Actual infinity

In the philosophy of mathematics, the abstraction of actual infinity involves the acceptance (if the axiom of infinity is included) of infinite entities as given, actual and completed objects. These might include the set of natural numbers, extended real numbers, transfinite numbers, or even an infinite sequence of rational numbers. Actual infinity is to be contrasted with potential infinity, in which a non-terminating process (such as “add 1 to the previous number”) produces a sequence with no last element, and where each individual result is finite and is achieved in a finite number of steps. As a result, potential infinity is often formalized using the concept of limit.[1]

1 Anaximander

Main article: Apeiron (cosmology)
The ancient Greek term for the potential or improper infinite was apeiron (unlimited or indefinite), in contrast to the actual or proper infinite aphorismenon.[2] Apeiron stands opposed to that which has a peras (limit). These notions are today denoted by potentially infinite and actually infinite, respectively.

Anaximander (610–546 BC) held that the apeiron was the principle or main element composing all things. Clearly, the ‘apeiron’ was some sort of basic substance. Plato’s notion of the apeiron is more abstract, having to do with indefinite variability. The main dialogues where Plato discusses the ‘apeiron’ are the late dialogues Parmenides and the Philebus.

2 Aristotle

Aristotle sums up the views of his predecessors on infinity as follows:

“Only the Pythagoreans place the infinite among the objects of sense (they do not regard number as separable from these), and assert that what is outside the heaven is infinite. Plato, on the other hand, holds that there is no body outside (the Forms are not outside because they are nowhere), yet that the infinite is present not only in the objects of sense but in the Forms also.” (Aristotle)[3]

The theme was brought forward by Aristotle’s consideration of the apeiron—in the context of mathematics and physics (the study of nature):

“Infinity turns out to be the opposite of what people say it is. It is not ‘that which has nothing beyond itself’ that is infinite, but ‘that which always has something beyond itself’.” (Aristotle)[4]

Belief in the existence of the infinite comes mainly from five considerations:[5]

From the nature of time – for it is infinite.
From the division of magnitudes – for the mathematicians also use the notion of the infinite.
If coming to be and passing away do not give out, it is only because that from which things come to be is infinite.
Because the limited always finds its limit in something, so that there must be no limit, if everything is always limited by something different from itself.
Most of all, a reason which is peculiarly appropriate and presents the difficulty that is felt by everybody – not only number but also mathematical magnitudes and what is outside the heaven are supposed to be infinite because they never give out in our thought. (Aristotle)
Aristotle postulated that an actual infinity was impossible, because if it were possible, then something would have attained infinite magnitude, and would be “bigger than the heavens.” However, he said, mathematics relating to infinity was not deprived of its applicability by this impossibility, because mathematicians did not need the infinite for their theorems, just a finite, arbitrarily large magnitude.[6]

2.1 Aristotle’s potential–actual distinction

Aristotle handled the topic of infinity in Physics and in Metaphysics. He distinguished between actual and potential infinity. Actual infinity is completed and definite, and consists of infinitely many elements. Potential infinity is never complete: elements can be always added, but never infinitely many.

“For generally the infinite has this mode of existence: one thing is always being taken after another, and each thing that is taken is always finite, but always different.”

— Aristotle, Physics, book 3, chapter 6.
Aristotle distinguished between infinity with respect to addition and division.

But Plato has two infinities, the Great and the Small.

— Physics, book 3, chapter 4.
“As an example of a potentially infinite series in respect to increase, one number can always be added after another in the series that starts 1,2,3,… but the process of adding more and more numbers cannot be exhausted or completed.”[citation needed]

With respect to division, a potentially infinite sequence of divisions might start, for example, 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, but the process of division cannot be exhausted or completed.
“For the fact that the process of dividing never comes to an end ensures that this activity exists potentially, but not that the infinite exists separately.”

— Metaphysics, book 9, chapter 6.
Aristotle also argued that Greek mathematicians knew the difference among the actual infinite and a potential one, but they “do not need the [actual] infinite and do not use it” (Phys. III 2079 29).[7]

3 Scholastic, Renaissance and Enlightenment thinkers

The overwhelming majority of scholastic philosophers adhered to the motto Infinitum actu non datur. This means there is only a (developing, improper, “syncategorematic”) potential infinity but not a (fixed, proper, “categorematic”) actual infinity. There were exceptions, however, for example in England.

It is well known that in the Middle Ages all scholastic philosophers advocate Aristotle’s “infinitum actu non datur” as an irrefutable principle. (G. Cantor)[8]

Actual infinity exists in number, time and quantity. (J. Baconthorpe [9, p. 96])

During the Renaissance and by early modern times the voices in favor of actual infinity were rather rare.

The continuum actually consists of infinitely many indivisibles (G. Galilei [9, p. 97])

I am so in favour of actual infinity. (G.W. Leibniz [9, p. 97])

However, the majority of pre-modern thinkers[citation needed] agreed with the well-known quote of Gauss:

I protest against the use of infinite magnitude as something completed, which is never permissible in mathematics. Infinity is merely a way of speaking, the true meaning being a limit which certain ratios approach indefinitely close, while others are permitted to increase without restriction.[9] (C.F. Gauss [in a letter to Schumacher, 12 July 1831])

4 Modern era

5 Current mathematical practice

6 Opposition from the Intuitionist school

7 Classical set theory

8 See also