游戏ai人工智能_AI与游戏，第1部分：游戏如何推动了两门AI研究流派

游戏ai人工智能

国际象棋和象征性AI (Chess and Symbolic AI)

Today, AI based on deep learning and neural networks is taking the world by storm. However, many of the algorithms that guide our web searches and driving directions today are much older, rooted in what people now call “Good, Old Fashioned AI,” also known as “symbolic” AI, which was the primary form of AI from the 1950s through the 1990s. The eclipse of symbolic AI by deep learning is illustrated by two major milestones in AI history, each featuring the world’s top human player being beaten in a game by an AI system.

基于深度学习和神经网络公司的T ODAY，AI正在席卷全球。 但是，当今指导我们的网络搜索和行车路线的许多算法都已经过时了，植根于人们现在所说的“老式老式AI”(也称为“符号” AI)，这是AI的主要形式。 1950年代到1990年代。 人工智能历史上两个主要的里程碑说明了深度学习使象征性AI黯然失色的情况，每个里程碑都体现了世界顶级人类玩家在游戏中被AI系统击败的经历。

World Champion Garry Kasparov beat IBM’s Deep Blue in 1996, but was defeated by it in 1997 in a score of 4 games to 2. © Laurence Kesterson/CORBIS SYGMA

世界冠军加里·卡斯帕罗夫(Garry Kasparov)在1996年击败了IBM的《深蓝》，但在1997年以4比2的比分被它击败。©Laurence Kesterson / CORBIS SYGMA

The 1997 defeat of world champion chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov by IBM’s Deep Blue computer was hailed as a triumphant watershed in technological history, akin to the moon landing, because it appeared to show that computers could beat humans at something once thought to be exclusive to us: thinking. The symbolic AI techniques DeepBlue used are now considered passé, especially for more complicated games such as Go, believed to have been invented in China 2,500 years ago. But in 2016, world Go champion Lee Sedol was defeated by Google DeepMind’s AlphaGo AI system. This event has been called China’s “Sputnik moment” by AI researcher and venture capitalist Kai-Fu Lee, who argues that this specific event led China to pour billions of dollars of money into AI research to catch up with, and potentially surpass, the United States. AlphaGo’s victory illustrates the rise of the new paradigm in AI, deep learning and neural networks, at the heart of the current AI revolution.

1997年，IBM的Deep Blue电脑击败了世界冠军国际象棋特级大师Garry Kasparov，被誉为技术史上的胜利分水岭，类似于登月，因为它似乎表明，在曾经被认为是我们独有的东西上，计算机可以击败人类。 ：思考。 现在，DeepBlue使用的象征性AI技术被认为是过时的，特别是对于Go等更复杂的游戏而言，据信这种游戏是在2500年前在中国发明的。 但是在2016年，世界围棋冠军Lee Sedol被Google DeepMind的AlphaGo AI系统击败。 AI研究人员和风险资本家李开复(Kai-Fu Lee)将该事件称为中国的“人造卫星时刻”。他认为，这一特定事件使中国向AI研究投入了数十亿美元，以赶上并有可能超越美国。状态。 AlphaGo的胜利说明了AI，深度学习和神经网络新范式的兴起，这是当前AI革命的核心。

Why have games such as chess and Go been so important in the history of AI? The pioneers of artificial intelligence, which included Herbert Simon, Alan Newell, John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky, viewed human intelligence through a tradition of Western philosophy going back to Aristotle. This masculine-gendered, Eurocentric view of intelligence-rooted in the Cartesian separation of mind from body-privileges the cerebral skills of logic, math, and problem-solving ability over bodily, emotional, social, and cultural forms of intelligence. If Reason (i.e. Logic) separated Man from Beast, then Logic must be the basis for intelligence, they thought.

为什么象棋和围棋这样的游戏在AI历史上如此重要？ 人工智能的先驱包括赫伯特·西蒙，艾伦·纽厄尔，约翰·麦卡锡和Maven·明斯基，他们通过追溯到亚里士多德的西方哲学传统来观察人类的智力。 这种以男性为中心的，以欧洲为中心的智力观，植根于笛卡尔的思维与身体的分离，使他们的智力，逻辑，数学和解决问题的能力超越了身体，情感，社交和文化形式的智力。 他们认为，如果理性(即逻辑)将人与野兽分开，那么逻辑必定是智慧的基础。

Blaise Pascal was a philosopher and mathematician. In the 1640s, he invented for his father, a tax collector, a machine that could add. © Mark Richards. Collection of the Computer History Museum, B150.8.

布莱斯·帕斯卡(Blaise Pascal)是哲学家和数学家。 在1640年代，他为父亲发明了一种收税机，一种可以增加的机器。 ©马克·理查兹(Mark Richards)。 B150.8，计算机历史博物馆收藏。

Many Western philosophers and mathematicians, from Blaise Pascal to George Boole and Bertrand Russell aspired either to make calculation or logic, which they equated with thought itself, more mathematically rigorous (more “formal”), or to take the next step, to mechanize it. Pascal himself built a calculating machine for this purpose, and this Western impulse culminated in the invention of the digital computer in the 20th century. For the AI pioneers of the 1950s and 1960s, playing games were seen as just another way that people displayed intelligence by solving problems. If AI researchers could emulate how players did this, they could then automate the process. “Game theory,” a branch of mathematics with applications to economics and warfare both, was founded by mathematician and computer pioneer John von Neumann, and provided optimization strategies and algorithms more broadly useful to computer science. AI pioneer Herbert Simon applied such theories to both computer science and to economics (the field in which he won the Nobel Prize). Thus, the idea that games could seriously model aspects of the real world was central to early computer science. In particular, since early computers had difficulty modeling the complexities of the real world, games provided a simpler “micro-world,” with boundaries and rules easily understood by computers, that made rapid progress possible in the 1960s.

从布莱斯·帕斯卡(Blaise Pascal)到乔治·布尔(George Boole)和伯特兰·罗素(Bertrand Russell)的许多西方哲学家和数学家都渴望进行计算或逻辑化，他们将其等同于思想本身，在数学上更加严格(更“形式化”)，或者下一步是对其进行机械化。 。 帕斯卡(Pascal)亲自为此目的建造了一台计算机，这种西方的冲动最终导致了20世纪数字计算机的发明。 对于1950年代和1960年代的AI先锋来说，玩游戏只是人们通过解决问题来展示智慧的另一种方式。 如果AI研究人员可以模仿玩家的操作方式，那么他们就可以自动化该过程。 数学家和计算机先驱约翰·冯·诺伊曼(John von Neumann)共同创立了“博弈论”，这是数学的一个分支，在经济学和战争领域均有应用。它提供了对计算机科学更广泛有用的优化策略和算法。 人工智能的先驱赫伯特·西蒙(Herbert Simon)将此类理论应用于计算机科学和经济学(他获得诺贝尔奖的领域)。 因此，游戏可以认真模拟现实世界的各个方面的想法在早期计算机科学中至关重要。 特别是，由于早期的计算机难以模拟现实世界的复杂性，因此游戏提供了一个更简单的“微观世界”，其边界和规则易于计算机理解，从而在1960年代取得了飞速发展。

Wolfgang von Kemplen’s chess playing automaton, the Turk, which was operated by a human player hidden inside. Courtesy of the Library Company of Philadelphia.

沃尔夫冈·冯·肯普伦(Wolfgang von Kemplen)的国际象棋自动机“土耳其人”，由藏在里面的人类玩家操作。 由费城图书馆公司提供。

Chess, in particular, has historically been seen in the West as the pinnacle of intellectual activity. It was an intellectual’s game, associated with logic and strategy. Think of Star Trek’s Mr. Spock, and you may picture him at his 3D chess board, outplaying his human opponents. Even in the 18th century, European elites were fascinated by the idea of machines that might play chess. Wolfgang von Kempelen became famous for his “Mechanical Turk,” an automatic chess machine built for the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, which defeated Benjamin Franklin and Napoleon. Eventually, the Turk turned out to be fake, with a real man inside, but it nevertheless captured the imaginations of Edgar Allen Poe as well as Charles Babbage. This interest in chess as a marker of intelligence carried on in the mathematicians that helped define the theory of computing in the 20th century: Alan Turing, Claude Shannon, John von Neumann, Norbert Wiener, and of course the AI pioneers Herbert Simon, Alan Newell, and John McCarthy. For Newell and Simon, in particular, chess was an exemplary problem for AI particularly fitted to their preferred solution: search.

特别是国际象棋，在历史上一直被视为西方知识活动的顶峰。 这是一个知识分子的游戏，与逻辑和策略相关。 想想星际迷航的 Spock先生，您可能会在他的3D棋盘上想象他，胜过他的人类对手。 即使在18世纪，欧洲精英也对可能下棋的机器的想法着迷。 沃尔夫冈·冯·肯佩伦(Wolfgang von Kempelen)以其“机械土耳其人”而闻名，这是为奥地利女皇玛丽亚·特蕾莎(Maria Theresa)建造的自动下棋机，击败了本杰明·富兰克林和拿破仑。 最终，土耳其人被证明是伪造的，里面有一个真正的男人，但它仍然吸引了埃德加·艾伦·坡(Edgar Allen Poe)和查尔斯·巴贝奇(Charles Babbage)的想象。 对象棋的兴趣是在帮助定义20世纪计算理论的数学家中进行的一种智力标记：艾伦·图灵，克劳德·香农，约翰·冯·诺伊曼，诺伯特·维纳，当然还有AI的先驱赫伯特·西蒙，艾伦·纽厄尔以及约翰·麦卡锡(John McCarthy)。 特别是对于Newell和Simon，国际象棋是AI的一个典型问题，特别适合他们的首选解决方案：搜索。

Related: Visit the CHM online exhibit Mastering the Game: A History of Computer Chess

相关：访问CHM在线展览“ 掌握游戏：计算机象棋的历史”

Computer pioneer Alan Turing developed the first theoretical computer chess program as an example of machine intelligence in 1947.

计算机先驱艾伦·图灵(Alan Turing)在1947年开发了第一个理论计算机象棋程序，作为机器智能的例子。

MIT and Bell Labs researcher Claude Shannon (right) developed modern information theory and published the first article on how to write computer chess programs in 1950. He also built this chess machine (pictured) at MIT using relays. Chess champion Ed Lasker at left. ca. 1950. Gift of Monty Newborn, Collection of the Computer History Museum, 102645398.

麻省理工学院和贝尔实验室的研究员克劳德·香农(右)发展了现代信息论，并于1950年发表了有关如何编写计算机国际象棋程序的第一篇文章。他还在麻省理工学院使用继电器制造了这种国际象棋机器(如图)。 国际象棋冠军埃德·拉斯克(Ed Lasker)在左边。 ca. 1950年。Monty Newborn的礼物，计算机历史博物馆收藏，102645398。

Betty and Claude Shannon at the 3rd World Computer Chess Championship in Linz, Austria. 1980. Gift of Monty Newborn, Collection of the Computer History Museum, 102645392.

贝蒂和克劳德·香农在第三届世界计算机国际象棋锦标赛在奥地利林茨。 1980。《蒙蒂·纽伯恩的礼物》，计算机历史博物馆收藏，102645392。

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