Database Technologies

Text A

A database -management system (DBMS) consists of a coletor of irelad data anda set of programs to aces those data. The clecto of data, usually，rerred to as the database, cotin Momstn ao o prtotn mepre The pimany gol ofa DBMS is 10 povide a evioment that is both convenien and efint to use in etrieving and storing databaseinformation.

 

Datbse systems are dsigned to manage large bodies of iformation. The management of data involves both the definition of structures for the storage of information and the provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information. In addition, the database system must provide for the safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at unauthorized acess.. If data are to be shared among several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results. The importance of information in most organizations which determines the value ofthe dlabase has led to the dvelopont ofa large body of conceps and tehniquesfor the eficient management of data.

 

The storage structure and access methods used by the database system are specified by a set of definitions in a special of DDL called a data storage and definition language. The result of compilation of these definitions is a set of instructions to specify the implementation details of the database schemas-details are usually hidden from the users. A database schema is also specified by DDL. The result of compilation of DDL statements is a set of tables that is stored in a special file called data dictionary, or data directory. A data dictionary is a file that contains metadata -that is, data about data. This file is consulted before actual data are read or modified inthe database system.

Transaction Management

 

A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a database application. Each transaction is a unit of both atomicity and consistency. Thus, we require that transactions do not violate any database-consistency constraints. That is, if the database was consistent when a transaction started, the database must be consistent when the transaction successfully terminates. However, during the execution of a transaction, it may be necessarytemporarily to allow inconsistency. This temporary inconsistency, although necessary, may lead to difficulty if a failure occurs.

 

Storage Management

 

Database typically requires a large amount of storage space. Corporate databases are usually measured in terms of gigabytes or, for the largest datbases, terabytes of data. A gigabyteis 10000 megabytes or (1 bllion bytes), and a terabyte is 1 million megabytes (1 tllin bytes). Since the main memory of computers cannot store this much information, the information is stored on disks. Data are moved between disk storage and main memory as needed. Since the movement of data to and from disk is slow relative to the speed of the central processing unit, it is impetrative that the database system structures the data so as to minimize the need to movedata between disk and main memory.

 

The goal of a database system is to simplify and facilitate access to data.! BI High-level views help to achieve this goal. Users of the system should not be burdened unnecessarily with the physical details of the implementation of the system. Nevertheless, a major factor in a user's satisfaction or lack thereof with a database system is that system's performance. If the response time for a request is too long, the value of the system is diminished. The performance of a system depends on what the fficiency is of the data structures used to represent the data in the database, and on how efficiently the system is able to operate on these data structures. As is thecase elsewhere in computer systems, a tradeoff must be made not only between spac and time,but also between the efficiency of one kind of operation and that of another.

 

 

A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-leveldata stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file manager. The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by a conventional operating system. The storage manager translates the various DML statements into low-level file-system commands. Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating of data in the database.

一个数据库管理系统(DBMS)由一个相互关联的数据的管理系统和一组处理这些数据的程序组成。数据库管理系统(DBMS)的主要功能是将数据转换为数据库，用于数据库信息的提取和存储，既方便又方便。

 

数据库管理系统是用来管理大量信息的。数据管理涉及信息存储结构的定义和信息操作机制的提供。此外，数据库系统必须保证存储信息的安全性，即使系统崩溃或试图进行未经授权的访问。如果数据要在多个用户之间共享，系统必须避免可能出现的异常结果。在大多数组织中，信息的重要性决定了数据的价值，这导致了大量有效管理数据的概念和技术的涌现。

 

数据库系统使用的存储结构和访问方法由DDL的一种特殊语言(称为数据存储和定义语言)中的一组定义指定。编译这些定义的结果是一组指令，用于指定数据库模式的实现细节——这些细节通常对用户是隐藏的。数据库模式也由DDL指定。DDL语句编译的结果是一组表，这些表存储在称为数据字典或数据目录的特殊文件中。数据字典是包含元数据(即关于数据的数据)的文件。在数据库系统中，在读取或修改实际数据之前，请查阅此文件。

事务管理

 

事务是数据库应用程序中执行单一逻辑功能的操作集合。每个事务都是原子性和一致性的单元。因此，我们要求事务不违反任何数据库一致性约束。也就是说，如果在事务启动时数据库是一致的，那么在事务成功终止时数据库也必须是一致的。然而，在事务执行期间，可能需要临时允许不一致。这种暂时的不一致，尽管是必要的，但如果发生故障，可能会导致问题。

 

存储管理

 

数据库通常需要大量存储空间。企业数据库通常以千兆字节(gb)来度量，对于最大的数据库来说，以太字节(tb)来度量。1gb是10000兆字节（10的6次方），1tb是100万兆字节(10的12次方)。由于计算机的主存储器不能存储这么多的信息，信息被存储在磁盘上。数据根据需要在磁盘存储器和主存储器之间移动。由于数据到磁盘和从磁盘的移动相对于中央处理单元的速度是缓慢的，它是阻碍数据库系统结构的数据，以便尽量减少在磁盘和主存储器之间移动的需要。

 

数据库系统的目标是简化和方便对数据的访问。高级视图有助于实现这一目标。系统的用户不应该承担系统实现的物理细节带来不必要的负担。然而，用户对数据库系统是否满意的一个主要因素是系统的性能。如果一个请求的响应时间太长，系统的价值就会降低。一个系统的性能取决于用来表示数据库中的数据的数据结构的效率，以及系统在这些数据结构上操作的效率。正如计算机系统中其他地方的情况一样，不仅要在空间和时间之间进行权衡，而且要在一种操作的效率和另一种操作的效率之间进行权衡。

 

 

存储管理器是一个程序模块，它提供存储在数据库中的底层数据与提交给系统的应用程序和查询之间的接口。存储管理器负责与文件管理器的交互。原始数据使用文件系统存储在磁盘上，该文件系统通常由传统操作系统提供。存储管理器将各种DML语句转换为低级文件系统命令。因此，存储管理器负责存储、检索和更新数据库中的数据。

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 A data warehouse is a repository (or archive) of information gathered from multiple sources,stored under a unified schema, at a single site. Once gatered, the data are stored for a long time, permitting access to historical data. Thus, data warehouses provide the user a single consolidated interface to data, making decision-support queries easier to write. Moreover, by accessing information for decision support from a data warehouse, the decision maker ensures that on-linetransaction-processing systems are not ffected by the decision-support workload.

 Figure 2-1 shows the architecture of a typical data warehouse, and ilustrates the gathering of data, the storage of data, and the querying and data analysis support. Among the ises to beaddressed in building a warehouse are the following:

When and how to gather data. In a soure diven achitetere for ftbering dala, the data sourcs tansmit new iformatio, either cninallyy as tansction pocssgs takes plac, or priodically, such as each night. In a destination. driven achiteture, the data warehouseperiodically sends requests for new data to the sources.

Unless updates at the sources are replicated at the warehouse via two-phase commit, the warehouse will never be quite up to date with the sources. Two phase commit is usually far toexpensive to be an option, so data warehouses typically have slightly out-of-date data. That,however, is usually not a problem for decision support systems.

What schema to use. Data sources that have been constructed independently are likely to have different schemas. In fact, they may even use different data models. Part of the task of a warchouse is to perform schema integration, and to convert data to the integrated schema before they are stored. As a result, the data stored in the warehouse are not just a copy of the data at the sources. Instead, they can be thought of as a stored view (or materialized view) of the data at thesources.

 

●How to propagate updates. Updates on relations at the data sources must be propagated to the data warehouse. If the relations at : he ata warbto are exacly the same as those at the data source, the propagation is straightforward.

 

How to propagate updates. Updates on relations at the data sources must be propagaeato the data warehouse. If the relations at the data warehuse are exactly the same as those at thedata source, the propagation is straightforward.

What data to summarize. The raw data generated by a transaction-processing system may be too large to store on-line. However, we can answer many queries by maintaining justsummary data obtained by aggregation on a relation, rather than maintaining the entire relation.For example, instead of storing data about every sale of clothing, we can store total sales ofclothing by category.

2.5.2文本B

数据仓库是从多个源收集的信息的存储库(或归档)，存储在一个统一的模式下，在单个站点上。一旦被入侵，数据将被长期存储，允许访问历史数据。因此，数据仓库为用户提供了一个统一的数据接口，使决策支持查询更容易编写。此外，通过从数据仓库访问用于决策支持的信息，决策者确保在线事务处理系统不受决策支持工作负载的影响。

图2-1展示了一个典型数据仓库的架构，描述了数据的收集，数据的存储，以及查询和数据分析的支持。在兴建仓库时，须处理的问题包括:

 

何时以及如何收集数据。在采集dala的数据时，数据来源会有新的形式，或者是传统的，比如采集时间，或者是原始的，比如每天晚上。在一个目的地。驱动的achiteture，数据仓库定期向源发送对新数据的请求。

除非通过两阶段提交将源上的更新复制到数据仓库，否则数据仓库永远不会与源完全同步。两阶段提交通常是一个昂贵的选择，因此数据仓库的数据通常有点过时。然而，对于决策支持系统来说，这通常不是问题。

使用什么模式。独立构造的数据源可能具有不同的模式。事实上，它们甚至可能使用不同的数据模型。warchouse的部分任务是执行模式集成，并在存储数据之前将数据转换为集成的模式。因此，存储在数据仓库中的数据不仅仅是数据源上的数据副本。相反，它们可以被看作是数据源上数据的存储视图(或物化视图)。

 

如何传播更新。数据源上关系的更新必须传播到数据仓库。如果:he ata warbto的关系与数据源的关系完全相同，那么传播就很简单。

 

如何传播更新。数据源上关系的更新必须传播到数据仓库。如果数据warehuse上的关系与数据源上的关系完全相同，那么传播是直接的。

 

需要总结哪些数据。由事务处理系统生成的原始数据可能太大而无法在线存储。然而，我们可以通过维护通过聚合一个关系而获得的justsummary数据来回答许多查询，而不是维护整个关系。例如，我们可以按类别存储服装的总销售额，而不是存储关于每一笔服装销售的数据。

原始文档：https://download.csdn.net/download/anmin8888/12941477