Python高手之路【三】python基础之函数_def appreqstart(self, *args, **kwargs): # real sig-CSDN博客

本文链接：https://blog.csdn.net/lmrylll/article/details/130060283

基本数据类型补充：

set 是一个无序且不重复的元素集合

class set(object):
     """
     set() -> new empty set object
     set(iterable) -> new set object
 
     Build an unordered collection of unique elements.
     """
     def add(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Add an element to a set，添加元素
 
         This has no effect if the element is already present.
         """
         pass
 
     def clear(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Remove all elements from this set. 清除内容"""
         pass
 
     def copy(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Return a shallow copy of a set. 浅拷贝  """
         pass
 
     def difference(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Return the difference of two or more sets as a new set. A中存在，B中不存在
 
         (i.e. all elements that are in this set but not the others.)
         """
         pass
 
     def difference_update(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Remove all elements of another set from this set.  从当前集合中删除和B中相同的元素"""
         pass
 
     def discard(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Remove an element from a set if it is a member.
 
         If the element is not a member, do nothing. 移除指定元素，不存在不保错
         """
         pass
 
     def intersection(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Return the intersection of two sets as a new set. 交集
 
         (i.e. all elements that are in both sets.)
         """
         pass
 
     def intersection_update(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Update a set with the intersection of itself and another.  取交集并更更新到A中 """
         pass
 
     def isdisjoint(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Return True if two sets have a null intersection.  如果没有交集，返回True，否则返回False"""
         pass
 
     def issubset(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Report whether another set contains this set.  是否是子序列"""
         pass
 
     def issuperset(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Report whether this set contains another set. 是否是父序列"""
         pass
 
     def pop(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Remove and return an arbitrary set element.
         Raises KeyError if the set is empty. 移除元素
         """
         pass
 
     def remove(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Remove an element from a set; it must be a member.
 
         If the element is not a member, raise a KeyError. 移除指定元素，不存在保错
         """
         pass
 
     def symmetric_difference(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Return the symmetric difference of two sets as a new set.  对称差集
 
         (i.e. all elements that are in exactly one of the sets.)
         """
         pass
 
     def symmetric_difference_update(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Update a set with the symmetric difference of itself and another. 对称差集，并更新到a中 """
         pass
 
     def union(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """
         Return the union of sets as a new set.  并集
 
         (i.e. all elements that are in either set.)
         """
         pass
 
     def update(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Update a set with the union of itself and others. 更新 """
         pass

1：创建

 s = set()
 s = {11,22,33,55}

2：转换

li = [11,22,33,44]
 tu = (11,22,33,44)
 st = ''
 s = set(li)

3：intersection , intersection_update方法

a = {11,22,33,44}
b = {22,66,77,88}
ret = a.intersection(b)
print(ret)

intersection取得两个集合中的交集元素，并将这些元素以一个新的集合返回给一个变量接收

a = {11,22,33,44}
b = {22,66,77,88}
a.intersection_update(b)
print(a)

intersection_update取得两个集合的交集元素，并更新a集合

4：isdisjoint , issubset , issuperset方法

 s = {11,22,33,44}
 b = {11,22,77,55}
 ret = s.isdisjoint(b)#有交集返回False，没有交集返回True
 print(ret)
 ## False

issubset判断是否为子集

a = {11,22,33,44}
b = {11,44}
ret = b.issubset(a)
print(ret)
##########################################
True

issuperset判断是否为父集

a = {11,22,33,44}
b = {11,44}
ret = a.issubset(b)
print(ret)
##########################################
False

5：discard , remove , pop

s = {11,22,33,44}
 s.remove(11)
 print(s)
 s.discard(22)
 print(s)
 s.pop()
 print(s)

三者都能达到移除元素的效果，区别在于remove移除集合中不存在的元素时会报错，discard移除不存在的元素是不会报错，pop无法精确控制移除哪个元素，按其自身的规则随机移除元素，返回被移除的元素，可以使用变量接收其返回值

6：symmetric_difference取差集

 s = {11,22,33,44}
 b = {11,22,77,55}
 r1 = s.difference(b)
 r2 = b.difference(s)
 print(r1)
 print(r2)
 ret = s.symmetric_difference(b)
 print(ret)
 ## set([33, 44])
 ## set([77, 55])
 ## set([33, 44, 77, 55])

symmetric_difference返回两个集合中不是交集的元素

上面的代码中，将symmetric_difference换成symmetric_difference_update则表示将两个集合中不是交集的部分赋值给s

7：union , update方法

 s = {11,22,33,44}
 b = {11,22,77,55}
 ret = s.union(b)
 print(ret)
 ## set([33, 11, 44, 77, 22, 55])

union方法合并两个集合

s = {11,22,33,44}
 b = {11,22,77,55}
 s.update(b)
 print(s)
 ## set([33, 11, 44, 77, 22, 55])

update方法更新s集合，将b集合中的元素添加到s集合中！update方法也可以传递一个列表，如：update([23,45,67])

练习题：有下面两个字典

要求：

1）两个字典中有相同键的，则将new_dict中的值更新到old_dict对应键的值

2）old_dict中存在的键且new_dict中没有的键，在old_dict中删除，并把new_dict中的键值更新到old_dict中

3）最后输出old_dict

# 数据库中原有
 old_dict = {
     "#1":{ 'hostname':'c1', 'cpu_count': 2, 'mem_capicity': 80 },
     "#2":{ 'hostname':'c1', 'cpu_count': 2, 'mem_capicity': 80 },
     "#3":{ 'hostname':'c1', 'cpu_count': 2, 'mem_capicity': 80 }
 }
 
 # cmdb 新汇报的数据
 new_dict = {
     "#1":{ 'hostname':'c1', 'cpu_count': 2, 'mem_capicity': 800 },
     "#3":{ 'hostname':'c1', 'cpu_count': 2, 'mem_capicity': 80 },
     "#4":{ 'hostname':'c2', 'cpu_count': 2, 'mem_capicity': 80 }
 }

old_keys = set(old_dict.keys())
new_keys = set(new_dict.keys())
#需要更新元素的键
update_keys = old_keys.intersection(new_keys)
print(update_keys)
#需要删除元素的键
del_keys = old_keys.difference(new_keys)
#需要添加元素的键
add_keys = new_keys.difference(old_keys)
print(del_keys)
print(add_keys)
update_keys = list(update_keys)
for i in update_keys :
    old_dict[i] = new_dict[i]
del_keys = list(del_keys)
for j in del_keys :
    del old_dict[j]
for k in list(add_keys) :
    old_dict[k] = new_dict[k]
print(old_dict)
########################################
{'#3': {'hostname': 'c1', 'cpu_count': , 'mem_capicity': }, '#1': {'hostname': 'c1', 'cpu_count': , 'mem_capicity': }, '#4': {'hostname': 'c2', 'cpu_count': , 'mem_capicity': }}

答案

collections系列

一、计数器（counter）

Counter是对字典类型的补充，用于追踪值的出现次数。

ps：具备字典的所有功能 + 自己的功能

c = Counter('abcdeabcdabcaba')
print c
输出：Counter({'a': 5, 'b': 4, 'c': 3, 'd': 2, 'e': 1})

########################################################################
 ###  Counter
 ########################################################################
 
 class Counter(dict):
     '''Dict subclass for counting hashable items.  Sometimes called a bag
     or multiset.  Elements are stored as dictionary keys and their counts
     are stored as dictionary values.
 
     >>> c = Counter('abcdeabcdabcaba')  # count elements from a string
 
     >>> c.most_common(3)                # three most common elements
     [('a', 5), ('b', 4), ('c', 3)]
     >>> sorted(c)                       # list all unique elements
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
     >>> ''.join(sorted(c.elements()))   # list elements with repetitions
     'aaaaabbbbcccdde'
     >>> sum(c.values())                 # total of all counts
 
     >>> c['a']                          # count of letter 'a'
     >>> for elem in 'shazam':           # update counts from an iterable
     ...     c[elem] += 1                # by adding 1 to each element's count
     >>> c['a']                          # now there are seven 'a'
     >>> del c['b']                      # remove all 'b'
     >>> c['b']                          # now there are zero 'b'
 
     >>> d = Counter('simsalabim')       # make another counter
     >>> c.update(d)                     # add in the second counter
     >>> c['a']                          # now there are nine 'a'
 
     >>> c.clear()                       # empty the counter
     >>> c
     Counter()
 
     Note:  If a count is set to zero or reduced to zero, it will remain
     in the counter until the entry is deleted or the counter is cleared:
 
     >>> c = Counter('aaabbc')
     >>> c['b'] -= 2                     # reduce the count of 'b' by two
     >>> c.most_common()                 # 'b' is still in, but its count is zero
     [('a', 3), ('c', 1), ('b', 0)]
 
     '''
     # References:
     #   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset
     #   http://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html
     #   http://www.demo2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm
     #   http://code.activestate.com/recipes/259174/
     #   Knuth, TAOCP Vol. II section 4.6.3
 
     def __init__(self, iterable=None, **kwds):
         '''Create a new, empty Counter object.  And if given, count elements
         from an input iterable.  Or, initialize the count from another mapping
         of elements to their counts.
 
         >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
         >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
         >>> c = Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 2})           # a new counter from a mapping
         >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2)                   # a new counter from keyword args
 
         '''
         super(Counter, self).__init__()
         self.update(iterable, **kwds)
 
     def __missing__(self, key):
         """ 对于不存在的元素，返回计数器为0 """
         'The count of elements not in the Counter is zero.'
         # Needed so that self[missing_item] does not raise KeyError
         return 0
 
     def most_common(self, n=None):
         """ 数量大于等n的所有元素和计数器 """
         '''List the n most common elements and their counts from the most
         common to the least.  If n is None, then list all element counts.
 
         >>> Counter('abcdeabcdabcaba').most_common(3)
         [('a', 5), ('b', 4), ('c', 3)]
 
         '''
         # Emulate Bag.sortedByCount from Smalltalk
         if n is None:
             return sorted(self.iteritems(), key=_itemgetter(1), reverse=True)
         return _heapq.nlargest(n, self.iteritems(), key=_itemgetter(1))
 
     def elements(self):
         """ 计数器中的所有元素，注：此处非所有元素集合，而是包含所有元素集合的迭代器 """
         '''Iterator over elements repeating each as many times as its count.
 
         >>> c = Counter('ABCABC')
         >>> sorted(c.elements())
         ['A', 'A', 'B', 'B', 'C', 'C']
 
         # Knuth's example for prime factors of 1836:  2**2 * 3**3 * 17**1
         >>> prime_factors = Counter({2: 2, 3: 3, 17: 1})
         >>> product = 1
         >>> for factor in prime_factors.elements():     # loop over factors
         ...     product *= factor                       # and multiply them
         >>> product
 
         Note, if an element's count has been set to zero or is a negative
         number, elements() will ignore it.
 
         '''
         # Emulate Bag.do from Smalltalk and Multiset.begin from C++.
         return _chain.from_iterable(_starmap(_repeat, self.iteritems()))
 
     # Override dict methods where necessary
 
     @classmethod
     def fromkeys(cls, iterable, v=None):
         # There is no equivalent method for counters because setting v=1
         # means that no element can have a count greater than one.
         raise NotImplementedError(
             'Counter.fromkeys() is undefined.  Use Counter(iterable) instead.')
 
     def update(self, iterable=None, **kwds):
         """ 更新计数器，其实就是增加；如果原来没有，则新建，如果有则加一 """
         '''Like dict.update() but add counts instead of replacing them.
 
         Source can be an iterable, a dictionary, or another Counter instance.
 
         >>> c = Counter('which')
         >>> c.update('witch')           # add elements from another iterable
         >>> d = Counter('watch')
         >>> c.update(d)                 # add elements from another counter
         >>> c['h']                      # four 'h' in which, witch, and watch
 
         '''
         # The regular dict.update() operation makes no sense here because the
         # replace behavior results in the some of original untouched counts
         # being mixed-in with all of the other counts for a mismash that
         # doesn't have a straight-forward interpretation in most counting
         # contexts.  Instead, we implement straight-addition.  Both the inputs
         # and outputs are allowed to contain zero and negative counts.
 
         if iterable is not None:
             if isinstance(iterable, Mapping):
                 if self:
                     self_get = self.get
                     for elem, count in iterable.iteritems():
                         self[elem] = self_get(elem, 0) + count
                 else:
                     super(Counter, self).update(iterable) # fast path when counter is empty
             else:
                 self_get = self.get
                 for elem in iterable:
                     self[elem] = self_get(elem, 0) + 1
         if kwds:
             self.update(kwds)
 
     def subtract(self, iterable=None, **kwds):
         """ 相减，原来的计数器中的每一个元素的数量减去后添加的元素的数量 """
         '''Like dict.update() but subtracts counts instead of replacing them.
         Counts can be reduced below zero.  Both the inputs and outputs are
         allowed to contain zero and negative counts.
 
         Source can be an iterable, a dictionary, or another Counter instance.
 
         >>> c = Counter('which')
         >>> c.subtract('witch')             # subtract elements from another iterable
         >>> c.subtract(Counter('watch'))    # subtract elements from another counter
         >>> c['h']                          # 2 in which, minus 1 in witch, minus 1 in watch
         >>> c['w']                          # 1 in which, minus 1 in witch, minus 1 in watch
         -1
 
         '''
         if iterable is not None:
             self_get = self.get
             if isinstance(iterable, Mapping):
                 for elem, count in iterable.items():
                     self[elem] = self_get(elem, 0) - count
             else:
                 for elem in iterable:
                     self[elem] = self_get(elem, 0) - 1
         if kwds:
             self.subtract(kwds)
 
     def copy(self):
         """ 拷贝 """
         'Return a shallow copy.'
         return self.__class__(self)
 
     def __reduce__(self):
         """ 返回一个元组（类型，元组） """
         return self.__class__, (dict(self),)
 
     def __delitem__(self, elem):
         """ 删除元素 """
         'Like dict.__delitem__() but does not raise KeyError for missing values.'
         if elem in self:
             super(Counter, self).__delitem__(elem)
 
     def __repr__(self):
         if not self:
             return '%s()' % self.__class__.__name__
         items = ', '.join(map('%r: %r'.__mod__, self.most_common()))
         return '%s({%s})' % (self.__class__.__name__, items)
 
     # Multiset-style mathematical operations discussed in:
     #       Knuth TAOCP Volume II section 4.6.3 exercise 19
     #       and at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset
     #
     # Outputs guaranteed to only include positive counts.
     #
     # To strip negative and zero counts, add-in an empty counter:
     #       c += Counter()
 
     def __add__(self, other):
         '''Add counts from two counters.
 
         >>> Counter('abbb') + Counter('bcc')
         Counter({'b': 4, 'c': 2, 'a': 1})
 
         '''
         if not isinstance(other, Counter):
             return NotImplemented
         result = Counter()
         for elem, count in self.items():
             newcount = count + other[elem]
             if newcount > 0:
                 result[elem] = newcount
         for elem, count in other.items():
             if elem not in self and count > 0:
                 result[elem] = count
         return result
 
     def __sub__(self, other):
         ''' Subtract count, but keep only results with positive counts.
 
         >>> Counter('abbbc') - Counter('bccd')
         Counter({'b': 2, 'a': 1})
 
         '''
         if not isinstance(other, Counter):
             return NotImplemented
         result = Counter()
         for elem, count in self.items():
             newcount = count - other[elem]
             if newcount > 0:
                 result[elem] = newcount
         for elem, count in other.items():
             if elem not in self and count < 0:
                 result[elem] = 0 - count
         return result
 
     def __or__(self, other):
         '''Union is the maximum of value in either of the input counters.
 
         >>> Counter('abbb') | Counter('bcc')
         Counter({'b': 3, 'c': 2, 'a': 1})
 
         '''
         if not isinstance(other, Counter):
             return NotImplemented
         result = Counter()
         for elem, count in self.items():
             other_count = other[elem]
             newcount = other_count if count < other_count else count
             if newcount > 0:
                 result[elem] = newcount
         for elem, count in other.items():
             if elem not in self and count > 0:
                 result[elem] = count
         return result
 
     def __and__(self, other):
         ''' Intersection is the minimum of corresponding counts.
 
         >>> Counter('abbb') & Counter('bcc')
         Counter({'b': 1})
 
         '''
         if not isinstance(other, Counter):
             return NotImplemented
         result = Counter()
         for elem, count in self.items():
             other_count = other[elem]
             newcount = count if count < other_count else other_count
             if newcount > 0:
                 result[elem] = newcount
         return result
 
 Counter

Counter

二、有序字典(orderedDict )

orderdDict是对字典类型的补充，他记住了字典元素添加的顺序

 class OrderedDict(dict):
     'Dictionary that remembers insertion order'
     # An inherited dict maps keys to values.
     # The inherited dict provides __getitem__, __len__, __contains__, and get.
     # The remaining methods are order-aware.
     # Big-O running times for all methods are the same as regular dictionaries.
 
     # The internal self.__map dict maps keys to links in a doubly linked list.
     # The circular doubly linked list starts and ends with a sentinel element.
     # The sentinel element never gets deleted (this simplifies the algorithm).
     # Each link is stored as a list of length three:  [PREV, NEXT, KEY].
 
     def __init__(self, *args, **kwds):
         '''Initialize an ordered dictionary.  The signature is the same as
         regular dictionaries, but keyword arguments are not recommended because
         their insertion order is arbitrary.
 
         '''
         if len(args) > 1:
             raise TypeError('expected at most 1 arguments, got %d' % len(args))
         try:
             self.__root
         except AttributeError:
             self.__root = root = []                     # sentinel node
             root[:] = [root, root, None]
             self.__map = {}
         self.__update(*args, **kwds)
 
     def __setitem__(self, key, value, dict_setitem=dict.__setitem__):
         'od.__setitem__(i, y) <==> od[i]=y'
         # Setting a new item creates a new link at the end of the linked list,
         # and the inherited dictionary is updated with the new key/value pair.
         if key not in self:
             root = self.__root
             last = root[0]
             last[1] = root[0] = self.__map[key] = [last, root, key]
         return dict_setitem(self, key, value)
 
     def __delitem__(self, key, dict_delitem=dict.__delitem__):
         'od.__delitem__(y) <==> del od[y]'
         # Deleting an existing item uses self.__map to find the link which gets
         # removed by updating the links in the predecessor and successor nodes.
         dict_delitem(self, key)
         link_prev, link_next, _ = self.__map.pop(key)
         link_prev[1] = link_next                        # update link_prev[NEXT]
         link_next[0] = link_prev                        # update link_next[PREV]
 
     def __iter__(self):
         'od.__iter__() <==> iter(od)'
         # Traverse the linked list in order.
         root = self.__root
         curr = root[1]                                  # start at the first node
         while curr is not root:
             yield curr[2]                               # yield the curr[KEY]
             curr = curr[1]                              # move to next node
 
     def __reversed__(self):
         'od.__reversed__() <==> reversed(od)'
         # Traverse the linked list in reverse order.
         root = self.__root
         curr = root[0]                                  # start at the last node
         while curr is not root:
             yield curr[2]                               # yield the curr[KEY]
             curr = curr[0]                              # move to previous node
 
     def clear(self):
         'od.clear() -> None.  Remove all items from od.'
         root = self.__root
         root[:] = [root, root, None]
         self.__map.clear()
         dict.clear(self)
 
     # -- the following methods do not depend on the internal structure --
 
     def keys(self):
         'od.keys() -> list of keys in od'
         return list(self)
 
     def values(self):
         'od.values() -> list of values in od'
         return [self[key] for key in self]
 
     def items(self):
         'od.items() -> list of (key, value) pairs in od'
         return [(key, self[key]) for key in self]
 
     def iterkeys(self):
         'od.iterkeys() -> an iterator over the keys in od'
         return iter(self)
 
     def itervalues(self):
         'od.itervalues -> an iterator over the values in od'
         for k in self:
             yield self[k]
 
     def iteritems(self):
         'od.iteritems -> an iterator over the (key, value) pairs in od'
         for k in self:
             yield (k, self[k])
 
     update = MutableMapping.update
 
     __update = update # let subclasses override update without breaking __init__
 
     __marker = object()
 
     def pop(self, key, default=__marker):
         '''od.pop(k[,d]) -> v, remove specified key and return the corresponding
         value.  If key is not found, d is returned if given, otherwise KeyError
         is raised.
 
         '''
         if key in self:
             result = self[key]
             del self[key]
             return result
         if default is self.__marker:
             raise KeyError(key)
         return default
 
     def setdefault(self, key, default=None):
         'od.setdefault(k[,d]) -> od.get(k,d), also set od[k]=d if k not in od'
         if key in self:
             return self[key]
         self[key] = default
         return default
 
     def popitem(self, last=True):
         '''od.popitem() -> (k, v), return and remove a (key, value) pair.
         Pairs are returned in LIFO order if last is true or FIFO order if false.
 
         '''
         if not self:
             raise KeyError('dictionary is empty')
         key = next(reversed(self) if last else iter(self))
         value = self.pop(key)
         return key, value
 
     def __repr__(self, _repr_running={}):
         'od.__repr__() <==> repr(od)'
         call_key = id(self), _get_ident()
         if call_key in _repr_running:
             return '...'
         _repr_running[call_key] = 1
         try:
             if not self:
                 return '%s()' % (self.__class__.__name__,)
             return '%s(%r)' % (self.__class__.__name__, self.items())
         finally:
             del _repr_running[call_key]
 
     def __reduce__(self):
         'Return state information for pickling'
         items = [[k, self[k]] for k in self]
         inst_dict = vars(self).copy()
         for k in vars(OrderedDict()):
             inst_dict.pop(k, None)
         if inst_dict:
             return (self.__class__, (items,), inst_dict)
         return self.__class__, (items,)
 
     def copy(self):
         'od.copy() -> a shallow copy of od'
         return self.__class__(self)
 
     @classmethod
     def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
         '''OD.fromkeys(S[, v]) -> New ordered dictionary with keys from S.
         If not specified, the value defaults to None.
 
         '''
         self = cls()
         for key in iterable:
             self[key] = value
         return self
 
     def __eq__(self, other):
         '''od.__eq__(y) <==> od==y.  Comparison to another OD is order-sensitive
         while comparison to a regular mapping is order-insensitive.
 
         '''
         if isinstance(other, OrderedDict):
             return dict.__eq__(self, other) and all(_imap(_eq, self, other))
         return dict.__eq__(self, other)
 
     def __ne__(self, other):
         'od.__ne__(y) <==> od!=y'
         return not self == other
 
     # -- the following methods support python 3.x style dictionary views --
 
     def viewkeys(self):
         "od.viewkeys() -> a set-like object providing a view on od's keys"
         return KeysView(self)
 
     def viewvalues(self):
         "od.viewvalues() -> an object providing a view on od's values"
         return ValuesView(self)
 
     def viewitems(self):
         "od.viewitems() -> a set-like object providing a view on od's items"
         return ItemsView(self)
 
 OrderedDict

OrderedDict

三、默认字典(defaultdict)

defaultdict是对字典的类型的补充，他默认给字典的值设置了一个类型。

 class defaultdict(dict):
     """
     defaultdict(default_factory[, ...]) --> dict with default factory
 
     The default factory is called without arguments to produce
     a new value when a key is not present, in __getitem__ only.
     A defaultdict compares equal to a dict with the same items.
     All remaining arguments are treated the same as if they were
     passed to the dict constructor, including keyword arguments.
     """
     def copy(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
         """ D.copy() -> a shallow copy of D. """
         pass
 
     def __copy__(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ D.copy() -> a shallow copy of D. """
         pass
 
     def __getattribute__(self, name): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
         """ x.__getattribute__('name') <==> x.name """
         pass
 
     def __init__(self, default_factory=None, **kwargs): # known case of _collections.defaultdict.__init__
         """
         defaultdict(default_factory[, ...]) --> dict with default factory
 
         The default factory is called without arguments to produce
         a new value when a key is not present, in __getitem__ only.
         A defaultdict compares equal to a dict with the same items.
         All remaining arguments are treated the same as if they were
         passed to the dict constructor, including keyword arguments.
 
         # (copied from class doc)
         """
         pass
 
     def __missing__(self, key): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
         """
         __missing__(key) # Called by __getitem__ for missing key; pseudo-code:
           if self.default_factory is None: raise KeyError((key,))
           self[key] = value = self.default_factory()
           return value
         """
         pass
 
     def __reduce__(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
         """ Return state information for pickling. """
         pass
 
     def __repr__(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
         """ x.__repr__() <==> repr(x) """
         pass
 
     default_factory = property(lambda self: object(), lambda self, v: None, lambda self: None)  # default
     """Factory for default value called by __missing__()."""
 
 defaultdict

defaultdict

使用方法：

 import collections
 dic = collections.defaultdict(list)
 dic['k1'].append('alext')
 print(dic)

练习：

有如下值集合 [11,22,33,44,55,66,77,88,99,90...]，将所有大于 66 的值保存至字典的第一个key中，将小于 66 的值保存至第二个key的值中。
 即： {'k1': 大于66 , 'k2': 小于66}

values = [11, 22, 33,44,55,66,77,88,99,90]
 
 my_dict = {}
 
 for value in  values:
     if value>66:
         if my_dict.has_key('k1'):
             my_dict['k1'].append(value)
         else:
             my_dict['k1'] = [value]
     else:
         if my_dict.has_key('k2'):
             my_dict['k2'].append(value)
         else:
             my_dict['k2'] = [value]

原生字典

from collections import defaultdict
 
 values = [11, 22, 33,44,55,66,77,88,99,90]
 
 my_dict = defaultdict(list)
 
 for value in  values:
     if value>66:
         my_dict['k1'].append(value)
     else:
         my_dict['k2'].append(value)
 
 defaultdict字典解决方法
 
 默认字典

默认字典

四、可命名元组(namedtuple)

根据nametuple可以创建一个包含tuple所有功能以及其他功能的类型。

import collections
MytupleClass = collections.namedtuple('MytupleClass',['x','y','z'])
obj = MytupleClass(11,33,44)
print(obj.x)
print(obj.y)
print(obj.z)

class Mytuple(__builtin__.tuple)
 |  Mytuple(x, y)
 |
 |  Method resolution order:
 |      Mytuple
 |      __builtin__.tuple
 |      __builtin__.object
 |
 |  Methods defined here:
 |
 |  __getnewargs__(self)
 |      Return self as a plain tuple.  Used by copy and pickle.
 |
 |  __getstate__(self)
 |      Exclude the OrderedDict from pickling
 |
 |  __repr__(self)
 |      Return a nicely formatted representation string
 |
 |  _asdict(self)
 |      Return a new OrderedDict which maps field names to their values
 |
 |  _replace(_self, **kwds)
 |      Return a new Mytuple object replacing specified fields with new values
 |
 |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |  Class methods defined here:
 |
 |  _make(cls, iterable, new=<built-in method __new__ of type object>, len=<built-in function len>) from __builtin__.type
 |      Make a new Mytuple object from a sequence or iterable
 |
 |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |  Static methods defined here:
 |
 |  __new__(_cls, x, y)
 |      Create new instance of Mytuple(x, y)
 |
 |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |  Data descriptors defined here:
 |
 |  __dict__
 |      Return a new OrderedDict which maps field names to their values
 |
 |  x
 |      Alias for field number 0
 |
 |  y
 |      Alias for field number 1
 |
 |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |  Data and other attributes defined here:
 |
 |  _fields = ('x', 'y')
 |
 |  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |  Methods inherited from __builtin__.tuple:
 |
 |  __add__(...)
 |      x.__add__(y) <==> x+y
 |
 |  __contains__(...)
 |      x.__contains__(y) <==> y in x
 |
 |  __eq__(...)
 |      x.__eq__(y) <==> x==y
 |
 |  __ge__(...)
 |      x.__ge__(y) <==> x>=y
 |
 |  __getattribute__(...)
 |      x.__getattribute__('name') <==> x.name
 |
 |  __getitem__(...)
 |      x.__getitem__(y) <==> x[y]
 |
 |  __getslice__(...)
 |      x.__getslice__(i, j) <==> x[i:j]
 |
 |      Use of negative indices is not supported.
 |
 |  __gt__(...)
 |      x.__gt__(y) <==> x>y
 |
 |  __hash__(...)
 |      x.__hash__() <==> hash(x)
 |
 |  __iter__(...)
 |      x.__iter__() <==> iter(x)
 |
 |  __le__(...)
 |      x.__le__(y) <==> x<=y
 |
 |  __len__(...)
 |      x.__len__() <==> len(x)
 |
 |  __lt__(...)
 |      x.__lt__(y) <==> x<y
 |
 |  __mul__(...)
 |      x.__mul__(n) <==> x*n
 |
 |  __ne__(...)
 |      x.__ne__(y) <==> x!=y
 |
 |  __rmul__(...)
 |      x.__rmul__(n) <==> n*x
 |
 |  __sizeof__(...)
 |      T.__sizeof__() -- size of T in memory, in bytes
 |
 |  count(...)
 |      T.count(value) -> integer -- return number of occurrences of value
 |
 |  index(...)
 |      T.index(value, [start, [stop]]) -> integer -- return first index of value.
 |      Raises ValueError if the value is not present.
 
Mytuple

Mytuple

五、双向队列(deque)

一个线程安全的双向队列

class deque(object):
    """
    deque([iterable[, maxlen]]) --> deque object
 
    Build an ordered collection with optimized access from its endpoints.
    """
    def append(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Add an element to the right side of the deque. """
        pass
 
    def appendleft(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Add an element to the left side of the deque. """
        pass
 
    def clear(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Remove all elements from the deque. """
        pass
 
    def count(self, value): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ D.count(value) -> integer -- return number of occurrences of value """
        return 0
 
    def extend(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Extend the right side of the deque with elements from the iterable """
        pass
 
    def extendleft(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Extend the left side of the deque with elements from the iterable """
        pass
 
    def pop(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Remove and return the rightmost element. """
        pass
 
    def popleft(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Remove and return the leftmost element. """
        pass
 
    def remove(self, value): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ D.remove(value) -- remove first occurrence of value. """
        pass
 
    def reverse(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ D.reverse() -- reverse *IN PLACE* """
        pass
 
    def rotate(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Rotate the deque n steps to the right (default n=1).  If n is negative, rotates left. """
        pass
 
    def __copy__(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Return a shallow copy of a deque. """
        pass
 
    def __delitem__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__delitem__(y) <==> del x[y] """
        pass
 
    def __eq__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__eq__(y) <==> x==y """
        pass
 
    def __getattribute__(self, name): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__getattribute__('name') <==> x.name """
        pass
 
    def __getitem__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__getitem__(y) <==> x[y] """
        pass
 
    def __ge__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__ge__(y) <==> x>=y """
        pass
 
    def __gt__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__gt__(y) <==> x>y """
        pass
 
    def __iadd__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__iadd__(y) <==> x+=y """
        pass
 
    def __init__(self, iterable=(), maxlen=None): # known case of _collections.deque.__init__
        """
        deque([iterable[, maxlen]]) --> deque object
 
        Build an ordered collection with optimized access from its endpoints.
        # (copied from class doc)
        """
        pass
 
    def __iter__(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__iter__() <==> iter(x) """
        pass
 
    def __len__(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__len__() <==> len(x) """
        pass
 
    def __le__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__le__(y) <==> x<=y """
        pass
 
    def __lt__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__lt__(y) <==> x<y """
        pass
 
    @staticmethod # known case of __new__
    def __new__(S, *more): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ T.__new__(S, ...) -> a new object with type S, a subtype of T """
        pass
 
    def __ne__(self, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__ne__(y) <==> x!=y """
        pass
 
    def __reduce__(self, *args, **kwargs): # real signature unknown
        """ Return state information for pickling. """
        pass
 
    def __repr__(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__repr__() <==> repr(x) """
        pass
 
    def __reversed__(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ D.__reversed__() -- return a reverse iterator over the deque """
        pass
 
    def __setitem__(self, i, y): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ x.__setitem__(i, y) <==> x[i]=y """
        pass
 
    def __sizeof__(self): # real signature unknown; restored from __doc__
        """ D.__sizeof__() -- size of D in memory, in bytes """
        pass
 
    maxlen = property(lambda self: object(), lambda self, v: None, lambda self: None)  # default
    """maximum size of a deque or None if unbounded"""
 
    __hash__ = None
 
deque
 
deque

deque

注：既然有双向队列，也有单项队列（先进先出 FIFO ）

class Queue:
    """Create a queue object with a given maximum size.
 
    If maxsize is <= 0, the queue size is infinite.
    """
    def __init__(self, maxsize=0):
        self.maxsize = maxsize
        self._init(maxsize)
        # mutex must be held whenever the queue is mutating.  All methods
        # that acquire mutex must release it before returning.  mutex
        # is shared between the three conditions, so acquiring and
        # releasing the conditions also acquires and releases mutex.
        self.mutex = _threading.Lock()
        # Notify not_empty whenever an item is added to the queue; a
        # thread waiting to get is notified then.
        self.not_empty = _threading.Condition(self.mutex)
        # Notify not_full whenever an item is removed from the queue;
        # a thread waiting to put is notified then.
        self.not_full = _threading.Condition(self.mutex)
        # Notify all_tasks_done whenever the number of unfinished tasks
        # drops to zero; thread waiting to join() is notified to resume
        self.all_tasks_done = _threading.Condition(self.mutex)
        self.unfinished_tasks = 0
 
    def task_done(self):
        """Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.
 
        Used by Queue consumer threads.  For each get() used to fetch a task,
        a subsequent call to task_done() tells the queue that the processing
        on the task is complete.
 
        If a join() is currently blocking, it will resume when all items
        have been processed (meaning that a task_done() call was received
        for every item that had been put() into the queue).
 
        Raises a ValueError if called more times than there were items
        placed in the queue.
        """
        self.all_tasks_done.acquire()
        try:
            unfinished = self.unfinished_tasks - 1
            if unfinished <= 0:
                if unfinished < 0:
                    raise ValueError('task_done() called too many times')
                self.all_tasks_done.notify_all()
            self.unfinished_tasks = unfinished
        finally:
            self.all_tasks_done.release()
 
    def join(self):
        """Blocks until all items in the Queue have been gotten and processed.
 
        The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the
        queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls task_done()
        to indicate the item was retrieved and all work on it is complete.
 
        When the count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, join() unblocks.
        """
        self.all_tasks_done.acquire()
        try:
            while self.unfinished_tasks:
                self.all_tasks_done.wait()
        finally:
            self.all_tasks_done.release()
 
    def qsize(self):
        """Return the approximate size of the queue (not reliable!)."""
        self.mutex.acquire()
        n = self._qsize()
        self.mutex.release()
        return n
 
    def empty(self):
        """Return True if the queue is empty, False otherwise (not reliable!)."""
        self.mutex.acquire()
        n = not self._qsize()
        self.mutex.release()
        return n
 
    def full(self):
        """Return True if the queue is full, False otherwise (not reliable!)."""
        self.mutex.acquire()
        n = 0 < self.maxsize == self._qsize()
        self.mutex.release()
        return n
 
    def put(self, item, block=True, timeout=None):
        """Put an item into the queue.
 
        If optional args 'block' is true and 'timeout' is None (the default),
        block if necessary until a free slot is available. If 'timeout' is
        a non-negative number, it blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises
        the Full exception if no free slot was available within that time.
        Otherwise ('block' is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot
        is immediately available, else raise the Full exception ('timeout'
        is ignored in that case).
        """
        self.not_full.acquire()
        try:
            if self.maxsize > 0:
                if not block:
                    if self._qsize() == self.maxsize:
                        raise Full
                elif timeout is None:
                    while self._qsize() == self.maxsize:
                        self.not_full.wait()
                elif timeout < 0:
                    raise ValueError("'timeout' must be a non-negative number")
                else:
                    endtime = _time() + timeout
                    while self._qsize() == self.maxsize:
                        remaining = endtime - _time()
                        if remaining <= 0.0:
                            raise Full
                        self.not_full.wait(remaining)
            self._put(item)
            self.unfinished_tasks += 1
            self.not_empty.notify()
        finally:
            self.not_full.release()
 
    def put_nowait(self, item):
        """Put an item into the queue without blocking.
 
        Only enqueue the item if a free slot is immediately available.
        Otherwise raise the Full exception.
        """
        return self.put(item, False)
 
    def get(self, block=True, timeout=None):
        """Remove and return an item from the queue.
 
        If optional args 'block' is true and 'timeout' is None (the default),
        block if necessary until an item is available. If 'timeout' is
        a non-negative number, it blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises
        the Empty exception if no item was available within that time.
        Otherwise ('block' is false), return an item if one is immediately
        available, else raise the Empty exception ('timeout' is ignored
        in that case).
        """
        self.not_empty.acquire()
        try:
            if not block:
                if not self._qsize():
                    raise Empty
            elif timeout is None:
                while not self._qsize():
                    self.not_empty.wait()
            elif timeout < 0:
                raise ValueError("'timeout' must be a non-negative number")
            else:
                endtime = _time() + timeout
                while not self._qsize():
                    remaining = endtime - _time()
                    if remaining <= 0.0:
                        raise Empty
                    self.not_empty.wait(remaining)
            item = self._get()
            self.not_full.notify()
            return item
        finally:
            self.not_empty.release()
 
    def get_nowait(self):
        """Remove and return an item from the queue without blocking.
 
        Only get an item if one is immediately available. Otherwise
        raise the Empty exception.
        """
        return self.get(False)
 
    # Override these methods to implement other queue organizations
    # (e.g. stack or priority queue).
    # These will only be called with appropriate locks held
 
    # Initialize the queue representation
    def _init(self, maxsize):
        self.queue = deque()
 
    def _qsize(self, len=len):
        return len(self.queue)
 
    # Put a new item in the queue
    def _put(self, item):
        self.queue.append(item)
 
    # Get an item from the queue
    def _get(self):
        return self.queue.popleft()
 
Queue.Queue

Queue.Queue

三元运算

三元运算（三目运算），是对简单的条件语句的缩写。

# 书写格式
 result = 值1 if 条件 else 值2
 # 如果条件成立，那么将 “值1” 赋值给result变量，否则，将“值2”赋值给result变量

a = 1
 name = 'poe' if a == 1 else 'jet'
 print(name)

深浅拷贝

一、数字和字符串

对于数字和字符串而言，赋值、浅拷贝和深拷贝无意义，因为其永远指向同一个内存

 import copy
 # ######### 数字、字符串 #########
 n1 = 123
 # n1 = "i am alex age 10"
 print(id(n1))
 # ## 赋值 ##
 n2 = n1
 print(id(n2))
 # ## 浅拷贝 ##
 n2 = copy.copy(n1)
 print(id(n2))
 
 # ## 深拷贝 ##
 n3 = copy.deepcopy(n1)
 print(id(n3))

二、其他基本数据类型

对于字典、元祖、列表而言，进行赋值、浅拷贝和深拷贝时，其内存地址的变化是不同的。

1、赋值

赋值，只是创建一个变量，该变量指向原来内存地址，如：

n1 = {"k1": "wu", "k2": 123, "k3": ["alex", 456]}
 
 n2 = n1

2、浅拷贝

浅拷贝，在内存中只额外创建第一层数据

import copy
 
 n1 = {"k1": "wu", "k2": 123, "k3": ["alex", 456]}
 
 n3 = copy.copy(n1)

3、深拷贝

深拷贝，在内存中将所有的数据重新创建一份（排除最后一层，即：python内部对字符串和数字的优化）

 import copy
 
 n1 = {"k1": "wu", "k2": 123, "k3": ["alex", 456]}
 
 n4 = copy.deepcopy(n1)

函数

1：函数的定义

def 函数名(参数):
 
    ...
    函数体
    ...
    返回值

数的定义主要有如下要点：

def：表示函数的关键字
函数名：函数的名称，日后根据函数名调用函数
函数体：函数中进行一系列的逻辑计算，如：发送邮件、计算出 [11,22,38,888,2]中的最大数等...
参数：为函数体提供数据
返回值：当函数执行完毕后，可以给调用者返回数据。

2：返回值

函数是一个功能块，该功能到底执行成功与否，需要通过返回值来告知调用者。

以上要点中，比较重要有参数和返回值：

def 发送短信():
 
    发送短信的代码...
 
    if 发送成功:
        return True
    else:
        return False
 
while True:
 
    # 每次执行发送短信函数，都会将返回值自动赋值给result
    # 之后，可以根据result来写日志，或重发等操作
 
    result = 发送短信()
    if result == False:
        记录日志，短信发送失败...

3：参数

函数有三种不同的参数：

普通参数

# ######### 定义函数 ######### 
 
# name 叫做函数func的形式参数，简称：形参
def func(name):
    print name
 
# ######### 执行函数 #########
#  'wupeiqi' 叫做函数func的实际参数，简称：实参
func('poe')

默认参数

def func(name, age = 18):
 
    print "%s:%s" %(name,age)
 
# 指定参数
func('poe', 19)
# 使用默认参数
func('gin')
 
注：默认参数需要放在参数列表最后

动态参数

def f1(*a):
    print(a,type(a))
f1(123,456,[1,2,3],'who')
## ((123, 456, [1, 2, 3], 'who'), <type 'tuple'>)

def func(**kwargs):
    print args
# 执行方式一
func(name＝'poe',age=18)
 
# 执行方式二
li = {'name':'poe', age:18, 'gender':'male'}
func(**li)

def f1(*a,**b) :#一个星的参数必须在前，两个星的参数必须在后
    print(a,type(a))
    print(b,type(b))
f1(11,22,33,k1=1234,k2=456)
## ((11, 22, 33), <type 'tuple'>)({'k2': 456, 'k1': 1234}, <type 'dict'>)

动态参数传入列表，元组，字典：（注：这几种数据类型在函数传参的时候只有引用传递，没有值传递）

def f1(*args) :
    print(args,type(args))
li = [1,2,3,4]
f1(li)
f1(*li)
## (([1, 2, 3, 4],), <type 'tuple'>)
## ((1, 2, 3, 4), <type 'tuple'>)
def f2(**kwargs) :
    print(kwargs,type(kwargs))
dic = {'k1':123,'k2':456}
f2(k1 = dic)
f2(**dic)
## ({'k1': {'k2': 456, 'k1': 123}}, <type 'dict'>)
## ({'k2': 456, 'k1': 123}, <type 'dict'>)

4：内置函数

注：查看详细猛击这里

数据类型转换函数

chr(i) 函数返回ASCII码对应的字符串

print(chr(65))
print(chr(66))
print(chr(65)+chr(66))
##########################################
A
B
AB

complex(real[,imaginary]) 函数可把字符串或数字转换为复数

print(complex("2+1j"))
print(complex(""))
print(complex(2,1))
##########################################
(2+1j)
(2+0j)
(2+1j)

float(x) 函数把一个数字或字符串转换成浮点数

print(float(12))
print(float(12.2))
##########################################
12.0
12.2

long(x[,base]) 函数把数字和字符串转换成长整数，base为可选的基数
list(x) 函数可将序列对象转换成列表
min(x[,y,z...]) 函数返回给定参数的最小值，参数可以为序列
max(x[,y,z...]) 函数返回给定参数的最大值，参数可以为序列

ord(x) 函数返回一个字符串参数的ASCII码或Unicode值

print(ord('a'))
print(ord(u"A"))
##########################################
97
65

str(obj) 函数把对象转换成可打印字符串
tuple(x) 函数把序列对象转换成tuple
type(x) 可以接收任何东西作为参数――并返回它的数据类型。整型、字符串、列表、字典、元组、函数、类、模块，甚至类型对象都可以作为参数被 type 函数接受