算法导论-附录A.1-3
对 0 < ∣ x ∣ < 1 0<|x|<1 0<∣x∣<1，证明 ∑ k = 0 ∞ k 2 x k = x ( 1 + x ) / ( 1 − x ) 3 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty k^2x^k=x(1+x)/(1-x)^3 k=0∑∞k2xk=x(1+x)/(1−x)3。
等比数列求和公式： ∑ k = 0 n − 1 x k = 1 − x n 1 − x \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} x^k=\frac{1-x^n}{1-x} k=0∑n−1xk=1−x1−xn
由于 0 < ∣ x ∣ < 1 0<|x|<1 0<∣x∣<1，取极限可得， ∑ k = 0 ∞ x k = 1 ( 1 − x ) \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty x^k=\frac{1}{(1-x)} k=0∑∞xk=(1−x)1。
上述极限等式两边同时对x求导，可得 ( ∑ k = 0 ∞ x k ) ′ = ∑ k = 0 ∞ k x k − 1 = 1 x ∑ k = 0 ∞ k x k (\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty x^k)'=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty kx^{k-1}=\frac{1}{x}\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty kx^k (k=0∑∞xk)′=k=0∑∞kxk−1=x1k=0∑∞kxk，且 ( 1 1 − x ) ′ = 1 ( 1 − x ) 2 (\displaystyle \frac{1}{1-x})'=\displaystyle \frac{1}{(1-x)^2} (1−x1)′=(1−x)21，
则有， ∑ k = 0 ∞ k x k = x ( 1 − x ) 2 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty kx^k=\frac{x}{(1-x)^2} k=0∑∞kxk=(1−x)2x。
同样的，等式 ∑ k = 0 ∞ k x k = x ( 1 − x ) 2 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty kx^k=\frac{x}{(1-x)^2} k=0∑∞kxk=(1−x)2x两边同时x求导，可得到
( ∑ k = 0 ∞ k x k ) ′ = ∑ k = 0 ∞ k 2 x k − 1 = 1 x ∑ k = 0 ∞ k 2 x k (\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty kx^k)'=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty k^2x^{k-1}=\frac{1}{x}\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty k^2x^k (k=0∑∞kxk)′=k=0∑∞k2xk−1=x1k=0∑∞k2xk，且 ( x ( 1 − x ) 2 ) ′ = 1 ⋅ ( 1 − x ) 2 − x ⋅ 2 ( 1 − x ) ⋅ ( − 1 ) ( 1 − x ) 4 = ( 1 − x ) 2 + 2 x ( 1 − x ) ( 1 − x ) 4 = 1 + x ( 1 − x ) 3 (\displaystyle \frac{x}{(1-x)^2})'=\displaystyle \frac{1\cdot (1-x)^2-x\cdot 2(1-x)\cdot(-1)}{(1-x)^4}=\frac{(1-x)^2+2x(1-x)}{(1-x)^4}=\frac{1+x}{(1-x)^3} ((1−x)2x)′=(1−x)41⋅(1−x)2−x⋅2(1−x)⋅(−1)=(1−x)4(1−x)2+2x(1−x)=(1−x)31+x，
则有， ∑ k = 0 ∞ k 2 x k = x ( 1 + x ) / ( 1 − x ) 3 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty k^2x^k=x(1+x)/(1-x)^3 k=0∑∞k2xk=x(1+x)/(1−x)3，证毕。
算法导论附录A.1-4
证明 ∑ k = 0 ∞ ( k − 1 ) / 2 k = 0 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty (k-1)/2^k=0 k=0∑∞(k−1)/2k=0。
由于 0 < ∣ x ∣ < 1 0<|x|<1 0<∣x∣<1， ∑ k = 0 ∞ x k = 1 ( 1 − x ) \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty x^k=\frac{1}{(1-x)} k=0∑∞xk=(1−x)1， ∑ k = 0 ∞ k x k = x ( 1 − x ) 2 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty kx^k=\frac{x}{(1-x)^2} k=0∑∞kxk=(1−x)2x。
则有， ∑ k = 0 ∞ ( k − 1 ) / 2 k = ∑ k = 0 ∞ k ⋅ ( 1 2 ) k − ∑ k = 0 ∞ ( 1 2 ) k = 1 2 ( 1 − 1 2 ) 2 − 1 1 − 1 2 = 2 − 2 = 0 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty (k-1)/2^k=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty k\cdot (\frac{1}{2})^k-\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^\infty(\frac{1}{2})^k=\frac{\frac{1}{2}}{(1-\frac{1}{2})^2}-\frac{1}{1-\frac{1}{2}}=2-2=0 k=0∑∞(k−1)/2k=k=0∑∞k⋅(21)k−k=0∑∞(21)k=(1−21)221−1−211=2−2=0。
算法导论附录A.1-7
求 ∏ k = 1 n 2 ⋅ 4 k \displaystyle\prod_{k=1}^n 2\cdot 4^k k=1∏n2⋅4k的值。
根据公式 lg ( ∏ k = 1 n a k ) = ∑ k = 1 n lg a k \lg(\displaystyle\prod_{k=1}^n a_k)=\displaystyle \sum_{k=1}^n\lg a_k lg(k=1∏nak)=k=1∑nlgak，可以进行求解。
lg ( ∏ k = 1 n 2 ⋅ 4 k ) = ∑ k = 1 n lg ( 2 ⋅ 4 k ) = ∑ k = 1 n ( 1 + 2 k ) = n 2 + 2 n \lg(\displaystyle\prod_{k=1}^n 2\cdot 4^k)=\displaystyle \sum_{k=1}^n \lg(2\cdot 4^k)=\displaystyle \sum_{k=1}^n(1+2k)=n^2+2n lg(k=1∏n2⋅4k)=k=1∑nlg(2⋅4k)=k=1∑n(1+2k)=n2+2n
则， ∏ k = 1 n 2 ⋅ 4 k = 2 n 2 + 2 n \displaystyle\prod_{k=1}^n 2\cdot 4^k=2^{n^2+2n} k=1∏n2⋅4k=2n2+2n。
算法导论附录A.1-8
求 ∏ k = 2 n ( 1 − 1 / k 2 ) \displaystyle\prod_{k=2}^n (1-1/k^2) k=2∏n(1−1/k2)的值。
∏ k = 2 n ( 1 − 1 / k 2 ) = ∏ k = 2 n k 2 − 1 k 2 = ∏ k = 2 n ( k − 1 k ⋅ k + 1 k ) \displaystyle\prod_{k=2}^n (1-1/k^2)=\displaystyle\prod_{k=2}^n \frac{k^2-1}{k^2}=\displaystyle \prod_{k=2}^n (\frac{k-1}{k}\cdot\frac{k+1}{k}) k=2∏n(1−1/k2)=k=2∏nk2k2−1=k=2∏n(kk−1⋅kk+1)
= 1 2 3 2 ⋅ 2 3 4 3 ⋅ 3 4 5 4 . . . n − 2 n − 1 n n − 1 ⋅ n − 1 n n + 1 n =\frac{1}{2}\frac{3}{2} \cdot \frac{2}{3}\frac{4}{3} \cdot\frac{3}{4}\frac{5}{4} ... \frac{n-2}{n-1}\frac{n}{n-1} \cdot\frac{n-1}{n}\frac{n+1}{n} =2123⋅3234⋅4345...n−1n−2n−1n⋅nn−1nn+1
= 1 2 ⋅ n + 1 n = n + 1 2 n =\frac{1}{2}\cdot\frac{n+1}{n}=\frac{n+1}{2n} =21⋅nn+1=2nn+1。
算法导论附录C.1-5
对 0 < k ≤ n 0 < k \leq n 0<k≤n，证明恒等式 ( n k ) = n k ( n − 1 k − 1 ) \tbinom{n}{k}=\frac{n}{k}\tbinom{n-1}{k-1} (kn)=kn(k−1n−1)
( n k ) = n ! k ! ⋅ ( n − k ) ! = n ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ! k ⋅ ( k − 1 ) ! ⋅ ( n − 1 − k + 1 ) ! \tbinom{n}{k}=\frac{n!}{k!\cdot(n-k)!}=\frac{n\cdot(n-1)!}{k\cdot (k-1)!\cdot (n-1-k+1)!} (kn)=k!⋅(n−k)!n!=k⋅(k−1)!⋅(n−1−k+1)!n⋅(n−1)!
= n k ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ! ( k − 1 ) ! ⋅ [ n − 1 − ( k − 1 ) ] ! =\frac{n}{k}\cdot\frac {(n-1)!}{(k-1)!\cdot [n-1-(k-1)]!} =kn⋅(k−1)!⋅[n−1−(k−1)]!(n−1)!
n k ( n − 1 k − 1 ) \frac{n}{k}\tbinom{n-1}{k-1} kn(k−1n−1)
算法导论附录C.1-6
对 0 < k ≤ n 0 < k \leq n 0<k≤n，证明恒等式 ( n k ) = n n − k ( n − 1 k ) \tbinom{n}{k}=\frac{n}{n-k}\tbinom{n-1}{k} (kn)=n−kn(kn−1)
( n k ) = n ! k ! ⋅ ( n − k ) ! = n ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ! k ! ⋅ ( n − k ) ⋅ ( n − 1 − k ) ! \tbinom{n}{k}=\frac{n!}{k!\cdot(n-k)!}=\frac{n\cdot(n-1)!}{k!\cdot (n-k)\cdot (n-1-k)!} (kn)=k!⋅(n−k)!n!=k!⋅(n−k)⋅(n−1−k)!n⋅(n−1)!
= n n − k ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ! k ! ⋅ ( n − 1 − k ) ! =\frac{n}{n-k}\cdot\frac {(n-1)!}{k!\cdot (n-1-k)!} =n−kn⋅k!⋅(n−1−k)!(n−1)!
n n − k ⋅ ( n − 1 k ) \frac{n}{n-k}\cdot\tbinom{n-1}{k} n−kn⋅(kn−1)
算法导论附录C.1-7
为了从n中选择k个对象，可以使其中一个对象与众不同，并考虑这个对象是否被选中。利用这个方法证明 ( n k ) = ( n − 1 k ) + ( n − 1 k − 1 ) \tbinom{n}{k}=\tbinom{n-1}{k}+\tbinom{n-1}{k-1} (kn)=(kn−1)+(k−1n−1)
证明：按照两种方案来选择。
第一种，不选择与众不同的对象时，那么从n-1中选择k个，结果为 ( n − 1 k ) \tbinom{n-1}{k} (kn−1)；
第二种，选择与众不同的对象时，那么从n-1中选择k-1个，结果为 ( n − 1 k − 1 ) \tbinom{n-1}{k-1} (k−1n−1)。
证毕。
算法导论附录C.1-9
证明 ∑ i = 1 n i = ( n + 1 2 ) \displaystyle\sum_{i=1}^n i=\tbinom{n+1}{2} i=1∑ni=(2n+1)
∑ i = 1 n i = n ( n + 1 ) 2 = ( n + 1 ) ! 2 ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ! \displaystyle\sum_{i=1}^n i=\frac{n(n+1)}{2}=\frac{(n+1)!}{2\cdot(n-1)!} i=1∑ni=2n(n+1)=2⋅(n−1)!(n+1)!
= ( n + 1 ) ! 2 ! ⋅ ( n + 1 − 2 ) ! =\displaystyle \frac{(n+1)!}{2!\cdot (n+1-2)!} =2!⋅(n+1−2)!(n+1)!
= ( n + 1 2 ) =\tbinom{n+1}{2} =(2n+1)
二项系数&算法导论附录C.1-15
二项展开式： ( x + y ) n = ∑ k = 0 n ( n k ) x k y n − k (x+y)^n=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^n\tbinom{n}{k}x^ky^{n-k} (x+y)n=k=0∑n(kn)xkyn−k
x = y = 1 x=y=1 x=y=1时， 2 n = ∑ k = 0 n ( n k ) 2^n=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^n\tbinom{n}{k} 2n=k=0∑n(kn)
其中， ( n k ) = n ! k ! ⋅ ( n − k ) ! \tbinom{n}{k}=\frac{n!}{k!\cdot(n-k)!} (kn)=k!⋅(n−k)!n!读作n个选择k个的组合个数。
( n k ) = ( n − 1 k ) + ( n − 1 k − 1 ) \tbinom{n}{k}=\tbinom{n-1}{k}+\tbinom{n-1}{k-1} (kn)=(kn−1)+(k−1n−1)
证明对任意整数 n ≥ 0 n\geq 0 n≥0， ∑ k = 0 n ( n k ) k = n 2 n − 1 \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^n\tbinom{n}{k}k=n2^{n-1} k=0∑n(kn)k=n2n−1
证明： ∑ k = 0 n ( n k ) k = ∑ k = 0 n n ! k ! ⋅ ( n − k ) ! k \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^n\tbinom{n}{k}k=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^n\frac{n!}{k!\cdot(n-k)!}k k=0∑n(kn)k=k=0∑nk!⋅(n−k)!n!k
= ∑ k = 0 n n ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ! ( k − 1 ) ! ⋅ ( n − 1 − ( k − 1 ) ) ! =\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^n\frac{n\cdot(n-1)!}{(k-1)!\cdot(n-1-(k-1))!} =k=0∑n(k−1)!⋅(n−1−(k−1))!n⋅(n−1)!
= ∑ k = 0 n n ⋅ ( n − 1 k − 1 ) =\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^nn\cdot\tbinom{n-1}{k-1} =k=0∑nn⋅(k−1n−1)
= ∑ k = 0 n n ⋅ [ ( n k ) − ( n − 1 k ) ] =\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^nn\cdot [ \tbinom{n}{k}-\tbinom{n-1}{k}] =k=0∑nn⋅[(kn)−(kn−1)]
= n ⋅ [ 2 n − ∑ k = 0 n − 1 ( n − 1 k ) + 0 ] =n\cdot [ 2^n - \displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} \tbinom{n-1}{k}+0] =n⋅[2n−k=0∑n−1(kn−1)+0]
= n ⋅ [ 2 n − 2 n − 1 ] =n\cdot [ 2^n - 2^{n-1}] =n⋅[2n−2n−1]
= n 2 n − 1 =n2^{n-1} =n2n−1
算法导论附录C.3-6-马尔可夫不等式
令X为非负随机变量，并假设E[X]有良定义。对任意t>0，证明马尔可夫不等式（Markov’s inequality）： Pr { X ≥ t } ≤ E [ X ] / t \Pr\{X\geq t\} \leq E[X]/t Pr{X≥t}≤E[X]/t。
E [ X ] = ∑ x Pr { X = x } ⋅ x = ∑ x = 0 ∞ x Pr { X = x } E[X]=\displaystyle\sum_x\Pr\{X=x\}\cdot x=\displaystyle \sum_{x=0}^\infty x\Pr\{X=x\} E[X]=x∑Pr{X=x}⋅x=x=0∑∞xPr{X=x}
≥ ∑ x = t ∞ x ⋅ Pr { X = x } \geq \displaystyle\sum_{x=t}^\infty x\cdot \Pr\{X=x\} ≥x=t∑∞x⋅Pr{X=x}
≥ ∑ x = t ∞ t ⋅ Pr { X = x } \geq \displaystyle\sum_{x=t}^\infty t \cdot \Pr\{X=x\} ≥x=t∑∞t⋅Pr{X=x}
= t ⋅ ∑ x = t ∞ Pr { X = x } =t \cdot \displaystyle\sum_{x=t}^\infty \Pr\{X=x\} =t⋅x=t∑∞Pr{X=x}
= t ⋅ Pr { X ≥ t } =t\cdot \Pr\{X\geq t\} =t⋅Pr{X≥t}
则， Pr { X ≥ t } ≤ E [ X ] / t \Pr\{X\geq t\} \leq E[X]/t Pr{X≥t}≤E[X]/t
算法导论附录C.4-1
对几何分布，验证概率公理的公理2。
lim n → ∞ ∑ k = 1 n Pr { X = k } = lim n → ∞ ∑ k = 1 n p q k − 1 \lim\limits_{n \rightarrow \infty} \displaystyle \sum_{k=1}^n \Pr\{X=k\}=\lim\limits_{n \rightarrow \infty} \displaystyle \sum_{k=1}^n pq^{k-1} n→∞limk=1∑nPr{X=k}=n→∞limk=1∑npqk−1
= lim n → ∞ p ⋅ 1 ⋅ ( 1 − q n ) 1 − q =\lim\limits_{n \rightarrow \infty} p \cdot \displaystyle \frac{1\cdot (1-q^n)}{1-q} =n→∞limp⋅1−q1⋅(1−qn)
= p 1 − q = 1 =\displaystyle\frac{p}{1-q}=1 =1−qp=1
算法导论附录C.4-5
证明n次伯努利试验中没有一次成功的概率约等于1/e，每次试验成功的概率是p=1/n。证明只有一次成功的概率也约等于1/e。
先验知识： lim x → ∞ ( 1 + 1 x ) x = e \lim\limits_{x\rightarrow\infty} (1+\frac{1}{x})^x=e x→∞lim(1+x1)x=e
lim n → ∞ ( n 0 ) ⋅ ( 1 n ) 0 ⋅ ( 1 − 1 n ) n = lim n → ∞ [ ( 1 + 1 − n ) − n ] − 1 = 1 / e \lim\limits_{n\rightarrow\infty}\displaystyle\tbinom{n}{0}\cdot(\frac{1}{n})^0\cdot (1-\frac{1}{n})^n=\lim\limits_{n\rightarrow\infty}[(1+\frac{1}{-n})^{-n}]^{-1}=1/e n→∞lim(0n)⋅(n1)0⋅(1−n1)n=n→∞lim[(1+−n1)−n]−1=1/e
lim n → ∞ ( n 1 ) ⋅ ( 1 n ) 1 ⋅ ( 1 − 1 n ) n − 1 = lim n → ∞ n ⋅ 1 n ⋅ ( 1 1 − 1 n ) ⋅ [ ( 1 + 1 − n ) − n ] − 1 = 1 / e \lim\limits_{n\rightarrow\infty}\displaystyle\tbinom{n}{1}\cdot(\frac{1}{n})^1\cdot (1-\frac{1}{n})^{n-1}=\lim\limits_{n\rightarrow\infty}n\cdot\frac{1}{n}\cdot(\frac{1}{1-\frac{1}{n}})\cdot[(1+\frac{1}{-n})^{-n}]^{-1}=1/e n→∞lim(1n)⋅(n1)1⋅(1−n1)n−1=n→∞limn⋅n1⋅(1−n11)⋅[(1+−n1)−n]−1=1/e
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