【Fluent Python】第九章 符合Python风格的对象 A Python Object

Thanks to the Python data model, your user-defined types can behave as naturally as the built-in types.

Object Representation Methods

Every object-oriented language has at least one standard way of getting a string representation from any object. Python has two:

• repr()
  • return a string representing the object as the developer wants to see it
• str()
  • return a strIng representing the object as the user wants to see it

There are two additional special methods to support alternative representations of objects: __bytes__ and __format__.

• __bytes__ method is analogous to __str__
  • it’s called by bytes() to get the object represented as a byte sequence
• __format__
  • both the built-in function format() and the str.format() method call it to get string displays of objects using special formatting codes.

Vector Class Redux

classmethod vs staticmethod

classmethod decorator – to define a method that operates on the class and not on instances.

• classmethod changes the way the method is called
• it receives the class itself as the first argument, instead of an instance

staticmethod decorator – changes a method so that it receives no special first argument

In essence, a static method is just like a plain function that happens to live in a class body, instead of being defined at the module level.

• klassmeth just returns all positional arguments
• statmeth does the same
• No matter how you invoke it, Demo.klassmeth receives the Demo class as the first argument
• Demo.statmeth behaves just like a plain old functions

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啊 我怎么还是不知道这什么跟什么啊

Formatted Displays

The format() built-in function and the str.format() method delegate the actual formmating to each type by calling their .__format__ method.

The second callout makes an important point: a format string such as '{0.mass: 5.3e}' actually uses two separate notations

• The '0.mass' to the left of the colon is the field_name part of the replacement field syntax
• The '5.3e' after the colon is the formatting specifier

The notation used in the formatting specifier is called the Format Specification Mini-Language.

The Format Specification Mini-Language is extensible because each class gets to interpret the format_spec argument as it likes.

• e.g. the classes in the datetime module use the same format codes in the strftime() functions and in their __format__ methods.

A Hashable Vector2d

Private and “Protected” Attributes in Python

Saving Space with the __slots__ Class Attribute

By default, Python stores instance attributes in a per-instance dict named __dict__.

dicts have a significant memory overhead because of the underlying hash table used to provide fast access.

If you are dealing with millions of instances with few attributes, the __slots__ class attribute can save a lot of memory, by letting the interpreter store the instance attributes in a tuple instead of a dict

!!!
a __slot__ attribute inherited from a superclass has no effect.
Python only takes into account __slots__ attributes defined in each class individually.

To define __slots__, you create a class attribute with that name and assign it an iterable of str with identifiers for the instance attributes.

By defining __slots__ in the class, you are telling interpreter: “These are all the instance attributes in this class”. Python then stores them in a tuple-like structure in each instance, avoiding the memory overhead of the per-instance __dict__. This can make a huge difference in memory usage if you have millions of instances active at the same time.

When __slots__ is specified in a class, its instances will not be allowed to have any other attributes apart from those named in __slots__.
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The Problems with __slots__

__slots__ provide significant memory savings if properly used, but there are a few caveats:

• you must remember to redeclare __slots__ in each sublass, because the inherited attribute is ignored by the interpreter
• instances will only be able to have the attributes listed in __slots__, unless you include '__dict__' in __slots__ (but doing so may negate the memory savings)
• instances cannot be targets of weak references unless you remember to include '__weakref__' in __slots__

If your program is not handling millions of instances, it’s probably not worth the trouble of creating a somewhat unusual and tricky class whose instances may not accept dynamic attributes or may not support weak references.

Overriding Class Attributes

A distinctive feature of Python is how class attributes can be used as default values for instane attributes.

• in Vector2d there is the typecode class attribute.
• the default Vector2d.typecode is 'd', meaning each vector component will be represented as an 8-byte double precision float when exporting to byte
• if set to 'f', each component will be exported as a 4-byte single precision float