyte character encodings, respectively, do or donot have state-dependent encodings. If s is not a null pointer, themblen function either returns 0 (if s points to the null character),or returns the number of bytes that comprise the multibyte character(if the next n or fewer bytes form a valid multibyte character), orreturns -1 (if they do not form a valid multibyte character).Forward references: the mbtowc function ($4.10.7.2). 4.10.7.2 The mbtowc functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int mbtowc(wchar_t *pwc, const char *s, size_t n);Description If s is not a null pointer, the mbtowc function determines thenumber of bytes that comprise the multibyte character pointed to by s.It then determines the code for value of type wchar_t thatcorresponds to that multibyte character. (The value of the codecorresponding to the null character is zero.) If the multibytecharacter is valid and pwc is not a null pointer, the mbtowc functionstores the code in the object pointed to by pwc . At most n bytes ofthe array pointed to by s will be examined. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thembtowc function.ReturnsIf s is a null pointer, the mbtowc function returns a nonzero or zerovalue, if multibyte character encodings, respectively, do or do nothave state-dependent encodings. If s is not a null pointer, thembtowc function either returns 0 (if s points to the null character),or returns the number of bytes that comprise the converted multibytecharacter (if the next n or fewer bytes form a valid multibytecharacter), or returns -1 (if they do not form a valid multibytecharacter). In no case will the value returned be greater than n or the valueof the MB_CUR_MAX macro.4.10.7.3 The wctomb functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> int wctomb(char *s, wchar_t wchar);Description The wctomb function determines the number of bytes needed torepresent the multibyte character corresponding to the code whosevalue is wchar (including any change in shift state). It stores themultibyte character representation in the array object pointed to by s(if s is not a null pointer). At most MB_CUR_MAX characters arestored. If the value of wchar is zero, the wctomb function is left inthe initial shift state. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thewctomb function.Returns If s is a null pointer, the wctomb function returns a nonzero orzero value, if multibyte character encodings, respectively, do or donot have state-dependent encodings. If s is not a null pointer, thewctomb function returns -1 if the value of wchar does not correspondto a valid multibyte character, or returns the number of bytes thatcomprise the multibyte character corresponding to the value of wchar . In no case will the value returned be greater than the value of theMB_CUR_MAX macro.4.10.8 Multibyte string functions The behavior of the multibyte string functions is affected by theLC_CTYPE category of the current locale.4.10.8.1 The mbstowcs functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> size_t mbstowcs(wchar_t *pwcs, const char *s, size_t n);Description The mbstowcs function converts a sequence of multibyte charactersthat begins in the initial shift state from the array pointed to by sinto a sequence of corresponding codes and stores not more than ncodes into the array pointed to by pwcs . No multibyte charactersthat follow a null character (which is converted into a code withvalue zero) will be examined or converted. Each multibyte characteris converted as if by a call to the mbtowc function, except that theshift state of the mbtowc function is not affected. No more than n elements will be modified in the array pointed to bypwcs . If copying takes place between objects that overlap, thebehavior is undefined.Returns If an invalid multibyte character is encountered, the mbstowcsfunction returns (size_t)-1 . Otherwise, the mbstowcs functionreturns the number of array elements modified, not including aterminating zero code, if any.rN4.10.8.2 The wcstombs functionSynopsis #include <stdlib.h> size_t wcstombs(char *s, const wchar_t *pwcs, size_t n);Description The wcstombs function converts a sequence of codes that correspondto multibyte characters from the array pointed to by pwcs into asequence of multibyte characters that begins in the initial shiftstate and stores these multibyte characters into the array pointed toby s , stopping if a multibyte character would exceed the limit of ntotal bytes or if a null character is stored. Each code is convertedas if by a call to the wctomb function, except that the shift state ofthe wctomb function is not affected. No more than n bytes will be modified in the array pointed to by s. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavioris undefined.Returns If a code is encountered that does not correspond to a validmultibyte character, the wcstombs function returns (size_t)-1 .Otherwise, the wcstombs function returns the number of bytes modified,not including a terminating null character, if any.rN4.11 STRING HANDLING <string.h>4.11.1 String function conventions The header <string.h> declares one type and several functions, anddefines one macro useful for manipulating arrays of character type andother objects treated as arrays of character type./119/ The type issize_t and the macro is NULL (both described in $4.1.5). Variousmethods are used for determining the lengths of the arrays, but in allcases a char * or void * argument points to the initial (lowestaddressed) character of the array. If an array is accessed beyond theend of an object, the behavior is undefined.4.11.2 Copying functions4.11.2.1 The memcpy functionSynopsis #include <string.h> void *memcpy(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);Description The memcpy function copies n characters from the object pointed toby s2 into the object pointed to by s1 . If copying takes placebetween objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined.Returns The memcpy function returns the value of s1 . 4.11.2.2 The memmove functionSynopsis #include <string.h> void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);Description The memmove function copies n characters from the object pointed toby s2 into the object pointed to by s1 . Copying takes place as ifthe n characters from the object pointed to by s2 are first copiedinto a temporary array of n characters that does not overlap theobjects pointed to by s1 and s2 , and then the n characters from thetemporary array are copied into the object pointed to by s1 .Returns The memmove function returns the value of s1 . 4.11.2.3 The strcpy functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strcpy(char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strcpy function copies the string pointed to by s2 (includingthe terminating null character) into the array pointed to by s1 . Ifcopying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior isundefined.Returns The strcpy function returns the value of s1 . 4.11.2.4 The strncpy functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strncpy(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);Description The strncpy function copies not more than n characters (charactersthat follow a null character are not copied) from the array pointed toby s2 to the array pointed to by s1 ./120/ If copying takes placebetween objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. If the array pointed to by s2 is a string that is shorter than ncharacters, null characters are appended to the copy in the arraypointed to by s1 , until n characters in all have been written.Returns The strncpy function returns the value of s1 . 4.11.3 Concatenation functions4.11.3.1 The strcat functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strcat(char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strcat function appends a copy of the string pointed to by s2(including the terminating null character) to the end of the stringpointed to by s1 . The initial character of s2 overwrites the nullcharacter at the end of s1 . If copying takes place between objectsthat overlap, the behavior is undefined.Returns The strcat function returns the value of s1 . 4.11.3.2 The strncat functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strncat(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);Description The strncat function appends not more than n characters (a nullcharacter and characters that follow it are not appended) from thearray pointed to by s2 to the end of the string pointed to by s1 .The initial character of s2 overwrites the null character at the endof s1 . A terminating null character is always appended to theresult./121/ If copying takes place between objects that overlap, thebehavior is undefined.Returns The strncat function returns the value of s1 . Forward references: the strlen function ($4.11.6.3). 4.11.4 Comparison functions The sign of a nonzero value returned by the comparison functions isdetermined by the sign of the difference between the values of thefirst pair of characters (both interpreted as unsigned char ) thatdiffer in the objects being compared.4.11.4.1 The memcmp functionSynopsis #include <string.h> int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);Description The memcmp function compares the first n characters of the objectpointed to by s1 to the first n characters of the object pointed to bys2 ./122/Returns The memcmp function returns an integer greater than, equal to, orless than zero, according as the object pointed to by s1 is greaterthan, equal to, or less than the object pointed to by s2 .4.11.4.2 The strcmp functionSynopsis #include <string.h> int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strcmp function compares the string pointed to by s1 to thestring pointed to by s2 .Returns The strcmp function returns an integer greater than, equal to, orless than zero, according as the string pointed to by s1 is greaterthan, equal to, or less than the string pointed to by s2 .4.11.4.3 The strcoll functionSynopsis #include <string.h> int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2);DescriptionThe strcoll function compares the string pointed to by s1 to thestring pointed to by s2 , both interpreted as appropriate to theLC_COLLATE category of the current locale.Returns The strcoll function returns an integer greater than, equal to, orless than zero, according as the string pointed to by s1 is greaterthan, equal to, or less than the string pointed to by s2 when both areinterpreted as appropriate to the current locale.4.11.4.4 The strncmp functionSynopsis #include <string.h> int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);Description The strncmp function compares not more than n characters(characters that follow a null character are not compared) from thearray pointed to by s1 to the array pointed to by s2 .Returns The strncmp function returns an integer greater than, equal to, orless than zero, according as the possibly null-terminated arraypointed to by s1 is greater than, equal to, or less than the possiblynull-terminated array pointed to by s2 .4.11.4.5 The strxfrm functionSynopsis #include <string.h> size_t strxfrm(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);Description The strxfrm function transforms the string pointed to by s2 andplaces the resulting string into the array pointed to by s1 . Thetransformation is such that if the strcmp function is applied to twotransformed strings, it returns a value greater than, equal to, orless than zero, corresponding to the result of the strcoll functionapplied to the same two original strings. No more than n charactersare placed into the resulting array pointed to by s1 , including theterminating null character. If n is zero, s1 is permitted to be anull pointer. If copying takes place between objects that overlap,the behavior is undefined.Returns The strxfrm function returns the length of the transformed string(not including the terminating null character). If the value returnedis n or more, the contents of the array pointed to by s1 areindeterminate.Example The value of the following expression is the size of the arrayneeded to hold the transformation of the string pointed to by s . 1 + strxfrm(NULL, s, 0)4.11.5 Search functions4.11.5.1 The memchr functionSynopsis #include <string.h> void *memchr(const void *s, int c, size_t n);Description The memchr function locates the first occurrence of c (converted toan unsigned char ) in the initial n characters (each interpreted asunsigned char ) of the object pointed to by s .Returns The memchr function returns a pointer to the located character, ora null pointer if the character does not occur in the object.4.11.5.2 The strchr functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strchr(const char *s, int c);Description The strchr function locates the first occurrence of c (converted toa char ) in the string pointed to by s . The terminating nullcharacter is considered to be part of the string.Returns The strchr function returns a pointer to the located character, ora null pointer if the character does not occur in the string.4.11.5.3 The strcspn functionSynopsis #include <string.h> size_t strcspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strcspn function computes the length of the maximum initialsegment of the string pointed to by s1 which consists entirely ofcharacters not from the string pointed to by s2 .Returns The strcspn function returns the length of the segment. 4.11.5.4 The strpbrk functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strpbrk(const char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strpbrk function locates the first occurrence in the stringpointed to by s1 of any character from the string pointed to by s2 .Returns The strpbrk function returns a pointer to the character, or a nullpointer if no character from s2 occurs in s1 .4.11.5.5 The strrchr functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strrchr(const char *s, int c);Description The strrchr function locates the last occurrence of c (converted toa char ) in the string pointed to by s . The terminating nullcharacter is considered to be part of the string.Returns The strrchr function returns a pointer to the character, or a nullpointer if c does not occur in the string.4.11.5.6 The strspn functionSynopsis #include <string.h> size_t strspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strspn function computes the length of the maximum initialsegment of the string pointed to by s1 which consists entirely ofcharacters from the string pointed to by s2 .Returns The strspn function returns the length of the segment. 4.11.5.7 The strstr functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strstr(const char *s1, const char *s2);Description The strstr function locates the first occurrence in the stringpointed to by s1 of the sequence of characters (excluding theterminating null character) in the string pointed to by s2Returns The strstr function returns a pointer to the located string, or anull pointer if the string is not found. If s2 points to a stringwith zero length, the function returns s1 .4.11.5.8 The strtok functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strtok(char *s1, const char *s2);Description A sequence of calls to the strtok function breaks the stringpointed to by s1 into a sequence of tokens, each of which is delimitedby a character from the string pointed to by s2 . The first call inthe sequence has s1 as its first argument, and is followed by callswith a null pointer as their first argument. The separator stringpointed to by s2 may be different from call to call. The first call in the sequence searches the string pointed to by s1for the first character that is not contained in the current separatorstring pointed to by s2 . If no such character is found, then thereare no tokens in the string pointed to by s1 and the strtok functionreturns a null pointer. If such a character is found, it is the startof the first token. The strtok function then searches from there for a character thatis contained in the current separator string. If no such character isfound, the current token extends to the end of the string pointed toby s1 , and subsequent searches for a token will return a nullpointer. If such a character is found, it is overwritten by a nullcharacter, which terminates the current token. The strtok functionsaves a pointer to the following character, from which the next searchfor a token will start. Each subsequent call, with a null pointer as the value of the firstargument, starts searching from the saved pointer and behaves asdescribed above. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thestrtok function.Returns The strtok function returns a pointer to the first character of atoken, or a null pointer if there is no token.Example #include <string.h> static char str[] = "?a???b,,,#c"; char *t; t = strtok(str, "?"); /* t points to the token "a" */ t = strtok(NULL, ","); /* t points to the token "??b" */ t = strtok(NULL, "#,"); /* t points to the token "c" */ t = strtok(NULL, "?"); /* t is a null pointer */4.11.6 Miscellaneous functions4.11.6.1 The memset functionSynopsis #include <string.h> void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n);Description The memset function copies the value of c (converted to an unsignedchar ) into each of the first n characters of the object pointed to bys .Returns The memset function returns the value of s . 4.11.6.2 The strerror functionSynopsis #include <string.h> char *strerror(int errnum);Description The strerror function maps the error number in errnum to an errormessage string. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls thestrerror function.Returns The strerror function returns a pointer to the string, the contentsof which are implementation-defined. The array pointed to shall notbe modified by the program, but may be overwritten by a subsequentcall to the strerror function.4.11.6.3 The strlen functionSynopsis #include <string.h> size_t strlen(const char *s);Description The strlen function computes the length of the string pointed to by s . Returns The strlen function returns the number of characters that precedethe terminating null character.4.12 DATE AND TIME <time.h>4.12.1 Components of time The header <time.h> defines two macros, and declares four types andseveral functions for manipulating time. Many functions deal with acalendar time that represents the current date (according to theGregorian calendar) and time. Some functions deal with local time, which is the calendar time expressed for some specific time zone, and with Daylight Saving Time, which is a temporary change in thealgorithm for determining local time. The local time zone andDaylight Saving Time are implementation-defined. The macros defined are NULL (described in $4.1.5); and CLK_TCKwhich is the number per second of the value returned by the clock function. The types declared are size_t (described in $4.1.5); clock_tand time_twhich are arithmetic types capable of representing times; and struct tmwhich holds the components of a calendar time, called the broken-downtime. The structure shall contain at least the following members, inany order. The semantics of the members and their normal ranges areexpressed in the comments./123/ int tm_sec; /* seconds after the minute --- [0, 60] */ int tm_min; /* minutes after the hour --- [0, 59] */ int tm_hour; /* hours since midnight --- [0, 23] */ int tm_mday; /* day of the month --- [1, 31] */ int tm_mon; /* months since January --- [0, 11] */ int tm_year; /* years since 1900 */ int tm_wday; /* days since Sunday --- [0, 6] */ int tm_yday; /* days since January 1 --- [0, 365] */ int tm_isdst; /* Daylight Saving Time flag */The value of tm_isdst is positive if Daylight Saving Time is ineffect, zero if Daylight Saving Time is not in effect, and negative ifthe information is not available.4.12.2 Time manipulation functions4.12.2.1 The clock functionSynopsis #include <time.h> clock_t clock(void);Description The clock function determines the processor time used. Returns The clock function returns the implementation's best approximationto the processor time used by the program since the beginning of animplementation-defined era related only to the program invocation. Todetermine the time in seconds, the value returned by the clockfunction should be divided by the value of the macro CLK_TCK . If theprocessor time used is not available or its value cannot berepresented, the function returns the value (clock_t)-1 .4.12.2.2 The difftime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> double difftime(time_t time1, time_t time0);Description The difftime function computes the difference between two calendartimes: time1 - time0 .Returns The difftime function returns the difference expressed in secondsas a double .4.12.2.3 The mktime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> time_t mktime(struct tm *timeptr);Description The mktime function converts the broken-down time, expressed aslocal time, in the structure pointed to by timeptr into a calendartime value with the same encoding as that of the values returned bythe time function. The original values of the tm_wday and tm_ydaycomponents of the structure are ignored, and the original values ofthe other components are not restricted to the ranges indicatedabove./124/ On successful completion, the values of the tm_wday andtm_yday components of the structure are set appropriately, and theother components are set to represent the specified calendar time, butwith their values forced to the ranges indicated above; the finalvalue of tm_mday is not set until tm_mon and tm_year are determined.Returns The mktime function returns the specified calendar time encoded asa value of type time_t . If the calendar time cannot be represented,the function returns the value (time_t)-1 .Example What day of the week is July 4, 2001? #include <stdio.h> #include <time.h> static const char *const wday[] = { "Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "-unknown-" }; struct tm time_str; time_str.tm_year = 2001 - 1900; time_str.tm_mon = 7 - 1; time_str.tm_mday = 4; time_str.tm_hour = 0; time_str.tm_min = 0; time_str.tm_sec = 1; time_str.tm_isdst = -1; if (mktime(&time_str) == -1) time_str.tm_wday = 7; printf("%s\n", wday[time_str.tm_wday]);4.12.2.4 The time functionSynopsis #include <time.h> time_t time(time_t *timer);Description The time function determines the current calendar time. Theencoding of the value is unspecified.Returns The time function returns the implementation's best approximationto the current calendar time. The value (time_t)-1 is returned if thecalendar time is not available. If timer is not a null pointer, thereturn value is also assigned to the object it points to.4.12.3 Time conversion functions Except for the strftime function, these functions return values inone of two static objects: a broken-down time structure and an arrayof char . Execution of any of the functions may overwrite theinformation returned in either of these objects by any of the otherfunctions. The implementation shall behave as if no other libraryfunctions call these functions.4.12.3.1 The asctime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr);Description The asctime function converts the broken-down time in the structurepointed to by timeptr into a string in the form Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973\n\0using the equivalent of the following algorithm. char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr){ static const char wday_name[7][3] = { "Sun", "Mon", "Tue", "Wed", "Thu", "Fri", "Sat" }; static const char mon_name[12][3] = { "Jan", "Feb", "Mar", "Apr", "May", "Jun", "Jul", "Aug", "Sep", "Oct", "Nov", "Dec" }; static char result[26]; sprintf(result, "%.3s %.3s%3d %.2d:%.2d:%.2d %d\n", wday_name[timeptr->tm_wday], mon_name[timeptr->tm_mon], timeptr->tm_mday, timeptr->tm_hour, timeptr->tm_min, timeptr->tm_sec, 1900 + timeptr->tm_year); return result;}Returns The asctime function returns a pointer to the string. 4.12.3.2 The ctime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> char *ctime(const time_t *timer);Description The ctime function converts the calendar time pointed to by timer to local time in the form of a string. It is equivalent to asctime(localtime(timer))Returns The ctime function returns the pointer returned by the asctimefunction with that broken-down time as argument.Forward references: the localtime function ($4.12.3.4). 4.12.3.3 The gmtime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> struct tm *gmtime(const time_t *timer);Description The gmtime function converts the calendar time pointed to by timerinto a broken-down time, expressed as Coordinated Universal Time(UTC).Returns The gmtime function returns a pointer to that object, or a nullpointer if UTC is not available.4.12.3.4 The localtime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> struct tm *localtime(const time_t *timer);Description The localtime function converts the calendar time pointed to bytimer into a broken-down time, expressed as local time.Returns The localtime function returns a pointer to that object. 4.12.3.5 The strftime functionSynopsis #include <time.h> size_t strftime(char *s, size_t maxsize, const char *format, const struct tm *timeptr);Description The strftime function places characters into the array pointed toby s as controlled by the string pointed to by format . The formatshall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and ending in itsinitial shift state. The format string consists of zero or moreconversion specifications and ordinary multibyte characters. Aconversion specification consists of a % character followed by acharacter that determines the conversion specification's behavior.All ordinary multibyte characters (including the terminating nullcharacter) are copied unchanged into the array. If copying takesplace between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. Nomore than maxsize characters are placed into the array. Eachconversion specification is replaced by appropriate characters asdescribed in the following list. The appropriate characters aredetermined by the program's locale and by the values contained in thestructure pointed to by timeptr ."%a" is replaced by the locale's abbreviated weekday name. "%A" is replaced by the locale's full weekday name. "%b" is replaced by the locale's abbreviated month name. "%B" is replaced by the locale's full month name."%c" is replaced by the locale's appropriate date and time representation."%d" is replaced by the day of the month as a decimal number (01-31)."%H" is replaced by the hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (00-23)."%I" is replaced by the hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (01-12). "%j" is replaced by the day of the year as a decimal number (001-366 ). "%m" is replaced by the month as a decimal number (01-12). "%M" is replaced by the minute as a decimal number (00-59). "%p" is replaced by the locale's equivalent of either AM or PM . "%S" is replaced by the second as a decimal number (00-60). "%U" is replaced by the week number of the year (ithe first Sunday as the first day of week 1) as a decimal number (00-53). "%w" is replaced by the weekday as a decimal number (0-6), where Sunday is 0."%W" is replaced by the week number of the year (the first Monday as the first day of week 1) as a decimal number (00-53). "%x" is replaced by the locale's appropriate date representation. "%X" is replaced by the locale's appropriate time representation. "%y" is replaced by the year without century as a decimal number (00-99). "%Y" is replaced by the year with century as a decimal number. "%Z" is replaced by the time zone name, or by no characters if no time zone is determinable. "%%" is replaced by %. If a conversion specification is not one of the above, the behavioris undefined.Returns If the total number of resulting characters including theterminating null character is not more than maxsize , the strftimefunction returns the number of characters placed into the arraypointed to by s not including the terminating null character.Otherwise, zero is returned and the contents of the array areindeterminate.4.13 FUTURE LIBRARY DIRECTIONS The following names are grouped under individual headers forconvenience. All external names described below are reserved nomatter what headers are included by the program.4.13.1 Errors <errno.h> Macros that begin with E and a digit or E and an upper-case letter(followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore) may beadded to the declarations in the <errno.h> header.4.13.2 Character handling <ctype.h> Function names that begin with either is or to , and a lower-caseletter (followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore)may be added to the declarations in the <ctype.h> header.4.13.3 Localization <locale.h> Macros that begin with LC_ and an upper-case letter (followed byany combination of digits, letters and underscore) may be added to thedefinitions in the <locale.h> header.4.13.4 Mathematics <math.h> The names of all existing functions declared in the <math.h>header, suffixed with f or l , are reserved respectively forcorresponding functions with float and long double arguments andreturn values.4.13.5 Signal handling <signal.h> Macros that begin with either SIG and an upper-case letter or SIG_and an upper-case letter (followed by any combination of digits,letters and underscore) may be added to the definitions in the<signal.h> header.4.13.6 Input/output <stdio.h> Lower-case letters may be added to the conversion specifiers infprintf and fscanf . Other characters may be used in extensions.4.13.7 General utilities <stdlib.h> Function names that begin with str and a lower-case letter(followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore) may beadded to the declarations in the <stdlib.h> header.4.13.8 String handling <string.h> Function names that begin with str , mem , or wcs and a lower-caseletter (followed by any combination of digits, letters and underscore)may be added to the declarations in the <string.h> header. A. APPENDICES (These appendices are not a part of American National Standard forInformation Systems --- Programming Language C, X3.???-1988.) These appendices collect information that appears in the Standard,and are not necessarily complete.A.1 LANGUAGE SYNTAX SUMMARY The notation is described in the introduction to $3 (Language). A.1.1 Lexical grammarA.1.1.1 Tokens keyword identifier constant string-literal operator punctuator header-name identifier pp-number character-constant string-literal operator punctuator each non-white-space character that cannot be one of the aboveA.1.1.2 Keywords auto double int struct break else long switch case enum register typedef char extern return union const float short unsigned continue for signed void default goto sizeof volatile do if static whileA.1.1.3 Identifiers nondigit identifier nondigit identifier digit _ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9A.1.1.4 Constants floating-constant integer-constant enumeration-constant character-constant fractional-constant exponent-part<opt> floating-suffix<opt> digit-sequence exponent-part floating-suffix<opt> digit-sequence<opt> . digit-sequence digit-sequence . e sign<opt> digit-sequence E sign<opt> digit-sequence + - digit digit-sequence digit f l F L decimal-constant integer-suffix<opt> octal-constant integer-suffix<opt> hexadecimal-constant integer-suffix<opt> nonzero-digit decimal-constant digit 0 octal-constant octal-digit 0x hexadecimal-digit 0X hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-constant hexadecimal-digit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F unsigned-suffix long-suffix<opt> long-suffix unsigned-suffix<opt> u U l L identifier ' c-char-sequence' L' c-char-sequence' c-char c-char-sequence c-char any member of the source character set except the single-quote ', backslash \, or new-line character escape-sequence simple-escape-sequence octal-escape-sequence hexadecimal-escape-sequence \' \" \? \\ \a \b \f \n \r \t \v \ octal-digit \ octal-digit octal-digit \ octal-digit octal-digit octal-digit \x hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-escape-sequence hexadecimal-digitA.1.1.5 String literals " s-char-sequence<opt>" L" s-char-sequence<opt>" s-char s-char-sequence s-char any member of the source character set except the double-quote ", backslash \, or new-line character escape-sequenceA.1.1.6 Operators [ ] ( ) . -> ++ -- & * + - ~ ! sizeof / % << >> < > <= >= == != ^ | && || ? : = *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |= , # ##A.1.1.7 Punctuators [ ] ( ) { } * , : = ; ... #A.1.1.8 Header names < h-char-sequence> " q-char-sequence" h-char h-char-sequence h-char any member of the source character set except the new-line character and > q-char q-char-sequence q-char any member of the source character set except the new-line character and "A.1.1.9 Preprocessing numbers digit . digit pp-number digit pp-number nondigit pp-number e sign pp-number E sign pp-number .A.1.2 Phrase structure grammarA.1.2.1 Expressions identifier constant string-literal ( expression ) primary-expression postfix-expression [ expression ] postfix-expression ( argument-expression-list<opt> ) postfix-expression . identifier postfix-expression -> identifier postfix-expression ++ postfix-expression -- assignment-expression argument-expression-list , assignment-expression postfix-expression ++ unary-expression -- unary-expression unary-operator cast-expression sizeof unary-expression sizeof ( type-name ) & * + - ~ ! unary-expression ( type-name ) cast-expression cast-expression multiplicative-expression * cast-expression multiplicative-expression / cast-expression multiplicative-expression % cast-expression multiplicative-expression additive-expression + multiplicative-expression additive-expression - multiplicative-expression additive-expression shift-expression << additive-expression shift-expression >> additive-expression shift-expression relational-expression < shift-expression relational-expression > shift-expression relational-expression <= shift-expression relational-expression >= shift-expression relational-expression equality-expression == relational-expression equality-expression != relational-expression equality-expression AND-expression & equality-expression AND-expression exclusive-OR-expression ^ AND-expression exclusive-OR-expression inclusive-OR-expression | exclusive-OR-expression inclusive-OR-expression logical-AND-expression && inclusive-OR-expression logical-AND-expression logical-OR-expression || logical-AND-expression logical-OR-expression logical-OR-expression ? expression : conditional-expression conditional-expression unary-expression assignment-operator assignment-expression = *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |= assignment-expression expression , assignment-expression conditional-expressionA.1.2.2 Declarations declaration-specifiers init-declarator-list<opt> ; storage-class-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt> type-specifier declaration-specifiers<opt> type-qualifier declaration-specifiers<opt> init-declarator init-declarator-list , init-declarator declarator declarator = initializer typedef extern static auto register void char short int long float double signed unsigned struct-or-union-specifier enum-specifier typedef-name struct-or-union identifier<opt> { struct-declaration-list } struct-or-union identifier struct union struct-declaration struct-declaration-list struct-declaration specifier-qualifier-list struct-declarator-list ; type-specifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt> type-qualifier specifier-qualifier-list<opt> struct-declarator struct-declarator-list , struct-declarator declarator declarator<opt> : constant-expression enum identifier<opt> { enumerator-list } enum identifier enumerator enumerator-list , enumerator enumeration-constant enumeration-constant = constant-expression const volatile pointer<opt> direct-declarator identifier ( declarator ) direct-declarator [ constant-expression<opt> ] direct-declarator ( parameter-type-list ) direct-declarator ( identifier-list<opt> ) * type-qualifier-list<opt> * type-qualifier-list<opt> pointer type-qualifier type-qualifier-list type-qualifier parameter-list parameter-list , ... parameter-declaration parameter-list , parameter-declaration declaration-specifiers declarator declaration-specifiers abstract-declarator<opt> identifier identifier-list , identifier specifier-qualifier-list abstract-declarator<opt> pointer pointer<opt> direct-abstract-declarator ( abstract-declarator ) direct-abstract-declarator<opt> [ constant-expression<opt> ] direct-abstract-declarator<opt> ( parameter-type-list<opt> ) identifier assignment-expression { initializer-list } { initializer-list , } initializer initializer-list , initializerA.1.2.3 Statements labeled-statement compound-statement expression-statement selection-statement iteration-statement jump-statement identifier : statement case constant-expression : statement default : statement { declaration-list<opt> statement-list<opt> } declaration declaration-list declaration statement statement-list statement expression<opt> ; if ( expression ) statement if ( expression ) statement else statement switch ( expression ) statement while ( expression ) statement do statement while ( expression ) ; for ( expression<opt> ; expression<opt> ; expression<opt> ) statement goto identifier ; continue ; break ; return expression<opt> ;A.1.2.4 External definitions external-declaration translation-unit external-declaration function-definition declaration declaration-specifiers<opt> declarator declaration-list<opt> compound-statementA.1.3 Preprocessing directives group<opt> group-part group group-part pp-tokens<opt> new-line if-section control-line if-group elif-groups<opt> else-group<opt> endif-line # if constant-expression new-line group<opt> # ifdef identifier new-line group<opt> # ifndef identifier new-line group<opt> elif-group elif-groups elif-group # elif constant-expression new-line group<opt> # else new-line group<opt> # endif new-line control-line: the left-parenthesis character without preceding white space pp-tokens<opt> preprocessing-token pp-tokens preprocessing-token the new-line characterA.2 SEQUENCE POINTS The following are the sequence points described in $2.1.2.3. * The call to a function, after the arguments have been evaluated ($3.3.2.2). * The end of the first operand of the following operators: logical AND && ($3.3.13); logical OR || ($3.3.14); conditional ? ($3.3.15); comma , ($3.3.17). * The end of a full expression: an initializer ($3.5.7); the expression in an expression statement ($3.6.3); the controlling expression of a selection statement ( if or switch ) ($3.6.4); the controlling expression of a while or do statement ($3.6.5); the three expressions of a for statement ($3.6.5.3); the expression in a return statement ($3.6.6.4).A.3 LIBRARY SUMMARYA.3.1 ERRORS <errno.h> EDOM ERANGE errnoA.3.2 COMMON DEFINITIONS <stddef.h> NULL offsetof( type, member-designator) ptrdiff_t size_t wchar_tA.3.3 DIAGNOSTICS <assert.h> NDEBUG void assert(int expression);A.3.4 CHARACTER HANDLING <ctype.h> int isalnum(int c); int isalpha(int c); int iscntrl(int c); int isdigit(int c); int isgraph(int c); int islower(int c); int isprint(int c); int ispunct(int c); int isspace(int c); int isupper(int c); int isxdigit(int c); int tolower(int c); int toupper(int c);A.3.5 LOCALIZATION <locale.h> LC_ALL LC_COLLATE LC_CTYPE LC_MONETARY LC_NUMERIC LC_TIME NULL struct lconv char *setlocale(int category, const char *locale); struct lconv *localeconv(void);A.3.6 MATHEMATICS <math.h> HUGE_VAL double acos(double x); double asin(double x); double atan(double x); double atan2(double y, double x); double cos(double x); double sin(double x); double tan(double x); double cosh(double x); double sinh(double x); double tanh(double x); double exp(double x); double frexp(double value, int *exp); double ldexp(double x, int exp); double log(double x); double log10(double x); double modf(double value, double *iptr); double pow(double x, double y); double sqrt(double x); double ceil(double x); double fabs(double x); double floor(double x); double fmod(double x, double y);A.3.7 NON-LOCAL JUMPS <setjmp.h> jmp_buf int setjmp(jmp_buf env); void longjmp(jmp_buf env, int val);A.3.8 SIGNAL HANDLING <signal.h> sig_atomic_t SIG_DFL SIG_ERR SIG_IGN SIGABRT SIGFPE SIGILL SIGINT SIGSEGV SIGTERM void (*signal(int sig, void (*func)(int)))(int); int raise(int sig);A.3.9 VARIABLE ARGUMENTS <stdarg.h> va_list void va_start(va_list ap, parmN); type va_arg(va_list ap, type); void va_end(va_list ap);A.3.10 INPUT/OUTPUT <stdio.h> _IOFBF _IOLBF _IONBF BUFSIZ EOF FILE FILENAME_MAX FOPEN_MAX fpos_t L_tmpnam NULL SEEK_CUR SEEK_END SEEK_SET size_t stderr stdin stdout TMP_MAX int remove(const char *filename); int rename(const char *old, const char *new); FILE *tmpfile(void); char *tmpnam(char *s); int fclose(FILE *stream); int fflush(FILE *stream); FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode); FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode, FILE *stream); void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf); int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size); int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...); int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...); int printf(const char *format, ...); int scanf(const char *format, ...); int sprintf(char *s, const char *format, ...); int sscanf(const char *s, const char *format, ...); int vfprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, va_list arg); int vprintf(const char *format, va_list arg); int vsprintf(char *s, const char *format, va_list arg); int fgetc(FILE *stream); char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream); int fputc(int c, FILE *stream); int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream); int getc(FILE *stream); int getchar(void); char *gets(char *s); int putc(int c, FILE *stream); int putchar(int c); int puts(const char *s); int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream); size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream); size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream); int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos); int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence); int fsetpos(FILE *stream, const fpos_t *pos); long int ftell(FILE *stream); void rewind(FILE *stream); void clearerr(FILE *stream); int feof(FILE *stream); int ferror(FILE *stream); void perror(const char *s);A.3.11 GENERAL UTILITIES <stdlib.h> EXIT_FAILURE EXIT_SUCCESS MB_CUR_MAX NULL RAND_MAX div_t ldiv_t size_t wchar_t double atof(const char *nptr); int atoi(const char *nptr); long int atol(const char *nptr); double strtod(const char *nptr, char **endptr); long int strtol(const char *nptr, char **endptr, int base); unsigned long int strtoul(const char *nptr, char **endptr, int base); int rand(void); void srand(unsigned int seed); void *calloc(size_t nmemb, size_t size); void free(void *ptr); void *malloc(size_t size); void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t size); void abort(void); int atexit(void (*func)(void)); void exit(int status); char *getenv(const char *name); int system(const char *string); void *bsearch(const void *key, const void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size, int (*compar)(const void *, const void *)); void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size, int (*compar)(const void *, const void *)); int abs(int j); div_t div(int numer, int denom); long int labs(long int j); ldiv_t ldiv(long int numer, long int denom); int mblen(const char *s, size_t n); int mbtowc(wchar_t *pwc, const char *s, size_t n); int wctomb(char *s, wchar_t wchar); size_t mbstowcs(wchar_t *pwcs, const char *s, size_t n); size_t wcstombs(char *s, const wchar_t *pwcs, size_t n);A.3.12 STRING HANDLING <string.h> NULL size_t void *memcpy(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n); void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n); char *strcpy(char *s1, const char *s2); char *strncpy(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n); char *strcat(char *s1, const char *s2); char *strncat(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n); int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n); int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2); int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2); int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n); size_t strxfrm(char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n); void *memchr(const void *s, int c, size_t n); char *strchr(const char *s, int c); size_t strcspn(const char *s1, const char *s2); char *strpbrk(const char *s1, const char *s2); char *strrchr(const char *s, int c); size_t strspn(const char *s1, const char *s2); char *strstr(const char *s1, const char *s2); char *strtok(char *s1, const char *s2); void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n); char *strerror(int errnum); size_t strlen(const char *s);A.3.13 DATE AND TIME <time.h> CLK_TCK NULL clock_t time_t size_t struct tm clock_t clock(void); double difftime(time_t time1, time_t time0); time_t mktime(struct tm *timeptr); time_t time(time_t *timer); char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr); char *ctime(const time_t *timer); struct tm *gmtime(const time_t *timer); struct tm *localtime(const time_t *timer); size_t strftime(char *s, size_t maxsize, const char *format, const struct tm *timeptr);A.4 IMPLEMENTATION LIMITS The contents of a header <limits.h> are given below, in alphabeticorder. The minimum magnitudes shown shall be replaced byimplementation-defined magnitudes with the same sign. The valuesshall all be constant expressions suitable for use in #ifpreprocessing directives. The components are described further in$2.2.4.2. #define CHAR_BIT 8 #define CHAR_MAX UCHAR_MAX or SCHAR_MAX #define CHAR_MIN 0 or SCHAR_MIN #define MB_LEN_MAX 1 #define INT_MAX +32767 #define INT_MIN -32767 #define LONG_MAX +2147483647 #define LONG_MIN -2147483647 #define SCHAR_MAX +127 #define SCHAR_MIN -127 #define SHRT_MAX +32767 #define SHRT_MIN -32767 #define UCHAR_MAX 255 #define UINT_MAX 65535 #define ULONG_MAX 4294967295 #define USHRT_MAX 65535 The contents of a header <float.h> are given below, in alphabeticorder. The value of FLT_RADIX shall be a constant expression suitablefor use in #if preprocessing directives. Values that need not beconstant expressions shall be supplied for all other components. Theminimum magnitudes shown for integers and exponents shall be replacedby implementation-defined magnitudes with the same sign. Thecomponents are described further in $2.2.4.2. #define DBL_DIG 10 #define DBL_EPSILON 1E-9 #define DBL_MANT_DIG #define DBL_MAX 1E+37 #define DBL_MAX_10_EXP +37 #define DBL_MAX_EXP #define DBL_MIN 1E-37 #define DBL_MIN_10_EXP -37 #define DBL_MIN_EXP #define FLT_DIG 6 #define FLT_EPSILON 1E-5 #define FLT_MANT_DIG #define FLT_MAX 1E+37 #define FLT_MAX_10_EXP +37 #define FLT_MAX_EXP #define FLT_MIN 1E-37 #define FLT_MIN_10_EXP -37 #define FLT_MIN_EXP #define FLT_RADIX 2 #define FLT_ROUNDS #define LDBL_DIG 10 #define LDBL_EPSILON 1E-9 #define LDBL_MANT_DIG #define LDBL_MAX 1E+37 #define LDBL_MAX_10_EXP +37 #define LDBL_MAX_EXP #define LDBL_MIN 1E-37 #define LDBL_MIN_10_EXP -37 #define LDBL_MIN_EXPA.5 COMMON WARNINGS An implementation may generate warnings in many situations, none ofwhich is specified as part of the Standard. The following are a fewof the more common situations. * A block with initialization of an object that has automatic storage duration is jumped into ($3.1.2.4). * An integer character constant includes more than one character or a wide character constant includes more than one multibyte character ($3.1.3.4). * The characters /* are found in a comment ($3.1.7). * An implicit narrowing conversion is encountered, such as the assignment of a long int or a double to an int , or a pointer to void to a pointer to any type of object other than char ($3.2). * An ``unordered'' binary operator (not comma, && or || ) contains a side-effect to an lvalue in one operand, and a side-effect to, or an access to the value of, the identical lvalue in the other operand ($3.3). * A function is called but no prototype has been supplied ($3.3.2.2). * The arguments in a function call do not agree in number and type with those of the parameters in a function definition that is not a prototype ($3.3.2.2). * An object is defined but not used ($3.5). * A value is given to an object of an enumeration type other than by assignment of an enumeration constant that is a member of that type, or an enumeration variable that has the same type, or the value of a function that returns the same enumeration type ($3.5.2.2). * An aggregate has a partly bracketed initialization ($3.5.7). * A statement cannot be reached ($3.6). * A statement with no apparent effect is encountered ($3.6). * A constant expression is used as the controlling expression of a selection statement ($3.6.4). * A function has return statements with and without expressions ($3.6.6.4). * An incorrectly formed preprocessing group is encountered while skipping a preprocessing group ($3.8.1). * An unrecognized #pragma directive is encountered ($3.8.6). A.6 PORTABILITY ISSUES This appendix collects some information about portability thatappears in the Standard.A.6.1 Unspecified behavior The following are unspecified: * The manner and timing of static initialization ($2.1.2). * The behavior if a printable character is written when the active position is at the final position of a line ($2.2.2). * The behavior if a backspace character is written when the active position is at the initial position of a line ($2.2.2). * The behavior if a horizontal tab character is written when the active position is at or past the last defined horizontal tabulation position ($2.2.2). * The behavior if a vertical tab character is written when the active position is at or past the last defined vertical tabulation position ($2.2.2). * The representations of floating types ($3.1.2.5). * The order in which expressions are evaluated --- in any order conforming to the precedence rules, even in the presence of parentheses ($3.3). * The order in which side effects take place ($3.3). * The order in which the function designator and the arguments in a function call are evaluated ($3.3.2.2). * The alignment of the addressable storage unit allocated to hold a bit-field ($3.5.2.1). * The layout of storage for parameters ($3.7.1). * The order in which # and ## operations are evaluated during macro substitution ($3.8.3.3). * Whether errno is a macro or an external identifier ($4.1.3). * Whether setjmp is a macro or an external identifier ($4.6.1.1). * Whether va_end is a macro or an external identifier ($4.8.1.3). * The value of the file position indicator after a successful call to the ungetc function for a text stream, until all pushed-back characters are read or discarded ($4.9.7.11). * The details of the value stored by the fgetpos function on success ($4.9.9.1). * The details of the value returned by the ftell function for a text stream on success ($4.9.9.4). * The order and contiguity of storage allocated by the calloc , malloc , and realloc functions ($4.10.3). * Which of two members that compare as equal is returned by the bsearch function ($4.10.5.1). * The order in an array sorted by the qsort function of two members that compare as equal ($4.10.5.2). * The encoding of the calendar time returned by the time function ($4.12.2.3).A.6.2 Undefined behavior The behavior in the following circumstances is undefined: * A nonempty source file does not end in a new-line character, ends in new-line character immediately preceded by a backslash character, or ends in a partial preprocessing token or comment ($2.1.1.2). * A character not in the required character set is encountered in a source file, except in a preprocessing token that is never converted to a token, a character constant, a string literal, or a comment ($2.2.1). * A comment, string literal, character constant, or header name contains an invalid multibyte character or does not begin and end in the initial shift state ($2.2.1.2). * An unmatched ' or character is encountered on a logical source line during tokenization ($3.1). * The same identifier is used more than once as a label in the same function ($3.1.2.1). * An identifier is used that is not visible in the current scope ($3.1.2.1). * Identifiers that are intended to denote the same entity differ in a character beyond the minimal significant characters ($3.1.2). * The same identifier has both internal and external linkage in the same translation unit ($3.1.2.2). * An identifier with external linkage is used but there does not exist exactly one external definition in the program for the identifier ($3.1.2.2). * The value stored in a pointer that referred to an object with automatic storage duration is used ($3.1.2.4). * Two declarations of the same object or function specify types that are not compatible ($3.1.2.6). * An unspecified escape sequence is encountered in a character constant or a string literal ($3.1.3.4). * An attempt is made to modify a string literal of either form ($3.1.4). * A character string literal token is adjacent to a wide string literal token ($3.1.4). * The characters ', \ , , or /* are encountered between the < and > delimiters or the characters ', \ , or /* are encountered between the delimiters in the two forms of a header name preprocessing token ($3.1.7). * An arithmetic conversion produces a result that cannot be represented in the space provided ($3.2.1). * An lvalue with an incomplete type is used in a context that requires the value of the designated object ($3.2.2.1). * The value of a void expression is used or an implicit conversion (except to void ) is applied to a void expression ($3.2.2.2). * An object is modified more than once, or is modified and accessed other than to determine the new value, between two sequence points ($3.3). * An arithmetic operation is invalid (such as division or modulus by 0) or produces a result that cannot be represented in the space provided (such as overflow or underflow) ($3.3). * An object has its stored value accessed by an lvalue that does not have one of the following types: the declared type of the object, a qualified version of the declared type of the object, the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the declared type of the object, the signed or unsigned type corresponding to a qualified version of the declared type of the object, an aggregate or union type that (recursively) includes one of the aforementioned types among its members, or a character type ($3.3). * An argument to a function is a void expression ($3.3.2.2). * For a function call without a function prototype, the number of arguments does not agree with the number of parameters ($3.3.2.2). * For a function call without a function prototype, if the function is defined without a function prototype, and the types of the arguments after promotion do not agree with those of the parameters after promotion ($3.3.2.2). * If a function is called with a function prototype and the function is not defined with a compatible type ($3.3.2.2). * A function that accepts a variable number of arguments is called without a function prototype that ends with an ellipsis ($3.3.2.2). * An invalid array reference, null pointer reference, or reference to an object declared with automatic storage duration in a terminated block occurs ($3.3.3.2). * A pointer to a function is converted to point to a function of a different type and used to call a function of a type not compatible with the original type ($3.3.4). * A pointer to a function is converted to a pointer to an object or a pointer to an object is converted to a pointer to a function ($3.3.4). * A pointer is converted to other than an integral or pointer type ($3.3.4). * A pointer that is not to a member of an array object is added to or subtracted from ($3.3.6). * Pointers that are not to the same array object are subtracted ($3.3.6). * An expression is shifted by a negative number or by an amount greater than or equal to the width in bits of the expression being shifted ($3.3.7). * Pointers are compared using a relational operator that do not point to the same aggregate or union ($3.3.8). * An object is assigned to an overlapping object ($3.3.16.1). * An identifier for an object is declared with no linkage and the type of the object is incomplete after its declarator, or after its init-declarator if it has an initializer ($3.5). * A function is declared at block scope with a storage-class specifier other than extern ($3.5.1). * A bit-field is declared with a type other than int , signed int , or unsigned int ($3.5.2.1). * An attempt is made to modify an object with const-qualified type by means of an lvalue with non-const-qualified type ($3.5.3). * An attempt is made to refer to an object with volatile-qualified type by means of an lvalue with non-volatile-qualified type ($3.5.3). * The value of an uninitialized object that has automatic storage duration is used before a value is assigned ($3.5.7). * An object with aggregate or union type with static storage duration has a non-brace-enclosed initializer, or an object with aggregate or union type with automatic storage duration has either a single expression initializer with a type other than that of the object or a non-brace-enclosed initializer ($3.5.7). * The value of a function is used, but no value was returned ($3.6.6.4). * A function that accepts a variable number of arguments is defined without a parameter type list that ends with the ellipsis notation ($3.7.1). * An identifier for an object with internal linkage and an incomplete type is declared with a tentative definition ($3.7.2). * The token defined is generated during the expansion of a #if or #elif preprocessing directive ($3.8.1). * The #include preprocessing directive that results after expansion does not match one of the two header name forms ($3.8.2). * A macro argument consists of no preprocessing tokens ($3.8.3). * There are sequences of preprocessing tokens within the list of macro arguments that would otherwise act as preprocessing directive lines ($3.8.3). * The result of the preprocessing concatenation operator ## is not a valid preprocessing token ($3.8.3). * The #line preprocessing directive that results after expansion does not match one of the two well-defined forms ($3.8.4). * One of the following identifiers is the subject of a #define or #undef preprocessing directive: defined , __LINE__ , __FILE__ , __DATE__ , __TIME__ , or __STDC__ ($3.8.8). * An attempt is made to copy an object to an overlapping object by use of a library function other than memmove ($4.). * The effect if the program redefines a reserved external identifier ($4.1.2). * The effect if a standard header is included within an external definition; is included for the first time after the first reference to any of the functions or objects it declares, or to any of the types or macros it defines; or is included while a macro is defined with a name the same as a keyword ($4.1.2). * A macro definition of errno is suppressed to obtain access to an actual object ($4.1.3). * The parameter member-designator of an offsetof macro is an invalid right operand of the . operator for the type parameter or designates bit-field member of a structure ($4.1.5). * A library function argument has an invalid value, unless the behavior is specified explicitly ($4.1.6). * A library function that accepts a variable number of arguments is not declared ($4.1.6). * The macro definition of assert is suppressed to obtain access to an actual function ($4.2). * The argument to a character handling function is out of the domain ($4.3). * A macro definition of setjmp is suppressed to obtain access to an actual function ($4.6). * An invocation of the setjmp macro occurs in a context other than as the controlling expression in a selection or iteration statement, or in a comparison with an integral constant expression (possibly as implied by the unary ! operator) as the controlling expression of a selection or iteration statement, or as an expression statement (possibly cast to void ) ($4.6.1.1). * An object of automatic storage class that does not have volatile-qualified type has been changed between a setjmp invocation and a longjmp call and then has its value accessed ($4.6.2.1). * The longjmp function is invoked from a nested signal routine ($4.6.2.1). * A signal occurs other than as the result of calling the abort or raise function, and the signal handler calls any function in the standard library other than the signal function itself or refers to any object with static storage duration other than by assigning a value to a static storage duration variable of type volatile sig_atomic_t ($4.7.1.1). * The value of errno is referred to after a signal occurs other than as the result of calling the abort or raise function and the corresponding signal handler calls the signal function such that it returns the value SIG_ERR ($4.7.1.1). * The macro va_arg is invoked with the parameter ap that was passed to a function that invoked the macro va_arg with the same parameter ($4.8). * A macro definition of va_start , va_arg , or va_end or a combination thereof is suppressed to obtain access to an actual function ($4.8.1). * The parameter parmN of a va_start macro is declared with the register storage class, or with a function or array type, or with a type that is not compatible with the type that results after application of the default argument promotions ($4.8.1.1). * There is no actual next argument for a va_arg macro invocation ($4.8.1.2). * The type of the actual next argument in a variable argument list disagrees with the type specified by the va_arg macro ($4.8.1.2). * The va_end macro is invoked without a corresponding invocation of the va_start macro ($4.8.1.3). * A return occurs from a function with a variable argument list initialized by the va_start macro before the va_end macro is invoked ($4.8.1.3). * The stream for the fflush function points to an input stream or to an update stream in which the most recent operation was input ($4.9.5.2). * An output operation on an update stream is followed by an input operation without an intervening call to the fflush function or a file positioning function, or an input operation on an update stream is followed by an output operation without an intervening call to a file positioning function ($4.9.5.3). * The format for the fprintf or fscanf function does not match the argument list ($4.9.6). * An invalid conversion specification is found in the format for the fprintf or fscanf function ($4.9.6). * A %% conversion specification for the fprintf or fscanf function contains characters between the pair of % characters ($4.9.6). * A conversion specification for the fprintf function contains an h or l with a conversion specifier other than d , i , n , o , u , x , or X , or an L with a conversion specifier other than e , E , f , g , or G ($4.9.6.1). * A conversion specification for the fprintf function contains a # flag with a conversion specifier other than o , x , X , e , E , f , g, or G ($4.9.6.1). * A conversion specification for the fprintf function contains a 0 flag with a conversion specifier other than d , i , o , u , x , X , e, E , f , g , or G ($4.9.6.1). * An aggregate or union, or a pointer to an aggregate or union is an argument to the fprintf function, except for the conversion specifiers %s (for an array of character type) or %p (for a pointer to void ) ($4.9.6.1). * A single conversion by the fprintf function produces more than 509 characters of output ($4.9.6.1). * A conversion specification for the fscanf function contains an h or l with a conversion specifier other than d , i , n , o , u , or x , or an L with a conversion specifier other than e , f , or g ($4.9.6.2). * A pointer value printed by %p conversion by the fprintf function during a previous program execution is the argument for %p conversion by the fscanf function ($4.9.6.2). * The result of a conversion by the fscanf function cannot be represented in the space provided, or the receiving object does not have an appropriate type ($4.9.6.2). * The result of converting a string to a number by the atof , atoi , or atol function cannot be represented ($4.10.1). * The value of a pointer that refers to space deallocated by a call to the free or realloc function is referred to ($4.10.3). * The pointer argument to the free or realloc function does not match a pointer earlier returned by calloc , malloc , or realloc , or the object pointed to has been deallocated by a call to free or realloc ($4.10.3). * A program executes more than one call to the exit function ($4.10.4.3). * The result of an integer arithmetic function ( abs , div , labs , or ldiv ) cannot be represented ($4.10.6). * The shift states for the mblen , mbtowc , and wctomb functions are not explicitly reset to the initial state when the LC_CTYPE category of the current locale is changed ($4.10.7). * An array written to by a copying or concatenation function is too small ($4.11.2, $4.11.3). * An invalid conversion specification is found in the format for the strftime function ($4.12.3.5).A.6.3 Implementation-defined behavior Each implementation shall document its behavior in each of theareas listed in this section. The following areimplementation-defined:A.6.3.1 Environment * The semantics of the arguments to main ($2.1.2.2). * What constitutes an interactive device ($2.1.2.3). A.6.3.2 Identifiers * The number of significant initial characters (beyond 31) in an identifier without external linkage ($3.1.2). * The number of significant initial characters (beyond 6) in an identifier with external linkage ($3.1.2). * Whether case distinctions are significant in an identifier with external linkage ($3.1.2).A.6.3.3 Characters * The members of the source and execution character sets, except as explicitly specified in the Standard ($2.2.1). * The shift states used for the encoding of multibyte characters $2.2.1.2). * The number of bits in a character in the execution character set ($2.2.4.2). * The mapping of members of the source character set (in character constants and string literals) to members of the execution character set ($3.1.3.4). * The value of an integer character constant that contains a character or escape sequence not represented in the basic execution character set or the extended character set for a wide character constant ($3.1.3.4). * The value of an integer character constant that contains more than one character or a wide character constant that contains more than one multibyte character ($3.1.3.4). * The current locale used to convert multibyte characters into corresponding wide characters (codes) for a wide character constant ($3.1.3.4). * Whether a ``plain'' char has the same range of values as signed char or unsigned char ($3.2.1.1).A.6.3.4 Integers * The representations and sets of values of the various types of integers ($3.1.2.5). * The result of converting an integer to a shorter signed integer, or the result of converting an unsigned integer to a signed integer of equal length, if the value cannot be represented ($3.2.1.2). * The results of bitwise operations on signed integers ($3.3). * The sign of the remainder on integer division ($3.3.5). * The result of a right shift of a negative-valued signed integral type ($3.3.7).A.6.3.5 Floating point * The representations and sets of values of the various types of floating-point numbers ($3.1.2.5). * The direction of truncation when an integral number is converted to a floating-point number that cannot exactly represent the original value ($3.2.1.3). * The direction of truncation or rounding when a floating-point number is converted to a narrower floating-point number ($3.2.1.4).A.6.3.6 Arrays and pointers * The type of integer required to hold the maximum size of an array --- that is, the type of the sizeof operator, size_t ($3.3.3.4, $4.1.1). * The result of casting a pointer to an integer or vice versa ($3.3.4). * The type of integer required to hold the difference between two pointers to members of the same array, ptrdiff_t ($3.3.6, $4.1.1).A.6.3.7 Registers * The extent to which objects can actually be placed in registers by use of the register storage-class specifier ($3.5.1).A.6.3.8 Structures, unions, enumerations, and bit-fields * A member of a union object is accessed using a member of a different type ($3.3.2.3). * The padding and alignment of members of structures ($3.5.2.1). This should present no problem unless binary data written by one implementation are read by another. * Whether a ``plain'' int bit-field is treated as a signed int bit-field or as an unsigned int bit-field ($3.5.2.1). * The order of allocation of bit-fields within an int ($3.5.2.1). * Whether a bit-field can straddle a storage-unit boundary ($3.5.2.1). * The integer type chosen to represent the values of an enumeration type ($3.5.2.2).A.6.3.9 Qualifiers * What constitutes an access to an object that has volatile-qualified type ($3.5.5.3).A.6.3.10 Declarators * The maximum number of declarators that may modify an arithmetic, structure, or union type ($3.5.4).A.6.3.11 Statements * The maximum number of case values in a switch statement ($3.6.4.2). A.6.3.12 Preprocessing directives * Whether the value of a single-character character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion matches the value of the same character constant in the execution character set. Whether such a character constant may have a negative value ($3.8.1). * The method for locating includable source files ($3.8.2). * The support of quoted names for includable source files ($3.8.2). * The mapping of source file character sequences ($3.8.2). * The behavior on each recognized #pragma directive ($3.8.6). * The definitions for __DATE__ and __TIME__ when respectively, the date and time of translation are not available ($3.8.8).A.6.3.13 Library functions * The null pointer constant to which the macro NULL expands ($4.1.5). * The diagnostic printed by and the termination behavior of the assert function ($4.2). * The sets of characters tested for by the isalnum , isalpha , iscntrl , islower , isprint , and isupper functions ($4.3.1). * The values returned by the mathematics functions on domain errors ($4.5.1). * Whether the mathematics functions set the integer expression errno to the value of the macro ERANGE on underflow range errors ($4.5.1). * Whether a domain error occurs or zero is returned when the fmod function has a second argument of zero ($4.5.6.4). * The set of signals for the signal function ($4.7.1.1). * The semantics for each signal recognized by the signal function ($4.7.1.1). * The default handling and the handling at program startup for each signal recognized by the signal function ($4.7.1.1). * If the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is not executed prior to the call of a signal handler, the blocking of the signal that is performed ($4.7.1.1). * Whether the default handling is reset if the SIGILL signal is received by a handler specified to the signal function ($4.7.1.1). * Whether the last line of a text stream requires a terminating new-line character ($4.9.2). * Whether space characters that are written out to a text stream immediately before a new-line character appear when read in ($4.9.2). * The number of null characters that may be appended to data written to a binary stream ($4.9.2). * Whether the file position indicator of an append mode stream is initially positioned at the beginning or end of the file ($4.9.3). * Whether a write on a text stream causes the associated file to be truncated beyond that point ($4.9.3). * The characteristics of file buffering ($4.9.3). * Whether a zero-length file actually exists ($4.9.3). * The rules for composing valid file names ($4.9.3). * Whether the same file can be open multiple times ($4.9.3). * The effect of the remove function on an open file ($4.9.4.1). * The effect if a file with the new name exists prior to a call to the rename function ($4.9.4.2). * The output for %p conversion in the fprintf function ($4.9.6.1). * The input for %p conversion in the fscanf function ($4.9.6.2). * The interpretation of a - character that is neither the first nor the last character in the scanlist for %[ conversion in the fscanf function ($4.9.6.2). * The value to which the macro errno is set by the fgetpos or ftell function on failure ($4.9.9.1, $4.9.9.4). * The messages generated by the perror function ($4.9.10.4). * The behavior of the calloc , malloc , or realloc function if the size requested is zero ($4.10.3). * The behavior of the abort function with regard to open and temporary files ($4.10.4.1). * The status returned by the exit function if the value of the argument is other than zero, EXIT_SUCCESS , or EXIT_FAILURE ($4.10.4.3). * The set of environment names and the method for altering the environment list used by the getenv function ($4.10.4.4). * The contents and mode of execution of the string by the system function ($4.10.4.5). * The contents of the error message strings returned by the strerror function ($4.11.6.2). * The local time zone and Daylight Saving Time ($4.12.1). * The era for the clock function ($4.12.2.1). A.6.4 Locale-specific Behavior The following characteristics of a hosted environment are locale-specific: * The content of the execution character set, in addition to the required members ($2.2.1). * The direction of printing ($2.2.2). * The decimal-point character ($4.1.1). * The implementation-defined aspects of character testing and case mapping functions ($4.3). * The collation sequence of the execution character set ($4.11.4.4). * The formats for time and date ($4.12.3.5). A.6.5 Common extensions The following extensions are widely used in many systems, but arenot portable to all implementations. The inclusion of any extensionthat may cause a strictly conforming program to become invalid rendersan implementation nonconforming. Examples of such extensions are newkeywords, or library functions declared in standard headers orpredefined macros with names that do not begin with an underscore.A.6.5.1 Environment arguments In a hosted environment, the main function receives a thirdargument, char *envp[] , that points to a null-terminated array ofpointers to char , each of which points to a string that providesinformation about the environment for this execution of the process($2.1.2.2).A.6.5.2 Specialized identifiers Characters other than the underscore _ , letters, and digits, thatare not defined in the required source character set (such as thedollar sign $ , or characters in national character sets) may appearin an identifier ($3.1.2).A.6.5.3 Lengths and cases of identifiers All characters in identifiers (with or without external linkage)are significant and case distinctions are observed ($3.1.2).A.6.5.4 Scopes of identifiers A function identifier, or the identifier of an object thedeclaration of which contains the keyword extern , has file scope($3.1.2.1).A.6.5.5 Writable string literals String literals are modifiable. Identical string literals shall bedistinct ($3.1.4).A.6.5.6 Other arithmetic types Other arithmetic types, such as long long int , and theirappropriate conversions are defined ($3.2.2.1).A.6.5.7 Function pointer casts A pointer to an object or to void may be cast to a pointer to afunction, allowing data to be invoked as a function ($3.3.4). Apointer to a function may be cast to a pointer to an object or to void, allowing a function to be inspected or modified (for example, by adebugger) ($3.3.4).A.6.5.8 Non-int bit-field types Types other than int , unsigned int , or signed int can be declaredas bit-fields, with appropriate maximum widths ($3.5.2.1).A.6.5.9 The fortran keyword The fortran type specifier may be used in a function declaration toindicate that function linkage suitable for FORTRAN is to begenerated, or that different representations for external names are tobe generated ($3.5.4.3).A.6.5.10 The asm keyword The asm keyword may be used to insert assembly-language codedirectly into the translator output. The most common implementationis via a statement of the form asm ( character-string-literal );($3.6). A.6.5.11 Multiple external definitions There may be more than one external definition for the identifierof an object, with or without the explicit use of the keyword extern ,If the definitions disagree, or more than one is initialized, thebehavior is undefined ($3.7.2).A.6.5.12 Empty macro arguments A macro argument may consist of no preprocessing tokens ($3.8.3). A.6.5.13 Predefined macro names Macro names that do not begin with an underscore, describing thetranslation and execution environments, may be defined by theimplementation before translation begins ($3.8.8).A.6.5.14 Extra arguments for signal handlers Handlers for specific signals may be called with extra arguments inaddition to the signal number ($4.7.1.1).A.6.5.15 Additional stream types and file-opening modes Additional mappings from files to streams may be supported($4.9.2), and additional file-opening modes may be specified bycharacters appended to the mode argument of the fopen function($4.9.5.3).A.6.5.16 Defined file position indicator The file position indicator is decremented by each successful callto the ungetc function for a text stream, except if its value was zerobefore a call ($4.9.7.11).A.7 INDEX Only major references are listed.absolute-value functions, 4.5.6.2, 4.10.6.1abstract declarator, type name, 3.5.5abstract machine, 2.1.2.3abstract semantics, 2.1.2.3active position, 2.2.2addition assignment operator, +=, 3.3.16.2addition operator, +, 3.3.6additive expressions, 3.3.6address operator, &, 3.3.3.2aggregate type, 3.1.2.5alert escape sequence, \a, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4alignment, definition of, 1.6alignment of structure members, 3.5.2.1AND operator, bitwise, &, 3.3.10AND operator, logical, &&, 3.3.13argument, function, 3.3.2.2argument, 1.6argument promotion, default, 3.3.2.2arithmetic conversions, usual, 3.2.1.5arithmetic operators, unary, 3.3.3.3arithmetic type, 3.1.2.5array declarator, 3.5.4.2array parameter, 3.7.1array subscript operator, [ ], 3.3.2.1array type, 3.1.2.5array type conversion, 3.2.2.1arrow operator, ->, 3.3.2.3ASCII character set, 2.2.1.1assignment operators, 3.3.16asterisk punctuator, *, 3.1.6, 3.5.4.1automatic storage, reentrancy, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3automatic storage duration, 3.1.2.4backslash character, \, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1backspace escape sequence, \b, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4base documents, 1.5basic character set, 1.6, 2.2.1basic type, 3.1.2.5binary stream, 4.9.2bit, definition of, 1.6bit, high-order, 1.6bit, low-order, 1.6bit-field structure member, 3.5.2.1bitwise operators, 3.3, 3.3.7, 3.3.10, 3.3.11, 3.3.12block, 3.6.2block identifier scope, 3.1.2.1braces punctuator, { }, 3.1.6, 3.5.7, 3.6.2brackets punctuator, [ ], 3.1.6, 3.3.2.1, 3.5.4.2broken-down-time type, 4.12.1byte, definition of, 1.6C program, 2.1.1.1C Standard, definition of terms, 1.6C Standard, organization of document, 1.4C Standard, purpose of, 1.1C Standard, references, 1.3C Standard, scope, restrictions and limits, 1.2carriage-return escape sequence, \r, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4case mapping functions, 4.3.2cast expressions, 3.3.4cast operator, ( ), 3.3.4character, 1.6character case mapping functions, 4.3.2character constant, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1.3.4character display semantics, 2.2.2character handling header, 4.3character input/output functions, 4.9.7character sets, 2.2.1character string literal, 2.1.1.2, 3.1.4character testing functions, 4.3.1character type, 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7character type conversion, 3.2.1.1collating sequence, character set, 2.2.1colon punctuator, :, 3.1.6, 3.5.2.1comma operator, ,, 3.3.17command processor, 4.10.4.5comment delimiters, /* */, 3.1.9comments, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.1.9common initial sequence, 3.3.2.3comparison functions, 4.11.4compatible type, 3.1.2.6, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.4complement operator, ~, 3.3.3.3compliance, 1.7composite type, 3.1.2.6compound assignment operators, 3.3.16.2compound statement, 3.6.2concatenation functions, 4.11.3conceptual models, 2.1conditional inclusion, 3.8.1conditional operator, ? :, 3.3.15conforming freestanding implementation, 1.7conforming hosted implementation, 1.7conforming implementation, 1.7conforming program, 1.7const-qualified type, 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.3constant, character, 3.1.3.4constant, enumeration, 3.1.2, 3.1.3.3constant, floating, 3.1.3.1constant, integer, 3.1.3.2constant, primary expression, 3.3.1constant expressions, 3.4constants, 3.1.3constraints, definition of, 1.6content, structure/union/enumeration, 3.5.2.3contiguity, memory allocation, 4.10.3control characters, 2.2.1, 4.3.1, 4.3.1.3conversion, arithmetic operands, 3.2.1conversion, array, 3.2.2.1conversion, characters and integers, 3.2.1.1conversion, explicit, 3.2conversion, floating and integral, 3.2.1.3conversion, floating types, 3.2.1.4, 3.2.1.5conversion, function, 3.2.2.1conversion, function arguments, 3.3.2.2, 3.7.1conversion, implicit, 3.2conversion, pointer, 3.2.2.1, 3.2.2.3conversion, signed and unsigned integers, 3.2.1.2conversion, void type, 3.2.2.2conversions, 3.2conversions, usual arithmetic, 3.2.1.5copying functions, 4.11.2data streams, 4.9.2date and time header, 4.12decimal constant, 3.1.3.2decimal digits, 2.2.1decimal-point character, 4.1.1declaration specifiers, 3.5declarations, 3.5declarators, 3.5.4declarator type derivation, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.4decrement operator, postfix, --, 3.3.2.4decrement operator, prefix, --, 3.3.3.1default argument promotions, 3.3.2.2definition, 3.5derived declarator types, 3.1.2.5derived types, 3.1.2.5device input/output, 2.1.2.3diagnostics, 2.1.1.3diagnostics, assert.h, 4.2direct input/output functions, 4.9.8display device, 2.2.2division assignment operator, /=, 3.3.16.2division operator, /, 3.3.5documentation of implementation, 1.7domain error, 4.5.1dot operator, ., 3.3.2.3double-precision arithmetic, 2.1.2.3element type, 3.1.2.5ellipsis, unspecified parameters, , ..., 3.5.4.3end-of-file macro, EOF, 4.3, 4.9.1end-of-file indicator, 4.9.1, 4.9.7.1end-of-line indicator, 2.2.1enumerated types, 3.1.2.5enumeration constant, 3.1.2, 3.1.3.3enumeration content, 3.5.2.3enumeration members, 3.5.2.2enumeration specifiers, 3.5.2.2enumeration tag, 3.5.2.3enumerator, 3.5.2.2environment, 2environment functions, 4.10.4environment list, 4.10.4.4environmental considerations, 2.2environmental limits, 2.2.4equal-sign punctuator, =, 3.1.6, 3.5, 3.5.7equal-to operator, ==, 3.3.9equality expressions, 3.3.9error, domain, 4.5.1error, range, 4.5.1error conditions, 4.5.1error handling functions, 4.9.10, 4.11.6.2error indicator, 4.9.1, 4.9.7.1, 4.9.7.3escape sequences, 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4evaluation, 3.1.5, 3.3exception, 3.3exclusive OR assignment operator, ^=, 3.3.16.2exclusive OR operator, ^, 3.3.11executable program, 2.1.1.1execution environment, character sets, 2.2.1execution environment limits, 2.2.4.2execution environments, 2.1.2execution sequence, 2.1.2.3, 3.6explicit conversion, 3.2exponent part, floating constant, 3.1.3.1exponential functions, 4.5.4expression, 3.3expression, full, 3.6expression, primary, 3.3.1expression, unary, 3.3.3expression statement, 3.6.3extended character set, 1.6, 2.2.1.2external definitions, 3.7external identifiers, underscore, 4.1.2external linkage, 3.1.2.2external name, 3.1.2external object definitions, 3.7.2file, closing, 4.9.3file, creating, 4.9.3file, opening, 4.9.3file access functions, 4.9.5file identifier scope, 3.1.2.1, 3.7file name, 4.9.3file operations, 4.9.4file position indicator, 4.9.3file positioning functions, 4.9.9files, 4.9.3floating arithmetic functions, 4.5.6floating constants, 3.1.3.1floating suffix, f or F, 3.1.3.1floating types, 3.1.2.5floating-point numbers, 3.1.2.5form-feed character, 2.2.1, 3.1form-feed escape sequence, \f, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4formatted input/output functions, 4.9.6forward references, definition of, 1.6freestanding execution environment, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.1full expression, 3.6fully buffered stream, 4.9.3function, definition of, 1.6, 3.5.4.3function, recursive call, 3.3.2.2function argument, 3.3.2.2function body, 3.7, 3.7.1function call, 3.3.2.2function call, library, 4.1.6function declarator, 3.5.4.3function definition, 3.5.4.3, 3.7.1function designator, 3.2.2.1function identifier scope, 3.1.2.1function image, 2.2.3function library, 2.1.1.1, 4.1.6function parameter, 2.1.2.2, 3.3.2.2function prototype, 3.1.2.1, 3.3.2.2, 3.5.4.3, 3.7.1function prototype identifier scope, 3.1.2.1function return, 3.6.6.4function type, 3.1.2.5function type conversion, 3.2.2.1function-call operator, ( ), 3.3.2.2future directions, 1.8, 3.9, 4.13future language directions, 3.9future library directions, 4.13general utility library, 4.10graphic characters, 2.2.1greater-than operator, >, 3.3.8greater-than-or-equal-to operator, >=, 3.3.8header names, 3.1, 3.1.7, 3.8.2headers, 4.1.2hexadecimal constant, 3.1.3.2hexadecimal digit, 3.1.3.2, 3.1.3.4hexadecimal escape sequence, 3.1.3.4high-order bit, 1.6horizontal-tab character, 2.2.1, 3.1horizontal-tab escape sequence, \t, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4hosted execution environment, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.2hyperbolic functions, 4.5.3identifier, 3.1.2, 3.3.1identifier, maximum length, 3.1.2identifier, reserved, 4.1.2identifier linkage, 3.1.2.2identifier list, 3.5.4identifier name space, 3.1.2.3identifier scope, 3.1.2.1identifier type, 3.1.2.5IEEE floating-point arithmetic standard, 2.2.4.2implementation, definition of, 1.6implementation limits, 1.6, 2.2.4implementation-defined behavior, 1.6implicit conversion, 3.2implicit function declaration, 3.3.2.2inclusive OR assignment operator, |=, 3.3.16.2inclusive OR operator, |, 3.3.12incomplete type, 3.1.2.5increment operator, postfix, ++, 3.3.2.4increment operator, prefix, ++, 3.3.3.1indirection operator, *, 3.3.3.2inequality operator, !=, 3.3.9initialization, 2.1.2, 3.1.2.4, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7, 3.6.2initializer, string literal, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7initializer braces, 3.5.7initial shift state, 2.2.1.2, 4.10.7input/output, device, 2.1.2.3input/output header, 4.9integer arithmetic functions, 4.10.6integer character constant, 3.1.3.4integer constants, 3.1.3.2integer suffix, 3.1.3.2integer type, 3.1.2.5integer type conversion, 3.2.1.1, 3.2.1.2integral constant expression, 3.4integral promotions, 2.1.2.3, 3.2.1.1integral type, 3.1.2.5integral type conversion, 3.2.1.3interactive device, 2.1.2.3, 4.9.3, 4.9.5.3internal linkage, 3.1.2.2internal name, 3.1.2interrupt handler, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3, 4.7ISO 4217 Currency and Funds Representation, 1.3, 4.4.2.1ISO 646 Invariant Code Set, 1.3, 2.2.1.1iteration statements, 3.6.5jump statements, 3.6.6keywords, 3.1.1label name, 3.1.2.1, 3.1.2.3labeled statements, 3.6.1language, 3 language, future directions, 3.9leading underscore in identifiers, 4.1.2left-shift assignment operator, <<=, 3.3.16.2left-shift operator, <<, 3.3.7length function, 4.11.6.3less-than operator, <, 3.3.8less-than-or-equal-to operator, <=, 3.3.8letter, 4.1.1lexical elements, 2.1.1.2, 3.1library, 2.1.1.1, 4library, future directions, 4.13library functions, use of, 4.1.6library terms, 4.1.1limits, environmental, 2.2.4limits, numerical, 2.2.4.2limits, translation, 2.2.4.1line buffered stream, 4.9.3line number, 3.8.4lines, 2.1.1.2, 3.8, 4.9.2linkages of identifiers, 3.1.2.2locale, definition of, 1.6localization, 4.4logarithmic functions, 4.5.4logical AND operator, &&, 3.3.13logical negation operator, !, 3.3.3.3logical OR operator, ||, 3.3.14logical source lines, 2.1.1.2long double suffix, l or L, 3.1.3.1long integer suffix, l or L, 3.1.3.2low-order bit, 1.6 lvalue, 3.2.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.3.2.4, 3.3.3.1, 3.3.16macro function vs. definition, 4.1.6macro name definition, 2.2.4.1macro names, predefined, 3.8.8macro, redefinition of, 3.8.3macro replacement, 3.8.3member-access operators, . and ->, 3.3.2.3memory management functions, 4.10.3minus operator, unary, -, 3.3.3.3modifiable lvalue, 3.2.2.1modulus function, 4.5.4.6multibyte characters, 2.2.1.2, 3.1.3.4, 4.10.7, 4.10.8multibyte functions, 4.10.7, 4.10.8multiplication assignment operator, *=, 3.3.16.2multiplication operator, *, 3.3.5multiplicative expressions, 3.3.5name, file, 4.9.3name spaces of identifiers, 3.1.2.3nearest-integer functions, 4.5.6new-line character, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1, 3.8, 3.8.4new-line escape sequence, \n, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4nongraphic characters, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4nonlocal jumps header, 4.6not-equal-to operator, !=, 3.3.9null character padding of binary streams, 4.9.2null character, \0, 2.2.1, 3.1.3.4, 3.1.4null pointer, 3.2.2.3null pointer constant, 3.2.2.3null preprocessing directive, 3.8.7null statement, 3.6.3number, floating-point, 3.1.2.5numerical limits, 2.2.4.2object, definition of, 1.6object type, 3.1.2.5obsolescence, 1.8, 3.9, 4.13octal constant, 3.1.3.2octal digit, 3.1.3.2, 3.1.3.4octal escape sequence, 3.1.3.4operand, 3.1.5, 3.3operating system, 2.1.2.1, 4.10.4.5operator, unary, 3.3.3operators, 3.1.5, 3.3OR assignment operator, exclusive, ^=, 3.3.16.2OR assignment operator, inclusive, |=, 3.3.16.2OR operator, exclusive, ^, 3.3.11OR operator, inclusive, |, 3.3.12OR operator, logical, ||, 3.3.14order of memory allocation, 4.10.3order of evaluation of expression, 3.3ordinary identifier name space, 3.1.2.3padding, null character, 4.9.2parameter, ellipsis, , ..., 3.5.4.3parameter, function, 3.3.2.2parameter, main function, 2.1.2.2parameter, 1.6parameter type list, 3.5.4.3parameters, program, 2.1.2.2parentheses punctuator, ( ), 3.1.6, 3.5.4.3parenthesized expression, 3.3.1physical source lines, 2.1.1.2plus operator, unary, +, 3.3.3.3pointer, null, 3.2.2.3pointer declarator, 3.5.4.1pointer operator, ->, 3.3.2.3pointer to function returning type, 3.3.2.2pointer type, 3.1.2.5pointer type conversion, 3.2.2.1, 3.2.2.3portability of implementations, 1.7position indicator, file, 4.9.3postfix decrement operator, --, 3.3.2.4postfix expressions, 3.3.2postfix increment operator, ++, 3.3.2.4power functions, 4.5.5precedence of expression operators, 3.3precedence of syntax rules, 2.1.1.2predefined macro names, 3.8.8prefix decrement operator, --, 3.3.3.1prefix increment operator, ++, 3.3.3.1preprocessing concatenation, 2.1.1.2, 3.8.3preprocessing directives, 2.1.1.2, 3.8preprocessing numbers, 3.1, 3.1.8preprocessing tokens, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.8primary expressions, 3.3.1printing characters, 2.2.2, 4.3.1, 4.3.1.7program, conforming, 1.7program, strictly conforming, 1.7program diagnostics, 4.2.1program execution, 2.1.2.3program file, 2.1.1.1program image, 2.1.1.2program name, argv[0], 2.1.2.2program parameters, 2.1.2.2program startup, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.1, 2.1.2.2program structure, 2.1.1.1program termination, 2.1.2, 2.1.2.1, 2.1.2.2, 2.1.2.3promotions, default argument, 3.3.2.2promotions, integral, 2.1.2.3, 3.2.1.1prototype, function, 3.1.2.1, 3.3.2.2, 3.5.4.3, 3.7.1pseudo-random sequence functions, 4.10.2punctuators, 3.1.6qualified types, 3.1.2.5range error, 4.5.1recursive function call, 3.3.2.2redefinition of macro, 3.8.3reentrancy, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3referenced type, 3.1.2.5relational expressions, 3.3.8reliability of data, interrupted, 2.1.2.3remainder assignment operator, %=, 3.3.16.2remainder operator, %, 3.3.5restore calling environment function, 4.6.2.1reserved identifiers, 4.1.2right-shift assignment operator, >>=, 3.3.16.2right-shift operator, >>, 3.3.7rvalue, 3.2.2.1save calling environment function, 4.6.1.1scalar type, 3.1.2.5scope of identifiers, 3.1.2.1search functions, 4.10.5.1, 4.11.5selection statements, 3.6.4semicolon punctuator, ;, 3.1.6, 3.5, 3.6.3sequence points, 2.1.2.3, 3.3, 3.6shift expressions, 3.3.7shift states, 2.2.1.2, 4.10.7side effects, 2.1.2.3, 3.3signal handler, 2.2.3, 4.7.1.1signals, 2.1.2.3, 2.2.3, 4.7signed integer types, 3.1.2.5, 3.1.3.2, 3.2.1.2simple assignment operator, =, 3.3.16.1single-precision arithmetic, 2.1.2.3sort function, 4.10.5.2source character set, 2.2.1source file inclusion, 3.8.2source files, 2.1.1.1source text, 2.1.1.2space character, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1standard streams, 4.9.1, 4.9.3standard header, float.h, 1.7, 2.2.4.2, 4.1.4standard header, limits.h, 1.7, 2.2.4.2, 4.1.4standard header, stdarg.h, 1.7, 4.8standard header, stddef.h, 1.7, 4.1.5standard headers, 4.1.2state-dependent encoding, 2.2.1.2, 4.10.7statements, 3.6static storage duration, 3.1.2.4storage duration, 3.1.2.4storage-class specifier, 3.5.1stream, fully buffered, 4.9.3stream, line buffered, 4.9.3stream, standard error, stderr, 4.9.1, 4.9.3stream, standard input, stdin, 4.9.1, 4.9.3stream, standard output, stdout, 4.9.1, 4.9.3stream, unbuffered, 4.9.3streams, 4.9.2strictly conforming program, 1.7string, 4.1.1string conversion functions, 4.10.1string handling header, 4.11string length, 4.1.1, 4.11.6.3string literal, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1, 3.1.4, 3.3.1, 3.5.7structure/union arrow operator, ->, 3.3.2.3structure/union content, 3.5.2.3structure/union dot operator, ., 3.3.2.3structure/union member name space, 3.1.2.3structure/union specifiers, 3.5.2.1structure/union tag, 3.5.2.3structure/union type, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.2.1subtraction assignment operator, -=, 3.3.16.2subtraction operator, -, 3.3.6suffix, floating constant, 3.1.3.1suffix, integer constant, 3.1.3.2switch body, 3.6.4.2switch case label, 3.6.1, 3.6.4.2switch default label, 3.6.1, 3.6.4.2syntactic categories, 3syntax notation, 3syntax rules, precedence of, 2.1.1.2tab characters, 2.2.1tabs, white space, 3.1tag, enumeration, 3.5.2.3tag, structure/union, 3.5.2.3tag name space, 3.1.2.3tentative definitions, 3.7.2text stream, 4.9.2time components, 4.12.1time conversion functions, 4.12.3time manipulation functions, 4.12.2tokens, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.8top type, 3.1.2.5translation environment, 2.1.1translation limits, 2.2.4.2translation phases, 2.1.1.2translation unit, 2.1.1.1, 3.7trigonometric functions, 4.5.2trigraph sequences, 2.1.1.2, 2.2.1.1type, character, 3.1.2.5, 3.2.2.1, 3.5.7type, compatible, 3.1.2.6, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.4type, composite, 3.1.2.6type, const-qualified, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.3type, function, 3.1.2.5type, incomplete, 3.1.2.5type, object, 3.1.2.5type, qualified, 3.1.2.5type, unqualified, 3.1.2.5type, volatile-qualified, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.3type conversions, 3.2type definitions, 3.5.6type names, 3.5.5type specifiers, 3.5.2type qualifiers, 3.5.3types, 3.1.2.5unary arithmetic operators, 3.3.3.3unary expressions, 3.3.3unary minus operator, -, 3.3.3.3unary operators, 3.3.3unary plus operator, +, 3.3.3.3unbuffered stream, 4.9.3undefined behavior, 1.6underscore, leading, in identifiers, 4.1.2union tag, 3.5.2.3union type specifier, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.2, 3.5.2.1unqualified type, 3.1.2.5unsigned integer suffix, u or U, 3.1.3.2unsigned integer types, 3.1.2.5, 3.1.3.2unspecified behavior, 1.6usual arithmetic conversions, 3.2.1.5value part, floating constant, 3.1.3.1variable arguments header, 4.8vertical-tab character, 2.2.1, 3.1vertical-tab escape sequence, \v, 2.2.2, 3.1.3.4visibility of identifiers, 3.1.2.1void expression, 3.2.2.2volatile storage, 2.1.2.3volatile-qualified type, 3.1.2.5, 3.5.3white space, 2.1.1.2, 3.1, 3.8, 4.3.1.9wide character, 3.1.3.4wide character constant, 3.1.3.4wide string literal, 2.1.1.2, 3.1.41. This Standard is designed to promote the portability of C programsamong a variety of data-processing systems. It is intended for use byimplementors and knowledgeable programmers, and is not a tutorial. Itis accompanied by a Rationale document that explains many of thedecisions of the Technical Committee that produced it.2. Strictly conforming programs are intended to be maximally portableamong conforming implementations. Conforming programs may depend uponnonportable features of a conforming implementation.3. Implementations must behave as if these separate phases occur, eventhough many are typically folded together in practice.4. As described in $3.1, the process of dividing a source file'scharacters into preprocessing tokens is context-dependent. Forexample, see the handling of < within a #include preprocessingdirective.5. The trigraph sequences enable the input of characters that are notdefined in the "ISO 646-1983" Invariant Code Set, which is a subset ofthe seven-bit ASCII code set.6. Implementations should avoid imposing fixed translation limitswhenever possible.7. See $3.1.2.5.8. This model precludes floating-point representations other thansign-magnitude.9. The floating-point model in that standard sums powers of from zero,so the values of the exponent limits are one less than shown here.10. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.1).11. There is only one name space for tags even though three arepossible.12. In the case of a volatile object, the last store may not beexplicit in the program.13. A positional representation for integers that uses the binarydigits 0 and 1, in which the values represented by successive bits areadditive, begin with 1, and are multiplied by successive integralpowers of 2, except perhaps the bit with the highest position.14. Note that aggregate type does not include union type because anobject with union type can only contain one member at a time.15. There are three distinct combinations of qualified types.16. Two types need not be identical to be compatible.17. The semantics of these characters were discussed in $2.2.2.18. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.2).19. A character string literal need not be a string (see $4.1.1),because a null character may be embedded in it by a \0 escapesequence.20. Thus, sequences of characters that resemble escape sequences causeundefined behavior.21. Thus comments do not nest.22. In a two's-complement representation, there is no actual change inthe bit pattern except filling the high-order bits with copies of thesign bit if the unsigned integer has greater size.23. The remaindering operation done when a value of integral type isconverted to unsigned type need not be done when a value of floatingtype is converted to unsigned type. Thus the range of portable valuesis [0, U type _MAX +1).24. The name ``lvalue'' comes originally from the assignmentexpression E1 = E2 , in which the left operand E1 must be a(modifiable) lvalue. It is perhaps better considered as representingan object ``locator value.'' What is sometimes called ``rvalue'' is inthis Standard described as the ``value of an expression.'' An obviousexample of an lvalue is an identifier of an object. As a furtherexample, if E is a unary expression that is a pointer to an object, *Eis an lvalue that designates the object to which E points.25. Because this conversion does not occur, the operand of the sizeofoperator remains a function designator and violates the constraint in$3.3.3.4.26. This paragraph renders undefined statement expressions such asi = ++i + 1; while allowing i = i + 1;27. The syntax specifies the precedence of operators in the evaluationof an expression, which is the same as the order of the majorsubsections of this section, highest precedence first. Thus, forexample, the expressions allowed as the operands of the binary +operator ($3.3.6) shall be those expressions defined in $3.3.1 through$3.3.6. The exceptions are cast expressions ($3.3.4) as operands ofunary operators ($3.3.3), and an operand contained between any of thefollowing pairs of operators: grouping parentheses () ($3.3.1),subscripting brackets [] ($3.3.2.1), function-call parentheses ()($3.3.2.2), and the conditional operator ?: ($3.3.15). Within eachmajor subsection, the operators have the same precedence. Left- orright-associativity is indicated in each subsection by the syntax forthe expressions discussed therein.28. The intent of this list is to specify those circumstances in whichan object may or may not be aliased.29. Most often, this is the result of converting an identifier that isa function designator.30. That is, a function with external linkage and no information aboutits parameters that returns an int . If in fact it is not defined ashaving type ``function returning int ,'' the behavior is undefined.31. A function may change the values of its parameters, but thesechanges cannot affect the values of the arguments. On the other hand,it is possible to pass a pointer to an object, and the function maychange the value of the object pointed to. A parameter declared tohave array or function type is converted to a parameter with a pointertype as described in32. If &E is a valid pointer expression (where & is the ``address-of''operator, which generates a pointer to its operand) the expression(&E)->MOS is the same as E.MOS .33. The ``byte orders'' for scalar types are invisible to isolatedprograms that do not indulge in type punning (for example, byassigning to one member of a union and inspecting the storage byaccessing another member that is an appropriately sized array ofcharacter type), but must be accounted for when conforming toexternally-imposed storage layouts.34. It is always true that if E is a function designator or an lvaluethat is a valid operand of the unary & operator, *&E is a functiondesignator or an lvalue equal to E . If *P is an lvalue and T is thename of an object pointer type, the cast expression *(T)P is an lvaluethat has a type compatible with that to which T points. Among theinvalid values for dereferencing a pointer by the unary * operator area null pointer, an address inappropriately aligned for the type ofobject pointed to, or the address of an object that has automaticstorage duration when execution of the block in which the object isdeclared and of all enclosed blocks has terminated.35. When applied to a parameter declared to have array or functiontype, the sizeof operator yields the size of the pointer obtained byconverting as in $3.2.2.1; see $3.7.1.36. A cast does not yield an lvalue.37. The mapping functions for converting a pointer to an integer or aninteger to a pointer are intended to be consistent with the addressingstructure of the execution environment.38. The expression a<b<c is not interpreted as in ordinarymathematics. As the syntax indicates, it means (a<b)<c ; in otherwords, ``if a is less than b compare 1 to c ; otherwise compare 0 to c.''39. Because of the precedences, a<b == c<d is 1 whenever a<b and c<dhave the same truth-value.40. If invalid prior pointer operations, such as accesses outsidearray bounds, produced undefined behavior, the effect of subsequentcomparisons is undefined.41. A conditional expression does not yield an lvalue.42. The asymmetric appearance of these constraints with respect totype qualifiers is due to the conversion (specified in $3.2.2.1) thatchanges lvalues to ``the value of the expression'' which removes anytype qualifiers from the top type of the expression.43. A comma operator does not yield an lvalue.44. The operand of a sizeof operator is not evaluated ($3.3.3.4), andthus any operator in $3.3 may be used.45. An integral constant expression must be used to specify the sizeof a bit-field member of a structure, the value of an enumerationconstant, the size of an array, or the value of a case constant.Further constraints that apply to the integral constant expressionsused in conditional-inclusion preprocessing directives are discussedin $3.8.1.46. Thus in the following initialization, static int i = 2 || 1 / 0;the expression is a valid integral constant expression with value one.47. Function definitions have a different syntax, described in $3.7.1.48. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.3).49. The implementation may treat any register declaration simply as anauto declaration. However, whether or not addressable storage isactually used, the address of any part of an object declared withstorage-class specifier register may not be computed, eitherexplicitly (by use of the unary & operator as discussed in $3.3.3.2)or implicitly (by converting an array name to a pointer as discussedin $3.2.2.1). Thus the only operator that can be applied to an arraydeclared with storage-class specifier register is sizeof .50. The unary & (address-of) operator may not be applied to abit-field object; thus there are no pointers to or arrays of bit-fieldobjects.51. An unnamed bit-field is useful for padding to conform toexternally-imposed layouts.52. Thus, the identifiers of enumeration constants in the same scopeshall all be distinct from each other and from other identifiersdeclared in ordinary declarators.53. A similar construction with enum does not exist and is notnecessary as there can be no mutual dependencies between thedeclaration of an enumerated type and any other type.54. It is not needed, for example, when a typedef name is declared tobe a specifier for a structure or union, or when a pointer to or afunction returning a structure or union is being declared. (Seeincomplete types in $3.1.2.5.) The specification shall be completebefore such a function is called or defined.55. Of course, when the declaration is of a typedef name, subsequentdeclarations can make use of the typedef name to declare objectshaving the specified structure, union, or enumerated type.56. The implementation may place a const object that is not volatilein a read-only region of storage. Moreover, the implementation neednot allocate storage for such an object if its address is never used.57. This applies to those objects that behave as if they were definedwith qualified types, even if they are never actually defined asobjects in the program (such as an object at a memory-mappedinput/output address).58. A volatile declaration may be used to describe an objectcorresponding to a memory-mapped input/output port or an objectaccessed by an asynchronously interrupting function. Actions onobjects so declared shall not be ``optimized out'' by animplementation or reordered except as permitted by the rules forevaluating expressions.59. Both of these can only occur through the use of typedef s.60. When several ``array of'' specifications are adjacent, amulti-dimensional array is declared.61. The macros defined in the <stdarg.h> header ($4.8) may be used toaccess arguments that follow an ellipsis.62. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.4).63. If both function types are ``old style,'' parameter types are notcompared.64. As indicated by the syntax, empty parentheses in a type name areinterpreted as ``function with no parameter specification,'' ratherthan redundant parentheses around the omitted identifier.65. Unlike in the base document, any automatic duration object may beinitialized.66. Such as assignments, and function calls which have side effects.67. Thus specifies initialization for the loop; the controllingexpression, specifies an evaluation made before each iteration, suchthat execution of the loop continues until the expression comparesequal to 0; specifies an operation (such as incrementing) that isperformed after each iteration.68. Following the contin: label is a null statement.69. Thus, if an identifier declared with external linkage is not usedin an expression, there need be no external definition for it.70. The intent is that the top type in a function definition cannot beinherited from a typedef: typedef int F(void); /* type F is ``functionof no arguments returning int '' */ F f, g; /* f and g both have typecompatible with F */ F f { /*...*/ } /* WRONG: syntax/constraint error*/ F g() { /*...*/ } /* WRONG: declares that g returns a function */int f(void) { /*...*/ } /* RIGHT: f has type compatible with F */ intg() { /*...*/ } /* RIGHT: g has type compatible with F */ F *e(void) {/*...*/ } /* e returns a pointer to a function */ F *((e))(void) {/*...*/ } /* same: parentheses irrelevant */ int (*fp)(void); /* fppoints to a function that has type F */ F *Fp; /* Fp points to afunction that has type F */71. See ``future language directions'' ($3.9.5).72. A parameter is in effect declared at the head of the compoundstatement that constitutes the function body, and therefore may not beredeclared in the function body (except in an enclosed block).73. Thus preprocessing directives are commonly called ``lines.'' These``lines'' have no other syntactic significance, as all white space isequivalent except in certain situations during preprocessing (see the# character string literal creation operator in $3.8.3.2, forexample).74. Because the controlling constant expression is evaluated duringtranslation phase 4, all identifiers either are or are not macro names--- there simply are no keywords, enumeration constants, and so on.75. Thus the constant expression in the following #if directive and ifstatement is not guaranteed to evaluate to the same value in these twocontexts. #if 'z' - 'a' == 25 if ('z' - 'a' == 25)76. As indicated by the syntax, a preprocessing token shall not followa #else or #endif directive before the terminating new-line character.However, comments may appear anywhere in a source file, includingwithin a preprocessing directive.77. Note that adjacent string literals are not concatenated into asingle string literal (see the translation phases in $2.1.1.2); thusan expansion that results in two string literals is an invaliddirective.78. Since, by macro-replacement time, all character constants andstring literals are preprocessing tokens, not sequences possiblycontaining identifier-like subsequences (see $2.1.1.2, translationphases), they are never scanned for macro names or parameters.79. Thus indicating a Standard-conforming implementation.80. The functions that make use of the decimal-point character arelocaleconv , fprintf , fscanf , printf , scanf , sprintf , sscanf ,vfprintf , vprintf , vsprintf , atof , and strtod .81. A header is not necessarily a source file, nor are the < and >delimited sequences in header names necessarily valid source filenames.82. The list of reserved external identifiers includes errno , setjmp ,and va_end .83. The macro errno need not be the identifier of an object. It mightbe a modifiable lvalue resulting from a function call (for example,*errno() ).84. Thus, a program that uses errno for error checking should set itto zero before a library function call, then inspect it before asubsequent library function call.85. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.1).86. This means that an implementation must provide an actual functionfor each library function, even if it also provides a macro for thatfunction.87. Because external identifiers and some macro names beginning withan underscore are reserved, implementations may provide specialsemantics for such names. For example, the identifier _BUILTIN_abscould be used to indicate generation of in-line code for the absfunction. Thus, the appropriate header could specify #define abs(x)_BUILTIN_abs(x) for a compiler whose code generator will accept it.In this manner, a user desiring to guarantee that a given libraryfunction such as abs will be a genuine function may write #undef abswhether the implementation's header provides a macro implementation ofabs or a builtin implementation. The prototype for the function,which precedes and is hidden by any macro definition, is therebyrevealed also.88. The message written might be of the form Assertion failed: fileline89. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.2).90. In an implementation that uses the seven-bit ASCII character set,the printing characters are those whose values lie from 0x20 (space)through 0x7E (tilde); the control characters are those whose valueslie from 0 (NUL) through 0x1F (US), and the character 0x7F (DEL).91. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.3).92. The only functions in $4.3 whose behavior is not affected by thecurrent locale are isdigit and isxdigit .93. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.4).94. In an implementation that supports infinities, this allowsinfinity as an argument to be a domain error if the mathematicaldomain of the function does not include infinity.95. These functions are useful for dealing with unusual conditionsencountered in a low-level function of a program.96. For example, by executing a return statement or because anotherlongjmp call has caused a transfer to a setjmp invocation in afunction earlier in the set of nested calls.97. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.5). The names of thesignal numbers reflect the following terms (respectively): abort,floating-point exception, illegal instruction, interrupt, segmentationviolation, and termination.98. Of course, the contents of the file name strings are subject toother system-specific constraints.99. An implementation need not distinguish between text streams andbinary streams. In such an implementation, there need be no new-linecharacters in a text stream nor any limit to the length of a line.100. This is described in the Base Document as a That term is not usedin this Standard to avoid confusion with a pointer to an object thathas type FILE .101. Among the reasons the implementation may cause the renamefunction to fail are that the file is open or that it is necessary tocopy its contents to effectuate its renaming.102. Files created using strings generated by the tmpnam function aretemporary only in the sense that their names should not collide withthose generated by conventional naming rules for the implementation.It is still necessary to use the remove function to remove such fileswhen their use is ended, and before program termination.103. Additional characters may follow these sequences.104. The primary use of the freopen function is to change the fileassociated with a standard text stream ( stderr , stdin , or stdout ),as those identifiers need not be modifiable lvalues to which the valuereturned by the fopen function may be assigned.105. The buffer must have a lifetime at least as great as the openstream, so the stream should be closed before a buffer that hasautomatic storage duration is deallocated upon block exit.106. Note that 0 is taken as a flag, not as the beginning of a fieldwidth.107. No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.108. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.6).109. No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.110. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.6).111. As vfprintf , vsprintf , and vprintf invoke the va_arg macro, thevalue of arg after the return is indeterminate.112. An end-of-file and a read error can be distinguished by use ofthe feof and ferror functions.113. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.7).114. Note that this need not be the same as the representation offloating-point zero or a null pointer constant.115. Each function is called as many times as it was registered.116. Notice that the key-to-member comparison an ordering on thearray.117. In a two's complement representation, the absolute value of themost negative number cannot be represented.118. The array will not be null- or zero-terminated if the valuereturned is n .119. See ``future library directions'' ($4.13.8).120. Thus, if there is no null character in the first n characters ofthe array pointed to by s2 , the result will not be null-terminated.121. Thus the maximum number of characters that end up in the arraypointed to by s1 is strlen(s1)+n+1 .122. The contents of ``holes'' used as padding for purposes ofalignment within structure objects are indeterminate, unless thecontents of the entire object have been set explicitly, as by thecalloc or memset function. Strings shorter than their allocated spaceand unions may also cause problems in comparison.123. The range [0, 60] for tm_sec allows for the occasional leapsecond.124. Thus, a positive or zero value for tm_isdst causes the mktimefunction initially to presume that Daylight Saving Time, respectively,is or is not in effect for the specified time. A negative value fortm_isdst causes the mktime function to attempt to determine whetherDaylight Saving Time is in effect for the specified time.
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