Voltage regulator
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A
Electronicvoltage regulators are found in devices such ascomputer
Measures of regulatorquality[edit]
The outputvoltage can only beheld
- loadregulation
is the change in output voltage fora given change in load current (for example: "typically15 mV, maximum 100 mV for loadcurrents between 5 mA and 1.4 A,at some specified temperature and input voltage"). - lineregulation
or inputregulation is the degree to which outputvoltage changes with input (supply) voltage changes - as a ratio ofoutput to input change (for example "typically13 mV/V"), or the output voltage change over theentire specified input voltage range (for example "plus or minus 2%for input voltages between 90 V and260 V, 50-60 Hz").
Otherimportant parameters are:
- Temperaturecoefficient
of the output voltage is thechange with temperature (perhaps averaged over a given temperaturerange). - Initialaccuracy
of a voltage regulator (or simply"the voltage accuracy") reflects the error in output voltage for afixed regulator without taking into account temperature or agingeffects on output accuracy. - Dropoutvoltage
is the minimum difference betweeninput voltage and output voltage for which the regulator can stillsupply the specified current. A lowdrop-out (LDO) regulator is designed to workwell even with an input supply only a volt orso above the output voltage. The input-output differential at whichthe voltage regulator will no longer maintain regulation is thedropout voltage. Further reduction in input voltage will result inreduced output voltage. This value is dependent on load current andjunction temperature. - Absolute maximumratings
are defined for regulator components,specifying the continuous and peak output currents that may be used(sometimes internally limited), the maximum input voltage, maximumpower dissipation at a given temperature, etc. - Outputnoise
(thermal whitenoise) and output dynamicimpedance may be specified as graphs versusfrequency, whileoutput ripple noise (mains"hum" or switch-mode "hash" noise) may be given as peak-to-peakor RMS voltages,or in terms of their spectra. - Quiescentcurrent
in a regulator circuit is the currentdrawn internally, not available to the load, normally measured asthe input current while no load is connected (and hence a source ofinefficiency; some linearregulators are, surprisingly, more efficientat very low current loads than switch-mode designs because ofthis). - Transientresponse
is the reaction of a regulator when a(sudden) change of the load current (calledthe load transient) or input voltage(called the line transient) occurs. Someregulators will tend to oscillate or have a slow response timewhich in some cases might lead to undesired results. This value isdifferent from the regulation parameters, as that is the stablesituation definition. The transient response shows the behaviour ofthe regulator on a change. This data is usually provided in thetechnical documentation of a regulator and is also dependent onoutput capacitance. - Mirror-image insertionprotection
means that a regulator is designedfor use when a voltage, usually not higher than the maximum inputvoltage of the regulator, is applied to its output pin while itsinput terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded. Someregulators can continuously withstand this situation; others mightonly manage it for a limited time such as 60 seconds, as usuallyspecified in the datasheet. This situation can occur when a threeterminal regulator is incorrectly mounted for example on a PCB,with the output terminal connected to the unregulated DC input andthe input connected to the load. Mirror-image insertion protectionis also important when a regulator circuit is used in batterycharging circuits, when external power fails or is not turned onand the output terminal remains at battery voltage.
Electronic voltageregulators[edit]
A simplevoltage regulator can be made from a resistor in series witha
Feedbackvoltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltageto some fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified andused to control the regulation element in such a way as to reducethe voltage error. This forms anegativefeedback
Electromechanicalregulators[edit]
Inelectromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is easilyaccomplished by coiling the sensing wire to make an electromagnet.The
If themechanical regulator design is sensitive to small voltagefluctuations, the motion of the solenoid core can be used to move aselector switch across a range of resistances or transformerwindings to gradually step the output voltage up or down, or torotate the position of a moving-coil AC regulator.
Early
Theregulators used for DC generators (but not alternators) alsodisconnect the generator when it was not producing electricity,thereby preventing the battery from discharging back into thegenerator and attempting to run it as a motor.The
More moderndesigns now use
Electromechanical regulators are used for mains voltagestabilisation—see
Coil-rotation AC voltageregulator[edit]
This is anolder type of regulator used in the 1920s that uses the principleof a fixed-position field coil and a second field coil that can berotated on an axis in parallel with the fixed coil, similar toa
When themovable coil is positioned perpendicular to the fixed coil, themagnetic forces acting on the movable coil balance each other outand voltage output is unchanged. Rotating the coil in one directionor the other away from the center position will increase ordecrease voltage in the secondary movable coil.
This typeof regulator can be automated via a servo control mechanism toadvance the movable coil position in order to provide voltageincrease or decrease. A braking mechanism or high ratio gearing isused to hold the rotating coil in place against the powerfulmagnetic forces acting on the moving coil.
AC voltagestabilizers[edit]
Electromechanical[edit]
Electromechanical regulators called
Constant-voltagetransformer[edit]
The
Theferroresonant approach is attractive due to its lack of activecomponents, relying on the square loop saturation characteristicsof the tank circuit to absorb variations in average input voltage.Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilizean AC power supply.
Olderdesigns of ferroresonant transformers had an output withhigh
Theferroresonant transformers, which are also known as ConstantVoltage Transformers (CVTs) or ferros, are also good surgesuppressors, as they provide high isolation and inherentshort-circuit protection.
Aferroresonant transformer can operate with an input voltage range±40% or more of the nominal voltage.
Outputpower factor remains in the range of 0.96 or higher from half tofull load.
Because itregenerates an output voltage waveform, output distortion, which istypically less than 4%, is independent of any input voltagedistortion, including notching.
Efficiencyat full load is typically in the range of 89% to 93%. However, atlow loads, efficiency can drop below 60%. The current-limitingcapability also becomes a handicap when a CVT is used in anapplication with moderate to high
Minimummaintenance is required, as transformers and capacitors can be veryreliable. Some units have included redundant capacitors to allowseveral capacitors to fail between inspections without anynoticeable effect on the device's performance.
Outputvoltage varies about 1.2% for every 1% change in supply frequency.For example, a 2 Hz change in generator frequency, which is verylarge, results in an output voltage change of only 4%, which haslittle effect for most loads.
It accepts100% single-phase switch-mode power supply loading without anyrequirement for derating, including all neutral components.
Inputcurrent distortion remains less than 8%
Drawbacksof CVTs are their larger size, audible humming sound, and the highheat generation caused by saturation. Also, the regulation is notas good as solid state devices, so these units are obsolete formost purposes.
DC voltagestabilizers[edit]
Many simpleDC power supplies regulate the voltage usinga
If thestabilizer must provide more power, the shunt regulator output isonly used to provide the standard voltage reference for theelectronic device, known as the voltage stabilizer. The voltagestabilizer is the electronic device, able to deliver much largercurrents on demand.
Activeregulators[edit]
Activeregulators employ at least one active (amplifying) component suchas a transistor or operational amplifier. Shunt regulators areoften (but not always) passive and simple, but always inefficientbecause they (essentially) dump the excess current not needed bythe load. When more power must be supplied, more sophisticatedcircuits are used. In general, these active regulators can bedivided into several classes:
- Linear series regulators
- Switching regulators
- SCR regulators
Linearregulators[edit]
Linearregulators are based on devices that operate in their linear region(in contrast, a switching regulator is based on a device forced toact as an on/off switch). In the past, one ormore
Entirelinear regulators are available as
Switchingregulators[edit]
Switchingregulators rapidly switch a series device on and off.The
Like linearregulators, nearly-complete switching regulators are also availableas integrated circuits. Unlike linear regulators, these usuallyrequire one external component: an
Comparing linear vs.switching regulators[edit]
The twotypes of regulators have their different advantages:
- Linear regulators are best whenlow output noise (and low
RFI radiatednoise) is required - Linear regulators are best when afast response to input and output disturbances is required.
- At low levels of power, linearregulators are cheaper and occupy less
printedcircuit board space. - Switching regulators are bestwhen power efficiency is critical (such asin
portablecomputers), except linearregulators are more efficient in a small number of cases (such as a5V microprocessor often in "sleep" mode fed from a 6Vbattery, if the complexityof the switching circuit and the junction capacitance chargingcurrent means a high quiescent current in the switchingregulator). - Switching regulators are requiredwhen the only power supply is a DC voltage, and a higher outputvoltage is required.
- At high levels of power (above afew watts), switching regulators are cheaper (for example, the costof removing heat generated is less).
SCRregulators[edit]
Regulatorspowered from AC power circuits can use
Combination (hybrid)regulators[edit]
Many powersupplies use more than one regulating method in series. Forexample, the output from a switching regulator can be furtherregulated by a linear regulator. The switching regulator accepts awide range of input voltages and efficiently generates a (somewhatnoisy) voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output. Thatis followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly thedesired voltage and eliminates nearly allthe
Examplelinear regulators[edit]
Transistorregulator[edit]
In thesimplest case
Thestabilizer uses the power source, having voltage Uin
The outputvoltage of the stabilizer is equal to UZ
Rv
Regulator with anoperational amplifier[edit]
Thestability of the output voltage can be significantly increased byusing an
In thiscase, the operational amplifier drives the transistor with morecurrent if the voltage at its inverting input drops below theoutput of the voltage reference at the non-inverting input. Usingthe
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^
TexasInstruments LM2825 Integrated Power Supply 1A DC-DCConverter, retrieved2010-09-19 - ^
LinearTechnology μModule Regulators, retrieved2011-03-08