Abstract
Currently, an increasing number of digital images are being generated by and for the general public and professionals. Simultaneously, the protection of these images is crucial for various emerging applications. Encryption is a popular technique for protecting image data confidentiality and privacy. There are multiple existing studies on image encryption, however, most of them are computationally overhead and do not achieve high security. Considering that time cost and security have become the most important factors, designing an efficient encryption algorithm for digital images are necessary. In this paper, a secure chaos-based image encryption algorithm for smart city applications is proposed. First, the You Only Look Once v3 object detection algorithm is used to quickly identify the objects of an image. Second, initialisation and generation of a key is performed with confusion and diffusion operations to get an encrypted object image. This algorithm for encryption has the advantage of strong security performance combined with speed, which is not available in the general encryption system. Experimental results show that this proposed algorithm outperforms other state-of-the-art schemes.
Keywords
1. Introduction
Digital images have become an important type of multimedia information, which occupy a large proportion of network content and smart applications. Smart city and home are the most popular field of the real-time environment of the Internet of things (IoT) applications. Digital images contain a high amount of visual content, thereby conveying information more efficiently in various fields. Digital images can be easily maliciously copied, forged and tampered with during transmission and storage, with significant impact on peoples’ work and life [1]. Therefore, it has become an urgent need and challenge to provide a security solution for digital images against unauthorised use [2], [3]. Encryption is a popular technique for protecting digital images from illegitimate access [4]. Over the past few years, researchers have adopted chaotic-based encryption to provide security for digital images [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]. For example, in [5], a concept of a hyperchaotic map, substitution box (S-box), and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) were used to design an encryption algorithm for colour images. Three S-boxes were generated using a four-dimensional chaotic system. A logistic map was used for the DNA process and false image generation, which acted as the initial key for the seed of the S-box creation. The S-boxes substitute DNA process values to get the encrypted image. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method exhibited satisfactory security as well as robust results.
An interesting chaotic map based on a chaotic map lattice (CML) was introduced by Wang et al. [6] to encrypt the image. The proposed chaotic map demonstrated improved randomness and chaotic characteristics. First, the main characteristics of the image were retrieved, then confusion was performed by coupled XOR schemes. Global scrambling was used for the final encryption of the image. Security results proved that the suggested scheme could resist various attacks. Ali et al. [7] suggested a colour image encryption scheme based on the integration of chaos and the S-box. The S-box was created utilising a piecewise linear chaotic map (PWLCM) and pixel values were changed by the S-box. Diffusion was then performed by a logistic tent map. The security and robustness analysis proved the effectiveness of the suggested scheme; however, the computational cost may be high due to large memory requirements. Noori et al. [8] suggested a partial image encryption approach. First, four sub-bands were obtained by discrete wavelet transform. The texture segmentation approach was used to detect the crucial part in the image. Furthermore, advanced encryption standard and RC4 approaches were used for encryption. The proposed scheme took less time to encrypt the image; however, the entropy and unified averaged changed intensity (UACI) scores were not satisfactory. This meant it was less secure. Liu et al. [9] designed a region of interest (ROI)-based colour image encryption. A histogram of gradient and support vector machine were applied to detect the ROI, and the chaotic systems were used for scrambling and diffusion. The proposed system showed strong resistance against various attacks and also reduced encryption time. Song et al. [10] proposed an encryption scheme for securing the ROI part of an image. You Only Look Once (YOLO) was utilised to detect the objects, and a chaotic system based encryption approach was used. The embedding of a cipher ROI into a plain image was also performed. This scheme provided adequate protection to the ROI part of the image. Pandurangi et al. [11] proposed a selective encryption scheme based on chaos and fuzzy logic. To identify the region for encryption, fuzzy rules of colour information were used. This scheme was secure and had a lower computational costs. Murali et al. [12] suggested a selective encryption image method by utilising chaos and genetic algorithm. The ROI and non-ROI part of the image were separated by orthogonal polynomial transformation based on a genetic algorithm, and the chaotic system ROI part was encrypted. Finally, square-wave diffusion was applied to encrypt the whole image. This scheme demonstrated adequate security features. Meysam et al. [13] designed selective encryption to encrypt just the sensitive part of an image. The author of this paper used YOLOv3 to detect the object in the image and applied chaos-based encryption to encrypt it. The selective image encryption reduced the time required since only the sensitive part of the image was encrypted. In summary, most of the above techniques are costly and do not achieve a high level of security. To overcome these deficiencies, a secure chaos-based image encryption algorithm for digital images is being presented. The main contributions of this paper are outlined below.
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Object detection before encryption: A YOLOv3 [14] object detection algorithm was used to quickly identify the significant object(s) of an image. Consequently, the encryption was applied only to the detected objects of an image, greatly reducing the time cost issue of an encryption algorithm.
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Secure encryption: Initialisation and generation of a key were performed, followed by confusion and diffusion operations to obtain an encrypted object image. The hash value of the image and the PWLCM chaotic maps were used to generate the initial values and parameters of the chaotic system. Then, the precision-limited CML, PWLCM, and skew tent map (STM) were utilised to produce a secure key for image encryption. Finally, confusion and diffusion operations were used to encrypt the image.
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Experimental evaluation: The experimental results showed that the encryption algorithm was highly secure and the encryption/decryption speed was faster, making it suitable for the real-time applications.
The remainder of this paper is presented as follows: Section 2 introduces the preliminary concepts used in the proposed work; Section 3 describes the proposed encryption and decryption algorithm in detail; Section 4 evaluates the algorithm and compares it with other algorithms; and Section 5 is the conclusion of this work.
2. Preliminaries
In this section we discuss some basic concepts of chaotic systems, and YOLO.
2.1. Chaotic system
Chaotic systems are widely used in image encryption. This section discusses three precision Limited chaotic systems with 32-bit integers.
2.1.1. Piecewise linear chaotic map (PWLCM)
PWLCM consists of a number of linear segments. PWLCM with T-bit integer is expressed as -(1)��+1=⌊2�×���⌋0<��<�⌊2�×(��−�)2�−�⌋�<��<2��(2�−��,�)2�−1<��<2�
Where �∈(1,2,….2�−1−1), ��+1 and �� are the next and previous sequence and � is a number of bits which is 32. It has larger chaotic range and also more complex features than logistic map [15]. By equation 1, when two starting sequence �0 and �0′ are related as follow �0=�0′+2�the output fulfil ��=��′. Therefore, space of �0 decreases from to 232 to 231 [16].
2.1.2. Skew tent map (STM)
STM is also a very popular chaotic map. STM is an irreversible transformation and exhibits chaotic behaviour as it has a positive Lyapunov exponent [17]. Mathematically, precision limited STM with T-bit integer is described as:(2)��+1=⌊2�×���⌋���0<��<�2�−1�����=�⌊2�(2�−��)2�−1����<��<2�⌋
Where, parameter �∈[1,2�−1] and ��+1 and �� are next and previous sequence and � is number of bits of precision which is 32.
2.1.3. Chaotic map lattice (CML)
CML shows the high chaotic characteristics and very sensitive to initial value and parameter [18]. It is defined as(3)��+1=(1−�)×�(��)+�((�(��+1)+�(��−1))/2)where(4)�(��+1)=⌊�×��×(2�−��)2�⌋Here, �(��+1) is the T- bit precision limited logistic map, �∈(3.57,4] and � is the coupling parameter, �∈(0,1), �� and ��+1 is previous and next sequence and �=32 is the number of bits of precision.
2.2. You only look once (YOLO)
The YOLO algorithm is a real-time object detection system that identifies specific objects in videos, live feeds or images [14]. It uses features learned by a deep convolutional neural network to detect an object. It has been established that YOLOv3 performs better than its previous versions i.e. YOLOv2 and YOLOv1 [14], [19]. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of YOLOv3 architecture. In YOLOv3, loss function is changed to cross entropy. Multi-class problems are also changed to multi-label problems as there can be multiple labels on the same object. A significant advantage of this change is that two or more labels can be applied to a single object. Logistic regression is now used to predict the label of the object rather than soft max layer which was used in previous versions. The loss function is defined by Eq. (5).
(5)����=��1∑�=0�2∑�=0�1�,��[(�−�ˆ�)2−(�−�ˆ�)2]+��1∑�=0�2∑�=0�(2−��×ℎ�)[(��−��ˆ)2+(ℎ�−ℎ�ˆ)2]−∑�=0�2∑�=0�1�,��[�ˆ����(��)+(1−�ˆ�)���(1−��)]−��2∑�=0�2∑�=0�1�,��[�ˆ����(��)+(1−�ˆ�)���(1−��)]−∑�=0�21�,��∑�=��������2[�ˆ�(�)���(��(�))+(1−�ˆ�(�))���(1−��(�))]
Fig. 1. Architecture of YOLOv3.
Here, ��1 and ��2 are the parameters that stabilise the training, P is the number of classes, �2 is the number of cells and M is the number of prediction boxes bounding the objects. The terms i and 1��� represent the �th bound box predictions in cell i. The output of YOLOv3 is given in Fig. 2. Here, the person identified by this algorithm is inscribed in the blue bounding boxes (b) and their combined ROI is in the next image (c).
Fig. 2. (a) Original Image - 406 (b) Detected Objects (c) ROI.
3. Proposed algorithm
The simplified procedure of the proposed algorithm is shown in Fig. 3. A key is generated by using image and SHA-512 then significant parts of the image are detected using YOLO, these parts are combined to yield ROI . Using a combination of three chaotic maps, confusion and diffusion process is done on ROI which yields the encrypted and secured image. The proposed algorithm consisted of three major parts: the object detection from the plain image, initialisation and generation of a key and encryption and decryption operations. The stepwise procedures for each phase are illustrated in a separate subsection. Some commonly used notations in these algorithms are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Notation and description.
| Notation | Description | Notation | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| W | Width | �� | Confusion matrix |
| for image | |||
| H | Height | VL | Diffusion Matrix |
| for image | |||
| �� | PWLCM �th iteration | �� | STM �th iteration |
| result | result | ||
| ��−1 | CML (�−1)th iteration | �� | CML �th iteration |
| result | result | ||
| D | Dimension | ��� | Length of �� |
| �� | Result of �th | ��� | Length of �� |
| iteration |
3.1. Object detection
In our algorithm, we uses the YOLOv3 [14] object detection algorithm to quickly identify the significant objects of an image. The detailed procedure to identify the object area is described in Algorithm 1. In Algorithm 1, YOLOv3 returns all of the objects to their origins and end points. To get the coordinates of the significant objects, the minimum point from these origin points and the maximum point from the end points were found. This yielded the coordinates in the image for where it needed cropping. The image was then cropped using the origin and end points.
Fig. 3. Sketch of the proposed algorithm for images.
3.2. The key initialisation and generation procedure
Key initialisation is a very important step for any chaotic-based encryption because it is very sensitive to initial values and parameters. The hash value of the plain image was first obtained by SHA-512, which returned a 512-bit hash value. From the 512-bit value, the 492-bit hash value was divided into nine sub-keys (i.e. �1 to �9) to obtain the sub-key array. Finally, a PWLCM map was used to obtain the initial values, which are naturally more uncertain. The key generation step involved three precision limited chaotic maps (STM, PWLCM and CML) to generate the confusion and diffusion key. The length of �� (the confusion key) and �� (the diffusion key) is width × height × dimension. Here, �� and �� are created in a 1-Dimensional List, which is reshaping into 3-Dimension matrix. A random sequence ‘��’ is generated as follows(6)��=((���(�1,�4)��������(�2,�5))+���(�3))mod2�
Where, �1,�2 and �3 are initial values of STM, PWLCM, and CML map, respectively. However, �4 and �5 are the parameters of STM and PWLCM, respectively. Algorithm 2 and Algorithm 3 show the detailed steps of the key initialisation and generation algorithm, respectively.
3.3. Encryption and decryption process
Confusion and diffusion processes were involved in the encryption phase. Using YOLOv3, a significant part of the image was cropped. This image ‘C’ was confused by ��. The image was then converted into a one-dimensional (1D) array, and permutation was performed by the index of ��, which later reshaped the image to its original shape to perform diffusion. The permuted image ‘C’ was diffused by row and column. For diffusion, the current pixel value, previous pixel value, and �� value were added and then modulus 256 operations were performed using Eq. (7). For the 0th row and column, a circular shift was used to acquire the final pixel value.(7)�(�)=(�(�)+�(�−1)+��(�))���256
Where, �(�) is pixel value at �th index, and (�−1)th index is in circular shift manner. The process of decryption is the inverse of the encryption process. To obtain the �� and ��, the keys were obtained from the initial encrypted process, which were provided for decryption, to generate the �� and ��. Row and column-wise inverse diffusions were then applied to the cipher image. This was followed by an inverse permutation to the flattened 1D list for the final decryption of the image, which was later reshaped to its original shape to get the decrypted image. Algorithm 4 and Algorithm 5 show the detailed steps of the encryption and decryption algorithm, respectively.
4. Performance analysis
The simulation results of the proposed scheme are discussed in this section. Python was used to execute the experiment with a computer configuration of 8 GB RAM and a Core i5-9300H @ 2.40 GHz processor. Some standard colour images were selected from the Kaggle data set [20]. Sample images are shown in Fig. 4.
The YOLOv3 algorithm was utilised to detect the person object in the image. The result of object detection is shown in Fig. 5(b). All objects were combined to detect the ROI (Fig. 5[c]). The visual effect of the proposed encryption scheme is shown in Fig. 6. This figure depicts the encryption and decryption of the ROI. To ensure the effectiveness of the proposed scheme, the test was classified into three parts: computational cost, security and robustness analysis.
Fig. 4. Sample test images.
4.1. Time cost evaluation
Encryption scheme efficiency is measured by the amount of time it takes to encrypt an image. Table 2 represents the encryption time of this scheme to encrypt both the cropped image and the whole image. This demonstrates that the time needed to encrypt the whole image was much longer than that of the cropped part. For example, the encryption time for image-21 was 5.4760 s while the detected object portion (cropped image) took only 0.8036 s to encrypt, which is 85.33percent less than the total time of encryption of the whole image. Therefore, by detecting objects in the images, they can be encrypted in much less time. In addition, the time cost of the suggested algorithm are compared with the more recent schemes [21], [22], [23] in Table 3, indicating better performance.
Table 2. Time cost evaluation.
| Image | Cropped image | Whole image | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Empty Cell | Size | Encryption time(s) | Decryption time(s) | Size | Encryption time(s) | Decryption time(s) |
| 21 | 462 × 154 | 0.8036 | 0.7587 | 652 × 658 | 5.4760 | 5.4946 |
| 58 | 156 × 64 | 0.0932 | 0.0918 | 358 × 349 | 1.4982 | 1.4534 |
| 80 | 184 × 64 | 0.1262 | 0.1128 | 444 × 502 | 2.8119 | 2.8566 |
| 121 | 439 × 252 | 1.2223 | 1.2192 | 652 × 686 | 6.0550 | 5.9889 |
| 181 | 182 × 50 | 0.0772 | 0.0748 | 256 × 256 | 0.6287 | 0.6381 |
| 184 | 216 × 230 | 0.4849 | 0.4634 | 256 × 256 | 0.7172 | 0.7510 |
| 204 | 162 × 138 | 0.2126 | 0.2309 | 256 × 256 | 0.6808 | 0.6856 |
| 207 | 206 × 164 | 0.3570 | 0.3543 | 256 × 256 | 0.6747 | 0.6964 |
| 209 | 166 × 197 | 0.3453 | 0.3564 | 256 × 256 | 0.7426 | 0.7497 |
| 222 | 208 × 66 | 0.1290 | 0.1208 | 256 × 256 | 0.7083 | 0.7190 |
| 272 | 198 × 56 | 0.1208 | 0.1073 | 256 × 256 | 0.7193 | 0.7275 |
| 312 | 135 × 61 | 0.0986 | 0.0850 | 256 × 256 | 0.7030 | 0.7453 |
| 335 | 180 × 137 | 0.4292 | 0.3421 | 256 × 256 | 1.2058 | 1.1782 |
| 362 | 131 × 38 | 0.1055 | 0.0892 | 256 × 256 | 0.9062 | 0.8174 |
| 373 | 135 × 148 | 0.2212 | 0.3375 | 256 × 256 | 1.0882 | 0.6933 |
| 398 | 128 × 54 | 0.0691 | 0.0629 | 256 × 256 | 0.7184 | 0.7511 |
| group | 274 × 510 | 1.4719 | 1.4820 | 340 × 512 | 1.9199 | 1.9693 |
Table 3. Comparison of time cost of Lena image (256 × 256).
4.2. Histogram analysis
The histogram represents the number of pixels in each grey level [24]. An attacker may find information useful to plot the histogram of the cipher image. A strong encryption algorithm is one that provides a uniform histogram of cipher images. Fig. 7(a), (b) and (c) represent the histogram of the red, green and blue channels of the ROI of image-21, respectively, while the histograms of the red, green and blue channels of the encrypted ROI of image-21 are shown in Fig. 7(d), (e) and (f). It is clear from these images that the histogram of the plain ROI of image-21 is not uniform compared with the histogram of the encrypted ROI. Therefore, an attacker would be unable to extract any meaningful information from the encrypted images.
Fig. 5. (a) Original Image (b) Detected Persons (c) Combined ROI.
Fig. 6. (a) Original Image-209 (b) Encrypted ROI (c) Decrypted ROI.
Fig. 7. Histogram of cropped image-21 (a) red channel (b) green channel (c) blue channel, corresponding encrypted image histogram: (d) red channel (e) blue channel (f) green channel.
4.3. Correlation analysis
Correlation shows how adjacent pixels of an image are related. Generally, plain images have a high correlation between the adjacent pixels. A good encryption scheme should reduce the correlation between the adjacent pixels to zero in a cipher image. A correlation coefficient is used to measure the correlation. To measure the correlation we randomly chosen 5000 sample of adjacent pixels in image in horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions and calculate the correlation coefficient as follow:(8)��,�=�[(�−�(�))(�−�(�))]�(�)�(�)(9)�(�)=1�∑�=1���(10)�(�)=1�∑�=1�(��−�(�))2Where ��,�: Correlation between adjacent pixel � and �, �(�): average value of image pixels, �(�): variance of image pixels. Table 4 shows the correlation analysis of the ROI of an image. This table indicates that the correlation coefficient in the ROI of the image is high and close to one in all three directions and channels (red, blue and green), but at the same time all correlation coefficients approach zero for the encrypted ROI of the image. In addition, result comparisons with recent schemes [6], [21], [22] are depicted in Table 5 for a more complete view. The correlation of the ROI of image-58 has been plotted in the horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions in Fig. 8, indicating that the correlation in the plain image where the pixels are distributed is on the diagonal. This demonstrates a strong correlation between the adjacent pixels. However, the pixels in the encrypted ROI are evenly distributed over the surface; therefore, the adjacent pixels of the encrypted ROI have no correlation. This indicates that the proposed encryption scheme greatly reduces the correlation between adjacent pixels and is qualified to resist statistical attack.
Table 4. Correlation analysis of cropped image.
| Image | Direction | Plain cropped image | Encrypted cropped Image | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Empty Cell | Empty Cell | Red | Green | Blue | Red | Green | Blue |
| 21 | Horizontal | 0.9964 | 0.9965 | 0.9962 | −0.0150 | 0.0129 | −0.0023 |
| Vertical | 0.9981 | 0.9982 | 0.9983 | −0.0006 | 0.0200 | 0.0017 | |
| Diagonal | 0.9946 | 0.9945 | 0.9945 | 0.0214 | 0.0061 | 0.0049 | |
| 121 | Horizontal | 0.9868 | 0.9886 | 0.9886 | 0.0105 | −0.0141 | 0.0097 |
| Vertical | 0.9840 | 0.9864 | 0.9861 | 0.0148 | −0.0075 | 0.0160 | |
| Diagonal | 0.9720 | 0.9758 | 0.9755 | 0.0092 | 0.0003 | −0.0006 | |
| 207 | Horizontal | 0.9890 | 0.9875 | 0.9884 | 0.0129 | −0.0107 | 0.0040 |
| Vertical | 0.9864 | 0.9861 | 0.9867 | 0.0116 | 0.0201 | −0.0205 | |
| Diagonal | 0.9764 | 0.9750 | 0.9764 | −0.0205 | −0.0204 | −0.0109 | |
| 335 | Horizontal | 0.9641 | 0.9731 | 0.9720 | 0.0097 | 0.0250 | −0.0174 |
| Vertical | 0.9868 | 0.9897 | 0.9880 | 0.0109 | −0.0043 | −0.0233 | |
| Diagonal | 0.9567 | 0.9672 | 0.9650 | −0.0070 | −0.0188 | −0.0005 | |
4.4. Entropy analysis
Information entropy represents the uncertainty and randomness of information in a colour image. Entropy value 8 represents the highest degree of randomness in the image. The information entropy is calculated as(11)�(�)=−∑�=0255(�(��)(���2�(��)))Where, �(��): probability of pixel ��. Entropy analysis of our scheme is shown in Table 6. For the entire encrypted image, the maximum and minimum entropy scores obtained were 7.99961 and 7.99766, respectively, and the mean entropy of the 20 test encrypted images was 7.99788. The entropy value of the cropped encrypted image was also very near to 8. The entropy score was also compared with recent works [7], [21], [22]. As can be observed, the images encrypted by the suggested scheme provide better randomness in encrypted image.
Table 6. Information entropy analysis.
Fig. 8. Correlation analysis of cropped image-58: (a) horizontal (b) vertical (c) diagonal, corresponding encrypted image: (d) horizontal (e) vertical (f) diagonal.
4.5. Chi-square analysis
A chi-square test was used to measure the uniformity in the histogram. An encrypted ROI of an image chi-square value is acceptable if it is less than 293.2478 [25]. It is defined as:(12)�2=∑�=0255(��−��)2��where, �� and �� indicate the observed and expected frequency count for pixel at index j. Table 7 represents the results of the chi-square test. It can be seen that all �2 values of the encrypted ROI of the image histogram for the three colour channels were less than the acceptable values.
Table 7. Chi-square test analysis.
| Image | R | G | B | Avg | Decision |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 121 | 243 | 315 | 210 | 256 | PASS |
| 181 | 277 | 241 | 255 | 258 | PASS |
| 184 | 235 | 255 | 248 | 246 | PASS |
| 204 | 268 | 252 | 259 | 260 | PASS |
| 207 | 253 | 261 | 223 | 246 | PASS |
| 209 | 264 | 274 | 242 | 260 | PASS |
| 21 | 242 | 268 | 252 | 254 | PASS |
| 222 | 220 | 223 | 245 | 229 | PASS |
| 272 | 252 | 255 | 264 | 257 | PASS |
4.6. Differential analysis
A differential attack was performed by making minor modifications to the original image, then encrypting both the plain text and the modified images and attempting to identify the relationship between them. The NPCR (Number of Pixels Change Rate) and UACI (Unified Average Changing Intensity) metrics were used to gauge the strength of an encryption scheme against differential attacks [26]. These are defined as:(13)����=1�×�∑�,��(�,�)(14)����=1�×�∑�,�‖�(�,�)−�′(�,�)‖255(15)�(�,�)=0���(�,�)=�′(�,�)1���(�,�)≠�′(�,�)Where, �(�,�): encrypted plain image, �′(�,�): encrypted modified image. For a qualified encryption approach, the optimal values for NPCR and UACI are 0.996034 and 0.3346, respectively. To assess the performance of this scheme, the NPCR and UACI scores for were calculated the red, green, and blue channels of the ROI image. Table 8 shows the differential analysis for the ROI of the image. Table 8 shows that the average NPCR value was 0.9963 for the red channel, 0.9961 for the green channel and 0.9960 for the blue channel. The UACI for the red, green and blue channels were 0.3352, 0.3339 and 0.3343, respectively. It is clear that all NPCR and UACI scores were very close to the optimal ones. The NPCR and UACI scores of the proposed scheme were also compared with recent works [7], [21], [22] and demonstrate better results (see Table 9). This discussion proves that this scheme was very efficient to withstand the differential attack.
Table 8. Differential analysis of cropped image.
| Image | NPCR | UACI | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Empty Cell | R | G | B | R | G | B |
| 21 | 0.9962 | 0.9960 | 0.9963 | 0.3336 | 0.3349 | 0.3341 |
| 58 | 0.9973 | 0.9963 | 0.9958 | 0.3376 | 0.3354 | 0.3324 |
| 80 | 0.9961 | 0.9956 | 0.9961 | 0.3339 | 0.3345 | 0.3362 |
| 121 | 0.9963 | 0.9963 | 0.9960 | 0.3355 | 0.3340 | 0.3342 |
| 181 | 0.9962 | 0.9959 | 0.9960 | 0.3319 | 0.3361 | 0.3331 |
| Mean | 0.9963 | 0.9961 | 0.9960 | 0.3352 | 0.3339 | 0.3343 |
4.7. Key space and sensitivity analysis
To successfully withstand a brute-force attack, a strong image encryption scheme must have a wide key space, and it must be greater than 2100 [27]. This proposed encryption method utilised SHA-512, which generated a 512-bit hash code, in which a total 412-bit hash was used to generate the key. The key space of proposed scheme was 2412, which is much greater than 2100. Therefore, the suggested algorithm can effectively resist a brute-force attack. Key sensitivity testing was performed by changing a single bit in the encryption key because encryption schemes are very sensitive to their encryption key. To perform key sensitivity testing, encryption was applied on an ROI image with correct and incorrect keys. The results of encryption with the correct key (�1) and the decryption with the single bit changed key (�2) are shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9(b) and (c) represent the results of the encryption with keys (�1) and (�2), respectively. Fig. 9(d) represents the decrypted image which was encrypted and decrypted by(�1). Fig. 9(e) depicts the decryption result if encryption was performed by K1, while the decryption was done by (�2). The difference between the cipher images obtained from keys (�1) and (�2) was calculated as 99.76 percent. This analysis proved that the key sensitivity of this proposed scheme was very high.
Fig. 9. (a): ROI of image-121, (b): encrypted ROI by key (�1) (c): encrypted ROI by key (�2), (d): decrypted ROI (enc: (�1) and dec: (�1)), (e): decrypted ROI (enc: (�1) and dec: (�2)) (f): difference of (b) and (c).
4.8. Robustness analysis
A qualified encryption scheme must be resistant to noise and data loss. Salt-and-pepper and Gaussian noise were used to assess the effect of a noise attack on the proposed scheme. Salt-and-pepper noise intensities of 1%, 0.5% and 0.1% were added to the full image with encrypted ROI. The results of the decryption are shown in Fig. 10(a), (b) and (c). The effect of the Gaussian noise intensities of 1%, 0.5% and 0.1% are shown in Fig. 10(d), (e) and (f). The effect of the clipping attack with strength 1/16, 1/32 and 1/64 are shown in Fig. 10(g), (h) and (i). The PSNR score between the original and decrypted image is listed in Table 10. The PSNR scores for the 0.1% salt-and-pepper and Gaussian noise were 30.01 and 34.23, respectively. The maximum PSNR score is obtained as 23.76 against clipping attack with strength 1/64. The visual quality of the decrypted images shows the robustness of the proposed scheme against noise attacks.
Fig. 10. Decrypted image with ROI with salt & pepper noise of strength: (a) 1%, (b) 0.5% (c) 0.1%. Decrypted images with ROI with effect of Gaussian noise of strength: (d)1%, (e) 0.5% (f) 0.1%. Decrypted images with ROI with Clipping portion:(g)1/16, (h) 1/32, (i) 1/64.
Table 10. Noise attack PSNR analysis.
| Noise | Strength | PSNR |
|---|---|---|
| Salt and pepper | 1% | 20.45 |
| 0.5% | 23.01 | |
| 0.1% | 30.01 | |
| Gaussian | 1% | 23.97 |
| 0.5% | 27.30 | |
| 0.1% | 34.23 | |
| Clipping attack | 1/16 | 18.0 |
| 1/32 | 20.76 | |
| 1/64 | 23.76 |
5. Conclusion
This paper demonstrates that a secure chaos-based image encryption algorithm was developed that uses an object detection algorithm to solve the problem of the very low efficiency of current image encryption algorithms. The algorithm uses the hash value of the image and three chaotic maps to improve the security of the encryption algorithm. Considering the mechanism of real-time object detection, YOLOv3 was used to quickly identify the objects of a plain image. To improve the encryption and decryption speed, the encryption was only applied to the detected object part of the image. Extensive simulation and testing results were performed, demonstrating that the algorithm is very effective in terms of different analyses such as security, visual quality and robustness and indicating that it will be useful for practical applications. In the future, the efficiency of the image encryption algorithm will be improved as far as possible while maintaining its security.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Kedar Nath Singh: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing – original draft. Om Prakash Singh: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Naman Baranwal: Supervision, Software, Validation, Visualization. Amit Kumar Singh: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
All authors approved the version of the manuscript to be published.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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