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UNIX Bourne Shell Scripting

转载自：http://research.imb.uq.edu.au/~ksteube/Bshell/
Ken Steube
Institute for Molecular Bioscience
The University of Queensland
Australia

These notes teach you how to write and run Bourne shell scripts on any UNIX computer.

What do you need to know to follow along? This was originally written as a second class in UNIX. The first class taught how to use the basic UNIX commands (like sed, grep and find) and this class teaches how to combine these tools to accomplish bigger tasks.

In addition to the material in this course you might be interested in the Korn shell (ksh) and the Bourne again shell (bash), both of which are excellent shells that enchance the original Bourne shell. These alternate shells are upwardly-compatible with the Bourne shell, meaning that a script written for sh can run in ksh or bash. However, there are additional features in bash and ksh that are not available in the Bourne shell.

The focus of this guide is to get you to understand and run some Bourne shell scripts. On several pages there are example scripts for you to run. On most of these pages there is a link you can click on (with the right mouse button) and download the script to your computer and run it.

You will learn several things:

Ability to automate tasks, such as
Software install procedures
Backups
Administration tasks
Periodic operations on a database via cron
Any repetetive operations on files

Increase your general knowledge of UNIX
Use of environment
Use of UNIX utilities
Use of features such as pipes and I/O redirection

For example, I recently wrote a script to make a backup of one of the subdirectories where I was developing a project. I quickly wrote a shell script that uses /bin/tar to create an archive of the entire subdirectory and then copy it to one of our backup systems at my computer center and store it under a subdirectory named according to today's date.

As another example, I have some software that runs on UNIX that I distribute and people were having trouble unpacking the software and getting it running. I designed and wrote a shell script that automated the process of unpacking the software and configuring it. Now people can get and install the software without having to contact me for help, which is good for them and good for me, too!

For shell script experts one of the things to consider is whether to use the Bourne shell (or ksh or bash), the C shell, or a richer scripting language like perl or python. I like all these tools and am not especially biased toward any one of them. The best thing is to use the right tool for each job. If all you need to do is run some UNIX commands over and over again, use a Bourne or C shell script. If you need a script that does a lot of arithmetic or string manipulation, then you will be better off with perl or python. If you have a Bourne shell script that runs too slowly then you might want to rewrite it in perl or python because they can be much faster.

Historically, people have been biased toward the Bourne shell over the C shell because in the early days the C shell was buggy. These problems are fixed in many C shell implementations these days, especially the excellent 'T' C shell (tcsh), but many still prefer the Bourne shell.

There are other good shells available. I don't mean to neglect them but rather to talk about the tools I am familiar with.

If you are interested also in learning about programming in the C shell I also have a comparison between features of the C shell and Bourne shell.

Table of Contents:

Review of a few Basic UNIX Topics (Page 1)
Storing Frequently Used Commands in Files: Shell Scripts (Page 6)
More on Using UNIX Utilities (Page 9)
Performing Search and Replace in Several Files (Page 11)
Using Command-line Arguments for Flexibility (Page 14)
Using Functions (Page 30)
Miscellaneous (Page 38)
Trapping Signals (Page 43)
Understanding Command Translation (Page 50)
Writing Advanced Loops (Page 59)
Creating Remote Shells (Page 67)
More Miscellaneous (Page 73)
Using Quotes (Page 75)

Section 1: Review of a few Basic UNIX Topics

Shell scripting involves chaining several UNIX commands together to accomplish a task. For example, you might run the 'date' command and then use today's date as part of a file name. I'll show you how to do this below.

Some of the tools of the trade are variables, backquotes and pipes. First we'll study these topics and also quickly review a few other UNIX topics.
Variables

Topics covered: storing strings in variables
Utilities covered: echo, expr

To try the commands below start up a Bourne shell:
/bin/sh

A variable stores a string (try running these commands in a Bourne shell)
name="John Doe" echo $name

The quotes are required in the example above because the string contains a special character (the space)
A variable may store a number
num=137

The shell stores this as a string even though it appears to be a number
A few UNIX utilities will convert this string into a number to perform arithmetic
expr $num + 3

Try defining num as '7m8' and try the expr command again
What happens when num is not a valid number?
Now you may exit the Bourne shell with
exit

Page 1

I/O Redirection

Topics covered: specifying the input or capturing the output of a command in a file
Utilities covered: wc, sort

The wc command counts the number of lines, words, and characters in a file
wc /etc/passwd wc -l /etc/passwd

You can save the output of wc (or any other command) with output redirection
wc /etc/passwd > wc.file

You can specify the input with input redirection
wc < /etc/passwd

Many UNIX commands allow you to specify the input file by name or by input redirection
sort /etc/passwd sort < /etc/passwd

You can also append lines to the end of an existing file with output redirection
wc -l /etc/passwd >> wc.file

Page 2

Backquotes

Topics covered: capturing output of a command in a variable
Utilities covered: date

The backquote character looks like the single quote or apostrophe, but slants the other way
It is used to capture the output of a UNIX utility
A command in backquotes is executed and then replaced by the output of the command
Execute these commands
date save_date=`date` echo The date is $save_date

Notice how echo prints the output of 'date', and gives the time when you defined the save_date variable
Store the following in a file named
Execute the script with
sh backquotes.sh

The example above shows you how you can write commands into a file and execute the file with a Bourne shell
Backquotes are very useful, but be aware that they slow down a script if you use them hundreds of times
You can save the output of any command with backquotes, but be aware that the results will be reformated into one line. Try this:
LS=`ls -l` echo $LS

Page 3

Pipes

Topics covered: using UNIX pipes
Utilities covered: sort, cat, head

Pipes are used for post-processing data
One UNIX command prints results to the standard output (usually the screen), and another command reads that data and processes it
sort /etc/passwd | head -5

Notice that this pipe can be simplified
cat /etc/passwd | head -5

You could accomplish the same thing more efficiently with either of the two commands:
head -5 /etc/passwd head -5 < /etc/passwd

For example, this command displays all the files in the current directory sorted by file size
ls -al | sort -n -r +4

The command ls -al writes the file size in the fifth column, which is why we skip the first four columns using +4.
The options -n and -r request a numeric sort (which is different than the normal alphabetic sort) in reverse order

Page 4

awk

Topics covered: processing columnar data
Utilities covered: awk

The awk utility is used for processing columns of data
A simple example shows how to extract column 5 (the file size) from the output of ls -l
ls -l | awk '{print $5}'

Cut and paste this line into a Bourne shell and you should see a column of file sizes, one per file in your current directory.
A more complicated example shows how to sum the file sizes and print the result at the end of the awk run
ls -al | awk '{sum = sum + $5} END {print sum}'

In this example you should see printed just one number, which is the sum of the file sizes in the current directory.

Page 5

Section 2: Storing Frequently Used Commands in Files: Shell Scripts

Shell Scripts

Topics covered: storing commands in a file and executing the file
Utilities covered: date, cal, last (shows who has logged in recently)

Store the following in a file named
Shows current date, calendar, and a six of previous logins
Notice that the commands themselves are not displayed, only the results
To display the commands verbatim as they run, execute with
sh -v simple.sh

Another way to display the commands as they run is with -x
sh -x simple.sh

What is the difference between -v and -x? Notice that with -v you see '$USER' but with -x you see your login name
Run the command 'echo $USER' at your terminal prompt and see that the variable $USER stores your login name
With -v or -x (or both) you can easily relate any error message that may appear to the command that generated it
When an error occurs in a script, the script continues executing at the next command
Verify this by changing 'cal' to 'caal' to cause an error, and then run the script again
Run the 'caal' script with 'sh -v simple.sh' and with 'sh -x simple.sh' and verify the error message comes from cal
Other standard variable names include: $HOME, $PATH, $PRINTER. Use echo to examine the values of these variables

Page 6

Storing File Names in Variables

Topics covered: variables store strings such as file names, more on creating and using variables
Utilities covered: echo, ls, wc

A variable is a name that stores a string
It's often convenient to store a filename in a variable
Store the following in a file named
Now if we change the value of $filename, the change is automatically propagated throughout the entire script

Page 7

Scripting With sed

Topics covered: global search and replace, input and output redirection
Utilities covered: sed

Here's how you can use sed to modify the contents of a variable:
echo "Hello Jim" | sed -e 's/Hello/Bye/'

Copy the file
Change 'vBNS' to 'NETWORK' with
sed -e 's/vBNS/NETWORK/g' < nlanr.txt

You can save the modified text in a file with output redirection
sed -e 's/vBNS/NETWORK/g' < nlanr.txt > nlanr.new

Sed can be used for many complex editing tasks, we have only scratched the surface here

Page 8

Section 3: More on Using UNIX Utilities

Performing Arithmetic

Topics covered: integer arithmetic, preceding '*' with backslash to avoid file name wildcard expansion
Utilities covered: expr

Arithmetic is done with expr
expr 5 + 7 expr 5 /* 7

Backslash required in front of '*' since it is a filename wildcard and would be translated by the shell into a list of file names
You can save arithmetic result in a variable
Store the following in a file named

Page 9

Translating Characters

Topics covered: converting one character to another, translating and saving string stored in a variable
Utilities covered: tr

Copy the file
The utility tr translates characters
tr 'a' 'Z' < sdsc.txt

This example shows how to translate the contents of a variable and display the result on the screen with tr
Store the following in a file named
tr1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Translate the contents of a variable
Cat_name="Piewacket"
echo $Cat_name | tr 'a' 'i'
This example shows how to change the contents of a variable
Store the following in a file named tr2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Illustrates how to change the contents of a variable with tr
Cat_name="Piewacket"
echo "Cat_name is $Cat_name"
Cat_name=`echo $Cat_name | tr 'a' 'i'`
echo "Cat_name has changed to $Cat_name"
You can also specify ranges of characters.
This example converts upper case to lower case
tr 'A-Z' 'a-z' < file
Now you can change the value of the variable and your script has access to the new value
Page 10

Section 4: Performing Search and Replace in Several Files

Processing Multiple Files

Topics covered: executing a sequence of commands on each of several files with for loops
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Store the following in a file named
This executes the three commands echo, ls and wc for each of the three file names
You should see three lines of output for each file name
filename is a variable, set by "for" statement and referenced as $filename
Now we know how to execute a series of commands on each of several files

Page 11

Using File Name Wildcards in For Loops

Topics covered: looping over files specified with wildcards
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Store the following in a file named
You should see three lines of output for each file name ending in '.sh'
The file name wildcard pattern *.sh gets replaced by the list of filenames that exist in the current directory
For another example with filename wildcards try this command
echo *.sh

Page 12

Search and Replace in Multiple Files

Topics covered: combining for loops with utilities for global search and replace in several files
Utilities covered: mv

Sed performs global search and replace on a single file
sed -e 's/application/APPLICATION/g' sdsc.txt > sdsc.txt.new

The original file sdsc.txt is unchanged
How can we arrange to have the original file over-written by the new version?
Store the following in a file named
First, sed saves new version in file 'temp'
Then, use mv to overwrite original file with new version

Page 13

Section 5: Using Command-line Arguments for Flexibility

What's Lacking in the Scripts Above?

Topics covered: looping over files specified with wildcards
Utilities covered: no new utilities

File names are hard-coded inside the script
What if you want to run the script but with different file names?
To execute for loops on different files, the user has to know how to edit the script
Not simple enough for general use by the masses
Wouldn't it be useful if we could easily specify different file names for each execution of a script?

Page 14

What are Command-line Arguments?

Topics covered: specifying command-line arguments
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Command-line arguments follow the name of a command
ls -l .cshrc /etc

The command above has three command-line arguments
-l (an option that requests long directory listing) .cshrc (a file name) /etc (a directory name)

An example with file name wildcards:
wc *.sh

How many command-line arguments were given to wc? It depends on how many files in the current directory match the pattern *.sh
Use 'echo *.sh' to see them
Most UNIX commands take command-line arguments. Your scripts may also have arguments

Page 15

Accessing Command-line Arguments

Topics covered: accessing command-line arguments
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Store the following in a file named
Execute the script with
sh args1.sh -x On the Waterfront

Words after the script name are command-line arguments
Arguments are usually options like -l or file names

Page 16

Looping Over the Command-line Arguments

Topics covered: using command-line arguments in a for loop
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Store the following in a file named
This script runs properly with any number of arguments, including zero
The shorter form of the for statement shown below does exactly the same thing
for filename do ...

Don't use
for filename in $*

Fails if any arguments include spaces
Also, don't forget the double quotes around $@

Page 17

If Blocks

Topics covered: testing conditions, executing commands conditionally
Utilities covered: test (used by if to evaluate conditions)

This will be covered on the whiteboard
See Chapter 8 of the book

Page 18

The read Command

Topics covered: reading a line from the standard input
Utilities covered: no new utilities

stdin is the keyboard unless input redirection used
Read one line from stdin, store line in a variable
read variable_name

Ask the user if he wants to exit the script
Store the following in a file named

Page 19

Command Exit Status

Topics covered: checking whether a command succeeds or not
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Every command in UNIX should return an exit status
Status is in range 0-255
Only 0 means success
Other statuses indicate various types of failures
Status does not print on screen, but is available thru variable $?
Example shows how to examine exit status of a command
Store the following in a file named
Example shows if block using exit status to force exit on failure
Store the following in a file named
exit-status-test.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Use an if block to determine if a command succeeded
echo "This mkdir command fails unless you are root:"
mkdir /no_way
if [ "$?" -ne 0 ]
then
	# Complain and quit
	echo "Could not create directory /no_way...quitting"
	exit 1  # Set script's exit status to 1
fi
echo "Created directory /no_way"
Exit status is $status in C shell
Page 20

Regular Expressions

Topics covered: search patterns for editors, grep, sed
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Zero or more characters: .*
grep 'provided.*access' sdsc.txt sed -e 's/provided.*access/provided access/' sdsc.txt

Search for text at beginning of line
grep '^the' sdsc.txt

Search for text at the end of line
grep 'of

Asterisk means zero or more the the preceeding character
a* zero or more a's aa* one or more a's aaa* two or more a's

Delete all spaces at the ends of lines
sed -e 's/ *$//' sdsc.txt > sdsc.txt.new

Turn each line into a shell comment
sed -e 's/^/# /' sdsc.txt

Page 21

Greed and Eagerness

Attributes of pattern matching
Greed: a regular expression will match the largest possible string
Execute this command and see how big a string gets replaced by an underscore
echo 'Big robot' | sed -e 's/i.*o/_/'

Eagerness: a regular expression will find the first match if several are present in the line
Execute this command and see whether 'big' or 'bag' is matched by the regular expression
echo 'big bag' | sed -e 's/b.g/___/'

Contrast with this command (notice the extra 'g')
echo 'big bag' | sed -e 's/b.g/___/g'

Explain what happens in the next example
echo 'black dog' | sed -e 's/a*/_/'

Hint: a* matches zero or more a's, and there are many places where zero a's appear
Try the example above with the extra 'g'
echo 'black dog' | sed -e 's/a*/_/g'

Page 22

Regular Expressions Versus Wildcards

Topics covered: clarify double meaning of asterisk in patterns
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Asterisk used in regular expressions for editors, grep, sed
Different meaning in file name wildcards on command line and in find command and case statement (see below)
regexp wildcard meaning .* * zero or more characters, any type . ? exactly one character, any type [aCg] [aCg] exactly one character, from list: aCg

Regexps can be anchored to beginning/ending of line with ^ and $
Wildcards automatically anchored to both extremes
Can use wildcards un-anchored with asterisks
ls *bub*

Page 23

Getting Clever With Regular Expressions

Topics covered: manipulating text matched by a pattern
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Copy the file
Try this sed command, which changes the first line of animals.txt
sed -e "s/big /(.*/) dog/small /1 cat/" animals.txt

Bracketing part of a pattern with /( and /) labels that part as /1
Bracketing additional parts of a pattern creates labels /2, /3, ...
This sed command reverses the order of two words describing the rabbit
sed -e "s/Flopsy is a big /(.*/) /(.*/) rabbit/A big /2 /1 rabbit/" < animals.txt

Page 24

The case Statement

Topics covered: choosing which block of commands to execute based on value of a string
Utilities covered: no new utilities

The next example shows how to use a case statement to handle several contingencies
The user is expected to type one of three words
A different action is taken for each choice
Store the following in a file named
The last case above is the default, which corresponds to an unrecognized entry
The next example uses the first command-line arg instead of asking the user to type a command
Store the following in a file named
case2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# An example with the case statement
# Reads a command from the user and processes it
# Execute with one of
#	sh case2.sh who
#	sh case2.sh ls
#	sh case2.sh cal
echo "Took command from the argument list: '$1'"
case "$1" in
	who)
		echo "Running who..."
		who
		;;
	list)
		echo "Running ls..."
		ls
		;;
	cal)
		echo "Running cal..."
		cal
		;;
	*)
		echo "Bad command, your choices are: who, list, or cal"
		;;
esac
The patterns in the case statement may use file name wildcards
Page 25

The while Statement

Topics covered: executing a series of commands as long as some condition is true
Utilities covered: no new utilities

The example below loops over two statements as long as the variable i is less than or equal to ten
Store the following in a file named

Page 26

Example With a while Loop

Topics covered: Using a while loop to read and process a file
Utilities covered: no new utilities

Copy the file
The example below uses a while loop to read an entire file
The while loop exits when the read command returns false exit status (end of file)
Store the following in a file named
while2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Illustrates use of a while loop to read a file
cat while2.data |   /
while read line
do
	echo "Found line: $line"
done
The entire while loop reads its stdin from the pipe
Each read command reads another line from the file coming from cat
The entire while loop runs in a subshell because of the pipe
Variable values set inside while loop not available after while loop
Page 27

Interpreting Options With getopts Command

Topics covered: Understand how getopts command works
Utilities covered: getopts

getopts is a standard UNIX utility used for our class in scripts getopts1.sh and getopts2.sh
Its purpose is to help process command-line options (such as -h) inside a script
It handles stacked options (such as -la) and options with arguments (such as -P used as -Pprinter-name in lpr command)
This example will help you understand how getopts interprets options
Store the following in a file named
Look over the script
getopts looks for command-line options
For each option found, it sets three variables: OPT_LETTER, OPTARG, OPTIND
OPT_LETTER is the letter, such as 'h' for option -h
OPTARG is the argument to the option, such as -Pjunky has argument 'junky'
OPTIND is a counter that determines how many of the command-line arguments were used up by getopts (see the shift command in the script)
Execute it several times with
sh getopts1.sh -h -Pjunky sh getopts1.sh -hPjunky sh getopts1.sh -h -Pjunky /etc /tmp

Notice how it interprets -h and gives you 'h' in variable OPT_LETTER
Now you can easily implement some operation when -h is used
Notice how the second execution uses stacked options
Notice how the third execution examines the rest of the command-line after the options (these are usually file or directory names)

Page 28

Example With getopts

Topics covered: interpreting options in a script
Utilities covered: getopts

The second example shows how to use if blocks to take action for each option
Store the following in a file named
Execute it several times with
sh getopts2.sh -h -Pjunky sh getopts2.sh -hPjunky sh getopts2.sh -h -Pjunky /etc /tmp

Can also implement actions inside case statement if desired

Page 29

Section 6: Using Functions

Functions

Sequence of statements that can be called anywhere in script
Used for
Good organization
Create re-usable sequences of commands

Page 30

Define a Function

Define a function
echo_it () { echo "In function echo_it" }

Use it like any other command
echo_it

Put these four lines in a script and execute it

Page 31

Function Arguments

Functions can have command-line arguments
echo_it () { echo "Argument 1 is $1" echo "Argument 2 is $2" } echo_it arg1 arg2

When you execute the script above, you should see
Argument 1 is arg1 Argument 2 is arg2

Create a script 'difference.sh' with the following lines:
#!/bin/sh echo_it () { echo Function argument 1 is $1 } echo Script argument 1 is $1 echo_it Barney

Execute this script using
sh difference.sh Fred

Notice that '$1' is echoed twice with different values
The function has separate command-line arguments from the script's

Page 32

Example With Functions

Use functions to organize script
read_inputs () { ... } compute_results () { ... } print_results () { ... }

Main program very readable
read_inputs compute_results print_results

Page 33

Functions in Pipes

Can use a function in a pipe
ls_sorter () { sort -n +4 } ls -al | ls_sorter

Function in pipe executed in new shell
New variables forgotten when function exits

Page 34

Inherited Variables

Variables defined before calling script available to script
func_y () { echo "A is $A" return 7 } A='bub' func_y if [ $? -eq 7 ] ; then ...

Try it: is a variable defined inside a function available to the main program?

Page 35

Functions -vs- Scripts

Functions are like separate scripts
Both functions and scripts can:
Use command-line arguments
echo First arg is $1

Operate in pipes
echo "test string" | ls_sorter

Return exit status
func_y arg1 arg2 if [ $? -ne 0 ] ...

Page 36

Libraries of Functions

Common to store definitions of favorite functions in a file
Then execute file with
. file

Period command executes file in current shell
Compare to C shell's source command

Page 37

Section 7: Miscellaneous

Here Files

Data contained within script
cat << END This script backs up the directory named as the first command-line argument, which in your case in $1. END

Terminator string must begin in column one
Variables and backquotes translated in data
Turn off translation with /END

Page 38

Example With Here File

Send e-mail to each of several users
for name in login1 login2 login3 do mailx -s 'hi there' $name << EOF Hi $name, meet me at the water fountain EOF done

Use <<- to remove initial tabs automatically

Page 39

Set: Shell Options

Can change Bourne shell's options at runtime
Use set command inside script
set -v set +v set -xv

Toggle verbose mode on and off to reduce amount of debugging output

Page 40

Set: Split a Line

Can change Bourne shell's options
set -- word1 word2 echo $1, $2 word1, word2

Double dash important!
Word1 may begin with a dash, what if word1 is '-x'?
Double dash says "even if first word begins with '-', do not treat it as an option to the shell

Page 41

Example With Set

Read a line from keyboard
Echo words 3 and 5
read var set -- $var echo $3 $5

Best way to split a line into words

Page 42

Section 8: Trapping Signals

What are Signals?

Signals are small messages sent to a process
Process interrupted to handle signal
Possibilities for managing signal:
Terminate
Ignore
Perform a programmer-defined action

Page 43

Common Signals

Common signals are
SIGINTR sent to foreground process by ^C
SIGHUP sent when modem line gets hung up
SIGTERM sent by kill -9

Signals have numeric equivalents
2 SIGINTR 9 SIGTERM

Page 44

Send a Signal

Send a signal to a process
kill -2 PID kill -INTR PID

Page 45

Trap Signals

Handling Signals
trap "echo Interrupted; exit 2" 2

Ignoring Signals
trap "" 2 3

Restoring Default Handler
trap 2

Page 46

Where to Find List of Signals

See file
/usr/include/sys/signal.h

Page 47

User Signals

SIGUSR1, SIGUSR2 are for your use
Send to a process with
kill -USR1 PID

Default action is to terminate process

Page 48

Experiment With Signals

Script that catches USR1
Echo message upon each signal
trap 'echo USR1' 16 while : ; do date sleep 3 done

Try it: does signal interrupt sleep?

Page 49

Section 9: Understanding Command Translation

Command Translation

Common translations include
Splitting at spaces, obey quotes
$HOME -> /users/us/freddy
`command` -> output of command
I/O redirection
File name wildcard expansion

Combinations of quotes and metacharacters confusing
Resolve problems by understanding order of translations

Page 50

Experiment With Translation

Try wildcards in echo command
echo b* b budget bzzzzz

b* translated by sh before echo runs
When echo runs it sees
echo b budget bzzzzz

Echo command need not understand wildcards!

Page 51

Order of Translations

Splits into words at spaces and tabs
Divides commands at
; & | && || (...) {...}

Echos command if -v
Interprets quotes
Performs variable substitution

Page 52

Order of Translations (continued)

Performs command substitution
Implements I/O redirection and removes redirection characters
Divides command again according to IFS
Expands file name wildcards
Echos translated command if -x
Executes command

Page 53

Exceptional Case

Delayed expansion for variable assignments
VAR=b* echo $VAR b b_file

Wildcard re-expanded for each echo

Page 54

Examples With Translation

Variables translated before execution
Can store command name in variable
command="ls" $command file1 file2 dir1 dir2...

Variables translated before I/O redirection
tempfile="/tmp/scriptname____FCKpd___90quot; ls -al > $tempfile

Page 55

Examples (continued)

Delayed expansion of wildcards in variable assignment
Output of this echo command changes when directory contents change (* is re-evaluated each time the command is run)
x=* echo $x

Can view values stored in variables with
set

Try it: verify that the wildcard is stored in x without expansion

Page 56

Examples (continued)

Wildcards expanded after redirection (assuming file* matches exactly one file):
cat < file* file*: No such file or directory

Command in backquotes expanded fully (and before I/O redirection)
cat < `echo file*` (contents of file sent to screen)

Page 57

Eval Command

Forces an extra evaluation of command
eval cat /< file* (contents of matching file)

Backslash delays translation of < until second translation

Page 58

Section 10: Writing Advanced Loops

While loops

Execute statements while a condition is true
i=0 while [ $i -lt 10 ] do echo I is $i i=`expr $i + 1` done

Page 59

Until loops

Execute statements as long as a condition is false
until grep "sort" dbase_log > /dev/null do sleep 10 done echo "Database has been sorted"

Example executes until grep is unsuccessful

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Redirection of Loops

Can redirect output of a loop
for f in *.c do wc -l $f done > loop.out

Loop runs in separate shell
New variables forgotten after loop
Backgrounding OK, too

Page 61

Continue Command

Used in for, while, and until loops
Skip remaining statements
Return to top of loop
for name in * do if [ ! -f $name ] ; then continue fi echo "Found file $name" done

Example loops over files, skips directories

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Break Command

Used in for, while, and until loops
Skip remaining statements
Exit loop
for name in * do if [ ! -r $name ] ; then echo "Cannot read $name, quitting loop" break fi echo "Found file or directory $name" done

Example loops over files and directories, quits if one is not readable

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Case Command

Execute one of several blocks of commands
case "string" in pattern1) commands ;; pattern2) commands ;; *) # Default case commands ;; esac

Patterns specified with file name wildcards
quit) ... qu*) ...

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Example With Case

Read commands from keyboard and interpret
Enter this script 'case.sh'
echo Enter a command while read cmd do case "$cmd" in list) ls -al ;; freespace) df . ;; quit|Quit) break ;; *) echo "$cmd: No such command" ;; esac done echo "All done"

When you run it, the script waits for you to type one of:
list freespace quit Quit

Try it: modify the example so any command beginning with characters "free" runs df

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Infinite Loops

Infinite loop with while
while : do ... done

: is no-op, always returns success status
Must use break or exit inside loop for it to terminate

Page 66

Section 11: Forking Remote Shells

Remote Shells

Rsh command
rsh hostname "commands"

Runs commands on remote system
Must have .rhosts set up
Can specify different login name
rsh -l name hostname "commands"

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Examples With rsh

Check who's logged on
rsh spooky "finger"

Run several remote commands
rsh spooky "uname -a; time"

Executes .cshrc on remote system
Be sure to set path in .cshrc instead of .login

Page 68

Access Control with .Rhosts

May get "permission denied" error from rsh
Fix this with ~/.rhosts on remote system
Example: provide for remote shell from spunky to spooky
spunky % rlogin spooky spooky % vi ~/.rhosts (insert "spunky login-name") spooky % chmod 600 ~/.rhosts spooky % logout spunky % rsh spooky uname -a spooky 5.5 sparc SUNW,Ultra-1

May also rlogin without password: security problem!

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Remote Shell I/O

Standard output sent to local host
rsh spooky finger > finger.spooky

Standard input sent to remote host
cat local-file | rsh spooky lpr -

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Return Status

Get return status of rsh
rsh mayer "uname -a" echo $?

Returns 0 if rsh managed to connect to remote host
Returns 1 otherwise
Invalid hostname
Permission denied

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Remote Return Status

What about exit status of remote command?
Have to determine success or failure from stdout or stderr

Page 72

Section 12: More Miscellaneous

Temporary Files

Use unique names to avoid clashes
tempfile=$HOME/Weq_$ command > $tempfile

$$ is PID of current shell
Avoids conflict with concurrent executions of script
Do not use /tmp!

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Wait Command

Wait for termination of background job
command & pid=$! (other processing) wait $pid

Allows overlap of two or more operations

Page 74

Section 13: Using Quotes

Quotes

Provide control of collapsing of spaces and translation of variables
Try it: run three examples
No quotes (variables translated, spaces collapsed)
echo Home: $HOME Home: /users/us/freddy

Double quotes (no collapsing)
echo "Home: $HOME" Home: /users/us/freddy

Single quotes (no translation or collapsing)
echo 'Home: $HOME' Home: $HOME

Try it: single quotes within double quotes
echo "Home directory '$HOME' is full..."

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Metacharacters

Characters with special meaning to shell
" ' ` $ * [ ] ? ; > < & ( ) /

Avoid special meaning with quoting
echo 'You have $20'

Backslash like single quotes
Applies only to next character
echo You have /$20

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Examples With Quotes

Bad command line:
grep dog.*cat file

Shell tries to expand dot.*cat as file name wildcard
Use quotes to avoid translation
grep 'dog.*cat' file

Single quotes OK in this case because we don't need variable translation

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More Examples With Quotes

Read name and search file for name
read name grep "$name" dbase

Single quotes not OK because we need variable translation

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Searching for Metacharacters

Bad command line: search for dollar sign
grep "Gimme.*$20" file

Problem: shell translates variable $20
Solution: use single quotes
grep 'Gimme.*$20' file

Page 79 <script language="JavaScript" type="text/javascript"> </script><script language="JavaScript" type="text/javascript"> dateM = new Date(document.lastModified); document.write("
Last modified: "+dateM.toLocaleString()+""); </script>
Last modified: 2005年9月8日 13:57:17 <script language="JavaScript" type="text/javascript"> </script>
getopts2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
#
# Usage:
#
#	getopts2.sh [-P string] [-h] [file1 file2 ...]
#
# Example runs:
#
#	getopts2.sh -h -Pxerox file1 file2
#	getopts2.sh -hPxerox file1 file2
#
# Will print out the options and file names given
#

# Initialize our variables so we don't inherit values
# from the environment
opt_P=''
opt_h=''

# Parse the command-line options
while getopts 'P:h' option
do
	case "$option" in
	"P")	opt_P="$OPTARG"
		;;
	"h")	opt_h="1"
		;;
	?)	echo "getopts2.sh: Bad option specified...quitting"
		exit 1
		;;
	esac
done

shift `expr $OPTIND - 1`

if [ "$opt_P" != "" ]
then
	echo "Option P used with argument '$opt_P'"
fi

if [ "$opt_h" != "" ]
then
	echo "Option h used"
fi

if [ "$*" != "" ]
then
	echo "Remaining command-line:"
	for arg in "$@"
	do
		echo "	$arg"
	done
fi
getopts1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh

# Execute with
#
#	sh getopts1.sh  -h  -Pxerox  file1  file2
#
# and notice how the information on all the options is displayed
#
# The string 'P:h' says that the option -P is a complex option
# requiring an argument, and that h is a simple option not requiring
# an argument.
#

# Experiment with getopts command
while getopts 'P:h' OPT_LETTER
do
	echo "getopts has set variable OPT_LETTER to '$OPT_LETTER'"
	echo "	OPTARG is '$OPTARG'"
done

used_up=`expr $OPTIND - 1`

echo "Shifting away the first /$OPTIND-1 = $used_up command-line arguments"

shift $used_up

echo "Remaining command-line arguments are '$*'"
while2.data to your home directory while1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Illustrates implementing a counter with a while loop
# Notice how we increment the counter with expr in backquotes
i="1"
while [ $i -le 10 ]
do
	echo "i is $i"
	i=`expr $i + 1`
done
case1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# An example with the case statement
# Reads a command from the user and processes it
echo "Enter your command (who, list, or cal)"
read command
case "$command" in
	who)
		echo "Running who..."
		who
		;;
	list)
		echo "Running ls..."
		ls
		;;
	cal)
		echo "Running cal..."
		cal
		;;
	*)
		echo "Bad command, your choices are: who, list, or cal"
		;;
esac
exit 0
animals.txt to your home directory exit-status.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Experiment with command exit status
echo "The next command should fail and return a status greater than zero"
ls /nosuchdirectory
echo "Status is $? from command: ls /nosuchdirectory"
echo "The next command should succeed and return a status equal to zero"
ls /tmp
echo "Status is $? from command: ls /tmp"
read.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Shows how to read a line from stdin
echo "Would you like to exit this script now?"
read answer
if [ "$answer" = y ]
then
	echo "Exiting..."
	exit 0
fi
args2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Loop over the command-line arguments
# Execute with
#	sh args2.sh simple.sh variables.sh
for filename in "$@"
do
	echo "Examining file $filename"
	wc -l $filename
done
args1.sh
#!/bin/sh
# Illustrates using command-line arguments
# Execute with
#	sh args1.sh On the Waterfront
echo "First command-line argument is: $1"
echo "Third argument is: $3"
echo "Number of arguments is: $#"
echo "The entire list of arguments is: $*"
s-and-r.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Perform a global search and replace on each of several files
# File names listed explicitly
for text_file in sdsc.txt nlanr.txt
do
	echo "Editing file $text_file"
	sed -e 's/application/APPLICATION/g' $text_file > temp
	mv -f temp $text_file
done
loop2.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Execute ls and wc on each of several files
# File names listed using file name wildcards
for filename in *.sh
do
	echo "Variable filename is set to $filename..."
	ls -l $filename
	wc -l $filename
done
loop1.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Execute ls and wc on each of several files
# File names listed explicitly
for filename in simple.sh variables.sh loop1.sh
do
	echo "Variable filename is set to $filename..."
	ls -l $filename
	wc -l $filename
done
sdsc.txt to your home directory arith.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Perform some arithmetic
x=24
y=4
Result=`expr $x /* $y`
echo "$x times $y is $Result"
nlanr.txt to your home directory and notice how the word 'vBNS' appears in it several times variables.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# An example with variables
filename="/etc/passwd"
echo "Check the permissions on $filename"
ls -l $filename
echo "Find out how many accounts there are on this system"
wc -l $filename
simple.sh and execute it
#!/bin/sh
# Show some useful info at the start of the day
date
echo Good morning $USER
cal
last | head -6
backquotes.sh and execute it (right click and save in a file)
#!/bin/sh
# Illustrates using backquotes
# Output of 'date' stored in a variable
Today="`date`"
echo Today is $Today