内置函数：
abs() divmod() input() open() staticmethod() all() enumerate() int() ord() str() any() eval() isinstance() pow() sum() basestring() execfile() issubclass() print() super() bin() file() iter() property() tuple() bool() filter() len() range() type() bytearray() float() list() raw_input() unichr() callable() format() locals() reduce() unicode() chr() frozenset() long() reload() vars() classmethod() getattr() map() repr() xrange() cmp() globals() max() reverse() zip() compile() hasattr() memoryview() round() __import__() complex() hash() min() set() delattr() help() next() setattr() dict() hex() object() slice() dir() id() oct() sorted() exec 内置表达式
1.0 map()
map() 会根据提供的函数对指定序列做映射
def square(x): return x**2 s = map(square,[1,2,3,4,5]) print(s) print(list(s)) #执行结果： <map object at 0x0000000002119B70> [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
以上的代码还可以直接用lambda:
map(lambda x:x**2,[1,2,3,4,5])
map()可以对列表进行处理
str = ["a","b","c","d"] def function2(x): return x + "Rollo" result = map(function2,str) print(result) print(list(result)) #执行结果： <map object at 0x0000000002139B70> ['aRollo', 'bRollo', 'cRollo', 'dRollo']
提供了两个列表，对相同位置的列表数据进行相加
map(lambda x,y:x + y,[1,2,3,4,5],[6,7,8,9,10])
map()函数接收两个参数，一个是函数，一个是序列，map将传入的函数依次作用到序列的每个元素，并把结果作为新的list返回。
map(str,[1,2,3,4,6,7,8])
把这个list所有数字转为字符串
2.0 filter()：作用就是利用逻辑数字过滤不要的元素，生成先的列表
filter() 函数用于过滤序列，过滤掉不符合条件的元素，返回由符合条件元素组成的新列表。
该接收两个参数，第一个为函数，第二个为序列，序列的每个元素作为参数传递给函数进行判，然后返回 True 或 False，最后将返回 True 的元素放到新列表中。
注意: Pyhton2.7 返回列表，Python3.x 返回迭代器对象
方法：
filter(function,Iterable)
str = ["a","b","c","d"] def function_test(x): if x != "a": return x p = filter(function_test,str) print(p) print(list(p)) #执行结果： <filter object at 0x0000000001DE9B70> ['b', 'c', 'd']
3.0 reduce():reduce的结果就是一个值
reduce(function, iterable[, initializer])
reduce() 函数会对参数序列中元素进行累积。
函数将一个数据集合（链表，元组等）中的所有数据进行下列操作：用传给 reduce 中的函数 function（有两个参数）先对集合中的第 1、2 个元素进行操作，得到的结果再与第三个数据用 function 函数运算，最后得到一个结果。
from functools import reduce def addition(x,y): return x + y print(reduce(addition,range(1,10))) #执行结果： 45
效果就是这样的：
reduce(addition, [x1, x2, x3, x4]) = addition(addition(addition(x1, x2), x3), x4)
当然上面的代码直接用sum()就可以
t = sum((1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)) print(t)
但是如果要把序列[1, 3, 5, 7, 9]变换成整数13579，reduce就可以派上用场：
from functools import reduce num = [1,3,5,7,9] def fn(x,y): return x*10 + y reduce(fn,num) print(reduce(fn,num))
4.0 lambda() :
1.0 关键字lambda表示匿名函数，冒号前面的x表示函数参数。
2.0 lambda只是一个表达式，只是能一行代码，不能用return,返回值就是他本身。函数体比def简单很多。
3.0 用匿名函数有个好处，因为函数没有名字，不必担心函数名冲突。此外，匿名函数也是一个函数对象，也可以把匿名函数赋值给一个变量，再利用变量来调用该函数：
4.0 lambda函数拥有自己的命名空间，且不能访问自有参数列表之外或全局命名空间里的参数。
map(lambda x: x * x, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]) [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
def build(x, y): return lambda: x * x + y * y
5.0 sorted():对所以可迭代对象进行排序。
排序也是在程序中经常用到的算法。无论使用冒泡排序还是快速排序，排序的核心是比较两个元素的大小。如果是数字，我们可以直接比较，但如果是字符串或者两个dict呢？直接比较数学上的大小是没有意义的，因此，比较的过程必须通过函数抽象出来。通常规定，对于两个元素x和y，如果认为x < y，则返回-1，如果认为x == y，则返回0，如果认为x > y，则返回1，这样，排序算法就不用关心具体的比较过程，而是根据比较结果直接排序
t = sorted([36,25,78,1,96,35]) print(t) #执行结果： [1, 25, 35, 36, 78, 96]
sort 与 sorted 区别：
sort 是应用在 list 上的方法，sorted 可以对所有可迭代的对象进行排序操作。
list 的 sort 方法返回的是对已经存在的列表进行操作，而内建函数 sorted 方法返回的是一个新的 list，而不是在原来的基础上进行的操作。
5.0 abs() :
函数返回数字的绝对值。
a = abs(-45) b = abs(1935.35) c = abs(19654L) #pyhon3不能加字母 print(a) print(b) print(c) #执行结果： 45 1935.35 报错
6.0 divmod()
Python divmod() 函数接收两个数字类型（非复数）参数，返回一个包含商和余数的元组(a // b, a % b)
在 python 3.x 版本该函数不支持复数
函数语法:
divmod(a, b)
如果参数 a 与 参数 b 都是整数，函数返回的结果相当于 (a // b, a % b)。
如果其中一个参数为浮点数时，函数返回的结果相当于 (q, a % b)，q 通常是 math.floor(a / b)，但也有可能是 1 ，比小，不过 q * b + a % b 的值会非常接近 a。
如果 a % b 的求余结果不为 0 ，则余数的正负符号跟参数 b 是一样的，若 b 是正数，余数为正数，若 b 为负数，余数也为负数，并且 0 <= abs(a % b) < abs(b)。
print(divmod(8,2)) print(divmod(8,-2)) print(divmod(7,2)) print(divmod(8,2.1)) #执行结果： (4, 0) (-4, 0) (3, 1) (3.0, 1.6999999999999997)
7.0 dict() 创建字典：
dict() 函数用于创建一个字典。
dict() #创建空的字典 a1 = dict(a="1",b="2",c="3") #键值对创建字典 b1 = dict(zip(["a","b","c"],[4,5,6])) #映射创建字典 c1 = dict([("a",10),("b",11),("c",12)]) #通过迭代对象来创建字典 print(a1) print(b1) print(c1) #执行结果： {'a': '1', 'b': '2', 'c': '3'} {'a': 4, 'b': 5, 'c': 6} {'a': 10, 'b': 11, 'c': 12}
8.0 help() ：
help() 函数用于查看函数或模块用途的详细说明。
help("sys") help("os") #执行结果： NAME sys MODULE REFERENCE https://docs.python.org/3.7/library/sys The following documentation is automatically generated from the Python source files. It may be incomplete, incorrect or include features that are considered implementation detail and may vary between Python implementations. When in doubt, consult the module reference at the location listed above. DESCRIPTION This module provides access to some objects used or maintained by the interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. Dynamic objects: argv -- command line arguments; argv[0] is the script pathname if known path -- module search path; path[0] is the script directory, else '' modules -- dictionary of loaded modules displayhook -- called to show results in an interactive session excepthook -- called to handle any uncaught exception other than SystemExit To customize printing in an interactive session or to install a custom top-level exception handler, assign other functions to replace these. stdin -- standard input file object; used by input() stdout -- standard output file object; used by print() stderr -- standard error object; used for error messages By assigning other file objects (or objects that behave like files) to these, it is possible to redirect all of the interpreter's I/O. last_type -- type of last uncaught exception last_value -- value of last uncaught exception last_traceback -- traceback of last uncaught exception These three are only available in an interactive session after a traceback has been printed. Static objects: builtin_module_names -- tuple of module names built into this interpreter copyright -- copyright notice pertaining to this interpreter exec_prefix -- prefix used to find the machine-specific Python library executable -- absolute path of the executable binary of the Python interpreter float_info -- a struct sequence with information about the float implementation. float_repr_style -- string indicating the style of repr() output for floats hash_info -- a struct sequence with information about the hash algorithm. hexversion -- version information encoded as a single integer implementation -- Python implementation information. int_info -- a struct sequence with information about the int implementation. maxsize -- the largest supported length of containers. maxunicode -- the value of the largest Unicode code point platform -- platform identifier prefix -- prefix used to find the Python library thread_info -- a struct sequence with information about the thread implementation. version -- the version of this interpreter as a string version_info -- version information as a named tuple dllhandle -- [Windows only] integer handle of the Python DLL winver -- [Windows only] version number of the Python DLL _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding -- [Windows only] __stdin__ -- the original stdin; don't touch! __stdout__ -- the original stdout; don't touch! __stderr__ -- the original stderr; don't touch! __displayhook__ -- the original displayhook; don't touch! __excepthook__ -- the original excepthook; don't touch! Functions: displayhook() -- print an object to the screen, and save it in builtins._ excepthook() -- print an exception and its traceback to sys.stderr exc_info() -- return thread-safe information about the current exception exit() -- exit the interpreter by raising SystemExit getdlopenflags() -- returns flags to be used for dlopen() calls getprofile() -- get the global profiling function getrefcount() -- return the reference count for an object (plus one :-) getrecursionlimit() -- return the max recursion depth for the interpreter getsizeof() -- return the size of an object in bytes gettrace() -- get the global debug tracing function setcheckinterval() -- control how often the interpreter checks for events setdlopenflags() -- set the flags to be used for dlopen() calls setprofile() -- set the global profiling function setrecursionlimit() -- set the max recursion depth for the interpreter settrace() -- set the global debug tracing function FUNCTIONS __breakpointhook__ = breakpointhook(...) breakpointhook(*args, **kws) This hook function is called by built-in breakpoint(). __displayhook__ = displayhook(...) displayhook(object) -> None Print an object to sys.stdout and also save it in builtins._ __excepthook__ = excepthook(...) excepthook(exctype, value, traceback) -> None Handle an exception by displaying it with a traceback on sys.stderr. breakpointhook(...) breakpointhook(*args, **kws) This hook function is called by built-in breakpoint(). call_tracing(...) call_tracing(func, args) -> object Call func(*args), while tracing is enabled. The tracing state is saved, and restored afterwards. This is intended to be called from a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug some other code. callstats(...) callstats() -> tuple of integers Return a tuple of function call statistics, if CALL_PROFILE was defined when Python was built. Otherwise, return None. When enabled, this function returns detailed, implementation-specific details about the number of function calls executed. The return value is a 11-tuple where the entries in the tuple are counts of: 0. all function calls 1. calls to PyFunction_Type objects 2. PyFunction calls that do not create an argument tuple 3. PyFunction calls that do not create an argument tuple and bypass PyEval_EvalCodeEx() 4. PyMethod calls 5. PyMethod calls on bound methods 6. PyType calls 7. PyCFunction calls 8. generator calls 9. All other calls 10. Number of stack pops performed by call_function() displayhook(...) displayhook(object) -> None Print an object to sys.stdout and also save it in builtins._ exc_info(...) exc_info() -> (type, value, traceback) Return information about the most recent exception caught by an except clause in the current stack frame or in an older stack frame. excepthook(...) excepthook(exctype, value, traceback) -> None Handle an exception by displaying it with a traceback on sys.stderr. exit(...) exit([status]) Exit the interpreter by raising SystemExit(status). If the status is omitted or None, it defaults to zero (i.e., success). If the status is an integer, it will be used as the system exit status. If it is another kind of object, it will be printed and the system exit status will be one (i.e., failure). get_asyncgen_hooks(...) get_asyncgen_hooks() Return a namedtuple of installed asynchronous generators hooks (firstiter, finalizer). get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() Check status of origin tracking for coroutine objects in this thread. get_coroutine_wrapper(...) get_coroutine_wrapper() Return the wrapper for coroutine objects set by sys.set_coroutine_wrapper. getallocatedblocks(...) getallocatedblocks() -> integer Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated, regardless of their size. getcheckinterval(...) getcheckinterval() -> current check interval; see setcheckinterval(). getdefaultencoding(...) getdefaultencoding() -> string Return the current default string encoding used by the Unicode implementation. getfilesystemencodeerrors(...) getfilesystemencodeerrors() -> string Return the error mode used to convert Unicode filenames in operating system filenames. getfilesystemencoding(...) getfilesystemencoding() -> string Return the encoding used to convert Unicode filenames in operating system filenames. getprofile(...) getprofile() Return the profiling function set with sys.setprofile. See the profiler chapter in the library manual. getrecursionlimit(...) getrecursionlimit() Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack. This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing Python. getrefcount(...) getrefcount(object) -> integer Return the reference count of object. The count returned is generally one higher than you might expect, because it includes the (temporary) reference as an argument to getrefcount(). getsizeof(...) getsizeof(object, default) -> int Return the size of object in bytes. getswitchinterval(...) getswitchinterval() -> current thread switch interval; see setswitchinterval(). gettrace(...) gettrace() Return the global debug tracing function set with sys.settrace. See the debugger chapter in the library manual. getwindowsversion(...) getwindowsversion() Return information about the running version of Windows as a named tuple. The members are named: major, minor, build, platform, service_pack, service_pack_major, service_pack_minor, suite_mask, and product_type. For backward compatibility, only the first 5 items are available by indexing. All elements are numbers, except service_pack and platform_type which are strings, and platform_version which is a 3-tuple. Platform is always 2. Product_type may be 1 for a workstation, 2 for a domain controller, 3 for a server. Platform_version is a 3-tuple containing a version number that is intended for identifying the OS rather than feature detection. intern(...) intern(string) -> string ``Intern'' the given string. This enters the string in the (global) table of interned strings whose purpose is to speed up dictionary lookups. Return the string itself or the previously interned string object with the same value. is_finalizing(...) is_finalizing() Return True if Python is exiting. set_asyncgen_hooks(...) set_asyncgen_hooks(*, firstiter=None, finalizer=None) Set a finalizer for async generators objects. set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(depth) Enable or disable origin tracking for coroutine objects in this thread. Coroutine objects will track 'depth' frames of traceback information about where they came from, available in their cr_origin attribute. Set depth of 0 to disable. set_coroutine_wrapper(...) set_coroutine_wrapper(wrapper) Set a wrapper for coroutine objects. setcheckinterval(...) setcheckinterval(n) Tell the Python interpreter to check for asynchronous events every n instructions. This also affects how often thread switches occur. setprofile(...) setprofile(function) Set the profiling function. It will be called on each function call and return. See the profiler chapter in the library manual. setrecursionlimit(...) setrecursionlimit(n) Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to n. This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing Python. The highest possible limit is platform- dependent. setswitchinterval(...) setswitchinterval(n) Set the ideal thread switching delay inside the Python interpreter The actual frequency of switching threads can be lower if the interpreter executes long sequences of uninterruptible code (this is implementation-specific and workload-dependent). The parameter must represent the desired switching delay in seconds A typical value is 0.005 (5 milliseconds). settrace(...) settrace(function) Set the global debug tracing function. It will be called on each function call. See the debugger chapter in the library manual. DATA __stderr__ = <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stderr>' mode='w' encoding='UTF... __stdin__ = <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8... __stdout__ = <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' mode='w' encoding='UTF... api_version = 1013 argv = ['E:/python_work/fullstack_s6/week4/day2/buildin_function.py'] base_exec_prefix = r'G:\Python' base_prefix = r'G:\Python' builtin_module_names = ('_abc', '_ast', '_bisect', '_blake2', '_codecs... byteorder = 'little' copyright = 'Copyright (c) 2001-2018 Python Software Foundati...ematis... dllhandle = 8790974398464 dont_write_bytecode = False exec_prefix = r'G:\Python' executable = r'G:\Python\python.exe' flags = sys.flags(debug=0, inspect=0, interactive=0, opt...ation=1, is... float_info = sys.float_info(max=1.7976931348623157e+308, max_...epsilo... float_repr_style = 'short' hash_info = sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693...iphash2... hexversion = 50791152 implementation = namespace(cache_tag='cpython-37', hexversion=507...in... int_info = sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4) maxsize = 9223372036854775807 maxunicode = 1114111 meta_path = [<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>, <class '_fro... modules = {'__main__': <module '__main__' from 'E:/python_work/fullsta... path = [r'E:\python_work\fullstack_s6\week4\day2', r'E:\python_work\fu... path_hooks = [<class 'zipimport.zipimporter'>, <function FileFinder.pa... path_importer_cache = {'E:/python_work/fullstack_s6/week4/day2/buildin... platform = 'win32' prefix = r'G:\Python' stderr = <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stderr>' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'> stdin = <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'> stdout = <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'> thread_info = sys.thread_info(name='nt', lock=None, version=None) version = '3.7.2 (tags/v3.7.2:9a3ffc0492, Dec 23 2018, 23:09:28) [MSC ... version_info = sys.version_info(major=3, minor=7, micro=2, releaseleve... warnoptions = [] winver = '3.7' FILE (built-in) Help on module os: NAME os - OS routines for NT or Posix depending on what system we're on. DESCRIPTION This exports: - all functions from posix or nt, e.g. unlink, stat, etc. - os.path is either posixpath or ntpath - os.name is either 'posix' or 'nt' - os.curdir is a string representing the current directory (always '.') - os.pardir is a string representing the parent directory (always '..') - os.sep is the (or a most common) pathname separator ('/' or '\\') - os.extsep is the extension separator (always '.') - os.altsep is the alternate pathname separator (None or '/') - os.pathsep is the component separator used in $PATH etc - os.linesep is the line separator in text files ('\r' or '\n' or '\r\n') - os.defpath is the default search path for executables - os.devnull is the file path of the null device ('/dev/null', etc.) Programs that import and use 'os' stand a better chance of being portable between different platforms. Of course, they must then only use functions that are defined by all platforms (e.g., unlink and opendir), and leave all pathname manipulation to os.path (e.g., split and join). CLASSES builtins.Exception(builtins.BaseException) builtins.OSError builtins.object nt.DirEntry builtins.tuple(builtins.object) nt.times_result nt.uname_result stat_result statvfs_result terminal_size class DirEntry(builtins.object) | Methods defined here: | | __fspath__(self, /) | Returns the path for the entry. | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | inode(self, /) | Return inode of the entry; cached per entry. | | is_dir(self, /, *, follow_symlinks=True) | Return True if the entry is a directory; cached per entry. | | is_file(self, /, *, follow_symlinks=True) | Return True if the entry is a file; cached per entry. | | is_symlink(self, /) | Return True if the entry is a symbolic link; cached per entry. | | stat(self, /, *, follow_symlinks=True) | Return stat_result object for the entry; cached per entry. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | name | the entry's base filename, relative to scandir() "path" argument | | path | the entry's full path name; equivalent to os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name) error = class OSError(Exception) | Base class for I/O related errors. | | Method resolution order: | OSError | Exception | BaseException | object | | Methods defined here: | | __init__(self, /, *args, **kwargs) | Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature. | | __reduce__(...) | Helper for pickle. | | __str__(self, /) | Return str(self). | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Static methods defined here: | | __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type | Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | characters_written | | errno | POSIX exception code | | filename | exception filename | | filename2 | second exception filename | | strerror | exception strerror | | winerror | Win32 exception code | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Methods inherited from BaseException: | | __delattr__(self, name, /) | Implement delattr(self, name). | | __getattribute__(self, name, /) | Return getattr(self, name). | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | __setattr__(self, name, value, /) | Implement setattr(self, name, value). | | __setstate__(...) | | with_traceback(...) | Exception.with_traceback(tb) -- | set self.__traceback__ to tb and return self. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors inherited from BaseException: | | __cause__ | exception cause | | __context__ | exception context | | __dict__ | | __suppress_context__ | | __traceback__ | | args class stat_result(builtins.tuple) | stat_result(iterable=(), /) | | stat_result: Result from stat, fstat, or lstat. | | This object may be accessed either as a tuple of | (mode, ino, dev, nlink, uid, gid, size, atime, mtime, ctime) | or via the attributes st_mode, st_ino, st_dev, st_nlink, st_uid, and so on. | | Posix/windows: If your platform supports st_blksize, st_blocks, st_rdev, | or st_flags, they are available as attributes only. | | See os.stat for more information. | | Method resolution order: | stat_result | builtins.tuple | builtins.object | | Methods defined here: | | __reduce__(...) | Helper for pickle. | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Static methods defined here: | | __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type | Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | st_atime | time of last access | | st_atime_ns | time of last access in nanoseconds | | st_ctime | time of last change | | st_ctime_ns | time of last change in nanoseconds | | st_dev | device | | st_file_attributes | Windows file attribute bits | | st_gid | group ID of owner | | st_ino | inode | | st_mode | protection bits | | st_mtime | time of last modification | | st_mtime_ns | time of last modification in nanoseconds | | st_nlink | number of hard links | | st_size | total size, in bytes | | st_uid | user ID of owner | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data and other attributes defined here: | | n_fields = 17 | | n_sequence_fields = 10 | | n_unnamed_fields = 3 | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Methods inherited from builtins.tuple: | | __add__(self, value, /) | Return self+value. | | __contains__(self, key, /) | Return key in self. | | __eq__(self, value, /) | Return self==value. | | __ge__(self, value, /) | Return self>=value. | | __getattribute__(self, name, /) | Return getattr(self, name). | | __getitem__(self, key, /) | Return self[key]. | | __getnewargs__(self, /) | | __gt__(self, value, /) | Return self>value. | | __hash__(self, /) | Return hash(self). | | __iter__(self, /) | Implement iter(self). | | __le__(self, value, /) | Return self<=value. | | __len__(self, /) | Return len(self). | | __lt__(self, value, /) | Return self<value. | | __mul__(self, value, /) | Return self*value. | | __ne__(self, value, /) | Return self!=value. | | __rmul__(self, value, /) | Return value*self. | | count(self, value, /) | Return number of occurrences of value. | | index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /) | Return first index of value. | | Raises ValueError if the value is not present. class statvfs_result(builtins.tuple) | statvfs_result(iterable=(), /) | | statvfs_result: Result from statvfs or fstatvfs. | | This object may be accessed either as a tuple of | (bsize, frsize, blocks, bfree, bavail, files, ffree, favail, flag, namemax), | or via the attributes f_bsize, f_frsize, f_blocks, f_bfree, and so on. | | See os.statvfs for more information. | | Method resolution order: | statvfs_result | builtins.tuple | builtins.object | | Methods defined here: | | __reduce__(...) | Helper for pickle. | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Static methods defined here: | | __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type | Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | f_bavail | | f_bfree | | f_blocks | | f_bsize | | f_favail | | f_ffree | | f_files | | f_flag | | f_frsize | | f_fsid | | f_namemax | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data and other attributes defined here: | | n_fields = 11 | | n_sequence_fields = 10 | | n_unnamed_fields = 0 | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Methods inherited from builtins.tuple: | | __add__(self, value, /) | Return self+value. | | __contains__(self, key, /) | Return key in self. | | __eq__(self, value, /) | Return self==value. | | __ge__(self, value, /) | Return self>=value. | | __getattribute__(self, name, /) | Return getattr(self, name). | | __getitem__(self, key, /) | Return self[key]. | | __getnewargs__(self, /) | | __gt__(self, value, /) | Return self>value. | | __hash__(self, /) | Return hash(self). | | __iter__(self, /) | Implement iter(self). | | __le__(self, value, /) | Return self<=value. | | __len__(self, /) | Return len(self). | | __lt__(self, value, /) | Return self<value. | | __mul__(self, value, /) | Return self*value. | | __ne__(self, value, /) | Return self!=value. | | __rmul__(self, value, /) | Return value*self. | | count(self, value, /) | Return number of occurrences of value. | | index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /) | Return first index of value. | | Raises ValueError if the value is not present. class terminal_size(builtins.tuple) | terminal_size(iterable=(), /) | | A tuple of (columns, lines) for holding terminal window size | | Method resolution order: | terminal_size | builtins.tuple | builtins.object | | Methods defined here: | | __reduce__(...) | Helper for pickle. | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Static methods defined here: | | __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type | Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | columns | width of the terminal window in characters | | lines | height of the terminal window in characters | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data and other attributes defined here: | | n_fields = 2 | | n_sequence_fields = 2 | | n_unnamed_fields = 0 | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Methods inherited from builtins.tuple: | | __add__(self, value, /) | Return self+value. | | __contains__(self, key, /) | Return key in self. | | __eq__(self, value, /) | Return self==value. | | __ge__(self, value, /) | Return self>=value. | | __getattribute__(self, name, /) | Return getattr(self, name). | | __getitem__(self, key, /) | Return self[key]. | | __getnewargs__(self, /) | | __gt__(self, value, /) | Return self>value. | | __hash__(self, /) | Return hash(self). | | __iter__(self, /) | Implement iter(self). | | __le__(self, value, /) | Return self<=value. | | __len__(self, /) | Return len(self). | | __lt__(self, value, /) | Return self<value. | | __mul__(self, value, /) | Return self*value. | | __ne__(self, value, /) | Return self!=value. | | __rmul__(self, value, /) | Return value*self. | | count(self, value, /) | Return number of occurrences of value. | | index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /) | Return first index of value. | | Raises ValueError if the value is not present. class times_result(builtins.tuple) | times_result(iterable=(), /) | | times_result: Result from os.times(). | | This object may be accessed either as a tuple of | (user, system, children_user, children_system, elapsed), | or via the attributes user, system, children_user, children_system, | and elapsed. | | See os.times for more information. | | Method resolution order: | times_result | builtins.tuple | builtins.object | | Methods defined here: | | __reduce__(...) | Helper for pickle. | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Static methods defined here: | | __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type | Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | children_system | system time of children | | children_user | user time of children | | elapsed | elapsed time since an arbitrary point in the past | | system | system time | | user | user time | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data and other attributes defined here: | | n_fields = 5 | | n_sequence_fields = 5 | | n_unnamed_fields = 0 | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Methods inherited from builtins.tuple: | | __add__(self, value, /) | Return self+value. | | __contains__(self, key, /) | Return key in self. | | __eq__(self, value, /) | Return self==value. | | __ge__(self, value, /) | Return self>=value. | | __getattribute__(self, name, /) | Return getattr(self, name). | | __getitem__(self, key, /) | Return self[key]. | | __getnewargs__(self, /) | | __gt__(self, value, /) | Return self>value. | | __hash__(self, /) | Return hash(self). | | __iter__(self, /) | Implement iter(self). | | __le__(self, value, /) | Return self<=value. | | __len__(self, /) | Return len(self). | | __lt__(self, value, /) | Return self<value. | | __mul__(self, value, /) | Return self*value. | | __ne__(self, value, /) | Return self!=value. | | __rmul__(self, value, /) | Return value*self. | | count(self, value, /) | Return number of occurrences of value. | | index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /) | Return first index of value. | | Raises ValueError if the value is not present. class uname_result(builtins.tuple) | uname_result(iterable=(), /) | | uname_result: Result from os.uname(). | | This object may be accessed either as a tuple of | (sysname, nodename, release, version, machine), | or via the attributes sysname, nodename, release, version, and machine. | | See os.uname for more information. | | Method resolution order: | uname_result | builtins.tuple | builtins.object | | Methods defined here: | | __reduce__(...) | Helper for pickle. | | __repr__(self, /) | Return repr(self). | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Static methods defined here: | | __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type | Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data descriptors defined here: | | machine | hardware identifier | | nodename | name of machine on network (implementation-defined) | | release | operating system release | | sysname | operating system name | | version | operating system version | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Data and other attributes defined here: | | n_fields = 5 | | n_sequence_fields = 5 | | n_unnamed_fields = 0 | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Methods inherited from builtins.tuple: | | __add__(self, value, /) | Return self+value. | | __contains__(self, key, /) | Return key in self. | | __eq__(self, value, /) | Return self==value. | | __ge__(self, value, /) | Return self>=value. | | __getattribute__(self, name, /) | Return getattr(self, name). | | __getitem__(self, key, /) | Return self[key]. | | __getnewargs__(self, /) | | __gt__(self, value, /) | Return self>value. | | __hash__(self, /) | Return hash(self). | | __iter__(self, /) | Implement iter(self). | | __le__(self, value, /) | Return self<=value. | | __len__(self, /) | Return len(self). | | __lt__(self, value, /) | Return self<value. | | __mul__(self, value, /) | Return self*value. | | __ne__(self, value, /) | Return self!=value. | | __rmul__(self, value, /) | Return value*self. | | count(self, value, /) | Return number of occurrences of value. | | index(self, value, start=0, stop=9223372036854775807, /) | Return first index of value. | | Raises ValueError if the value is not present. FUNCTIONS _exit(status) Exit to the system with specified status, without normal exit processing. abort() Abort the interpreter immediately. This function 'dumps core' or otherwise fails in the hardest way possible on the hosting operating system. This function never returns. access(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True) Use the real uid/gid to test for access to a path. path Path to be tested; can be string, bytes, or a path-like object. mode Operating-system mode bitfield. Can be F_OK to test existence, or the inclusive-OR of R_OK, W_OK, and X_OK. dir_fd If not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. effective_ids If True, access will use the effective uid/gid instead of the real uid/gid. follow_symlinks If False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link, access will examine the symbolic link itself instead of the file the link points to. dir_fd, effective_ids, and follow_symlinks may not be implemented on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError. Note that most operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user has the specified access to the path. chdir(path) Change the current working directory to the specified path. path may always be specified as a string. On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor. If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception. chmod(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) Change the access permissions of a file. path Path to be modified. May always be specified as a str, bytes, or a path-like object. On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor. If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception. mode Operating-system mode bitfield. dir_fd If not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. follow_symlinks If False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link, chmod will modify the symbolic link itself instead of the file the link points to. It is an error to use dir_fd or follow_symlinks when specifying path as an open file descriptor. dir_fd and follow_symlinks may not be implemented on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError. close(fd) Close a file descriptor. closerange(fd_low, fd_high, /) Closes all file descriptors in [fd_low, fd_high), ignoring errors. cpu_count() Return the number of CPUs in the system; return None if indeterminable. This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can use. The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with ``len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))`` device_encoding(fd) Return a string describing the encoding of a terminal's file descriptor. The file descriptor must be attached to a terminal. If the device is not a terminal, return None. dup(fd, /) Return a duplicate of a file descriptor. dup2(fd, fd2, inheritable=True) Duplicate file descriptor. execl(file, *args) execl(file, *args) Execute the executable file with argument list args, replacing the current process. execle(file, *args) execle(file, *args, env) Execute the executable file with argument list args and environment env, replacing the current process. execlp(file, *args) execlp(file, *args) Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH) with argument list args, replacing the current process. execlpe(file, *args) execlpe(file, *args, env) Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH) with argument list args and environment env, replacing the current process. execv(path, argv, /) Execute an executable path with arguments, replacing current process. path Path of executable file. argv Tuple or list of strings. execve(path, argv, env) Execute an executable path with arguments, replacing current process. path Path of executable file. argv Tuple or list of strings. env Dictionary of strings mapping to strings. execvp(file, args) execvp(file, args) Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH) with argument list args, replacing the current process. args may be a list or tuple of strings. execvpe(file, args, env) execvpe(file, args, env) Execute the executable file (which is searched for along $PATH) with argument list args and environment env , replacing the current process. args may be a list or tuple of strings. fdopen(fd, *args, **kwargs) # Supply os.fdopen() fsdecode(filename) Decode filename (an os.PathLike, bytes, or str) from the filesystem encoding with 'surrogateescape' error handler, return str unchanged. On Windows, use 'strict' error handler if the file system encoding is 'mbcs' (which is the default encoding). fsencode(filename) Encode filename (an os.PathLike, bytes, or str) to the filesystem encoding with 'surrogateescape' error handler, return bytes unchanged. On Windows, use 'strict' error handler if the file system encoding is 'mbcs' (which is the default encoding). fspath(path) Return the file system path representation of the object. If the object is str or bytes, then allow it to pass through as-is. If the object defines __fspath__(), then return the result of that method. All other types raise a TypeError. fstat(fd) Perform a stat system call on the given file descriptor. Like stat(), but for an open file descriptor. Equivalent to os.stat(fd). fsync(fd) Force write of fd to disk. ftruncate(fd, length, /) Truncate a file, specified by file descriptor, to a specific length. get_exec_path(env=None) Returns the sequence of directories that will be searched for the named executable (similar to a shell) when launching a process. *env* must be an environment variable dict or None. If *env* is None, os.environ will be used. get_handle_inheritable(handle, /) Get the close-on-exe flag of the specified file descriptor. get_inheritable(fd, /) Get the close-on-exe flag of the specified file descriptor. get_terminal_size(...) Return the size of the terminal window as (columns, lines). The optional argument fd (default standard output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried. If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an OSError is thrown. This function will only be defined if an implementation is available for this system. shutil.get_terminal_size is the high-level function which should normally be used, os.get_terminal_size is the low-level implementation. getcwd() Return a unicode string representing the current working directory. getcwdb() Return a bytes string representing the current working directory. getenv(key, default=None) Get an environment variable, return None if it doesn't exist. The optional second argument can specify an alternate default. key, default and the result are str. getlogin() Return the actual login name. getpid() Return the current process id. getppid() Return the parent's process id. If the parent process has already exited, Windows machines will still return its id; others systems will return the id of the 'init' process (1). isatty(fd, /) Return True if the fd is connected to a terminal. Return True if the file descriptor is an open file descriptor connected to the slave end of a terminal. kill(pid, signal, /) Kill a process with a signal. link(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) Create a hard link to a file. If either src_dir_fd or dst_dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and the respective path string (src or dst) should be relative; the path will then be relative to that directory. If follow_symlinks is False, and the last element of src is a symbolic link, link will create a link to the symbolic link itself instead of the file the link points to. src_dir_fd, dst_dir_fd, and follow_symlinks may not be implemented on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError. listdir(path=None) Return a list containing the names of the files in the directory. path can be specified as either str, bytes, or a path-like object. If path is bytes, the filenames returned will also be bytes; in all other circumstances the filenames returned will be str. If path is None, uses the path='.'. On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor;\ the file descriptor must refer to a directory. If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises NotImplementedError. The list is in arbitrary order. It does not include the special entries '.' and '..' even if they are present in the directory. lseek(fd, position, how, /) Set the position of a file descriptor. Return the new position. Return the new cursor position in number of bytes relative to the beginning of the file. lstat(path, *, dir_fd=None) Perform a stat system call on the given path, without following symbolic links. Like stat(), but do not follow symbolic links. Equivalent to stat(path, follow_symlinks=False). makedirs(name, mode=511, exist_ok=False) makedirs(name [, mode=0o777][, exist_ok=False]) Super-mkdir; create a leaf directory and all intermediate ones. Works like mkdir, except that any intermediate path segment (not just the rightmost) will be created if it does not exist. If the target directory already exists, raise an OSError if exist_ok is False. Otherwise no exception is raised. This is recursive. mkdir(path, mode=511, *, dir_fd=None) Create a directory. If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. The mode argument is ignored on Windows. open(path, flags, mode=511, *, dir_fd=None) Open a file for low level IO. Returns a file descriptor (integer). If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. pipe() Create a pipe. Returns a tuple of two file descriptors: (read_fd, write_fd) popen(cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1) # Supply os.popen() putenv(name, value, /) Change or add an environment variable. read(fd, length, /) Read from a file descriptor. Returns a bytes object. readlink(...) readlink(path, *, dir_fd=None) -> path Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points. If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. remove(path, *, dir_fd=None) Remove a file (same as unlink()). If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. removedirs(name) removedirs(name) Super-rmdir; remove a leaf directory and all empty intermediate ones. Works like rmdir except that, if the leaf directory is successfully removed, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments will be pruned away until either the whole path is consumed or an error occurs. Errors during this latter phase are ignored -- they generally mean that a directory was not empty. rename(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None) Rename a file or directory. If either src_dir_fd or dst_dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and the respective path string (src or dst) should be relative; the path will then be relative to that directory. src_dir_fd and dst_dir_fd, may not be implemented on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError. renames(old, new) renames(old, new) Super-rename; create directories as necessary and delete any left empty. Works like rename, except creation of any intermediate directories needed to make the new pathname good is attempted first. After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments of the old name will be pruned until either the whole path is consumed or a nonempty directory is found. Note: this function can fail with the new directory structure made if you lack permissions needed to unlink the leaf directory or file. replace(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None) Rename a file or directory, overwriting the destination. If either src_dir_fd or dst_dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and the respective path string (src or dst) should be relative; the path will then be relative to that directory. src_dir_fd and dst_dir_fd, may not be implemented on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError." rmdir(path, *, dir_fd=None) Remove a directory. If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. scandir(path=None) Return an iterator of DirEntry objects for given path. path can be specified as either str, bytes, or a path-like object. If path is bytes, the names of yielded DirEntry objects will also be bytes; in all other circumstances they will be str. If path is None, uses the path='.'. set_handle_inheritable(handle, inheritable, /) Set the inheritable flag of the specified handle. set_inheritable(fd, inheritable, /) Set the inheritable flag of the specified file descriptor. spawnl(mode, file, *args) spawnl(mode, file, *args) -> integer Execute file with arguments from args in a subprocess. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. spawnle(mode, file, *args) spawnle(mode, file, *args, env) -> integer Execute file with arguments from args in a subprocess with the supplied environment. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. spawnv(mode, path, argv, /) Execute the program specified by path in a new process. mode Mode of process creation. path Path of executable file. argv Tuple or list of strings. spawnve(mode, path, argv, env, /) Execute the program specified by path in a new process. mode Mode of process creation. path Path of executable file. argv Tuple or list of strings. env Dictionary of strings mapping to strings. startfile(filepath, operation=None) startfile(filepath [, operation]) Start a file with its associated application. When "operation" is not specified or "open", this acts like double-clicking the file in Explorer, or giving the file name as an argument to the DOS "start" command: the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension is associated. When another "operation" is given, it specifies what should be done with the file. A typical operation is "print". startfile returns as soon as the associated application is launched. There is no option to wait for the application to close, and no way to retrieve the application's exit status. The filepath is relative to the current directory. If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first character is not a slash ("/"); the underlying Win32 ShellExecute function doesn't work if it is. stat(path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) Perform a stat system call on the given path. path Path to be examined; can be string, bytes, a path-like object or open-file-descriptor int. dir_fd If not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be a relative string; path will then be relative to that directory. follow_symlinks If False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link, stat will examine the symbolic link itself instead of the file the link points to. dir_fd and follow_symlinks may not be implemented on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError. It's an error to use dir_fd or follow_symlinks when specifying path as an open file descriptor. strerror(code, /) Translate an error code to a message string. symlink(src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *, dir_fd=None) Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst. target_is_directory is required on Windows if the target is to be interpreted as a directory. (On Windows, symlink requires Windows 6.0 or greater, and raises a NotImplementedError otherwise.) target_is_directory is ignored on non-Windows platforms. If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. system(command) Execute the command in a subshell. times() Return a collection containing process timing information. The object returned behaves like a named tuple with these fields: (utime, stime, cutime, cstime, elapsed_time) All fields are floating point numbers. truncate(path, length) Truncate a file, specified by path, to a specific length. On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor. If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception. umask(mask, /) Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask. unlink(path, *, dir_fd=None) Remove a file (same as remove()). If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. dir_fd may not be implemented on your platform. If it is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError. urandom(size, /) Return a bytes object containing random bytes suitable for cryptographic use. utime(path, times=None, *, ns=None, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True) Set the access and modified time of path. path may always be specified as a string. On some platforms, path may also be specified as an open file descriptor. If this functionality is unavailable, using it raises an exception. If times is not None, it must be a tuple (atime, mtime); atime and mtime should be expressed as float seconds since the epoch. If ns is specified, it must be a tuple (atime_ns, mtime_ns); atime_ns and mtime_ns should be expressed as integer nanoseconds since the epoch. If times is None and ns is unspecified, utime uses the current time. Specifying tuples for both times and ns is an error. If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and path should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. If follow_symlinks is False, and the last element of the path is a symbolic link, utime will modify the symbolic link itself instead of the file the link points to. It is an error to use dir_fd or follow_symlinks when specifying path as an open file descriptor. dir_fd and follow_symlinks may not be available on your platform. If they are unavailable, using them will raise a NotImplementedError. waitpid(pid, options, /) Wait for completion of a given process. Returns a tuple of information regarding the process: (pid, status << 8) The options argument is ignored on Windows. walk(top, topdown=True, οnerrοr=None, followlinks=False) Directory tree generator. For each directory in the directory tree rooted at top (including top itself, but excluding '.' and '..'), yields a 3-tuple dirpath, dirnames, filenames dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the names of the subdirectories in dirpath (excluding '.' and '..'). filenames is a list of the names of the non-directory files in dirpath. Note that the names in the lists are just names, with no path components. To get a full path (which begins with top) to a file or directory in dirpath, do os.path.join(dirpath, name). If optional arg 'topdown' is true or not specified, the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories (directories are generated top down). If topdown is false, the triple for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are generated bottom up). When topdown is true, the caller can modify the dirnames list in-place (e.g., via del or slice assignment), and walk will only recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames; this can be used to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting. Modifying dirnames when topdown is false is ineffective, since the directories in dirnames have already been generated by the time dirnames itself is generated. No matter the value of topdown, the list of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory and its subdirectories are generated. By default errors from the os.scandir() call are ignored. If optional arg 'onerror' is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with one argument, an OSError instance. It can report the error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk. Note that the filename is available as the filename attribute of the exception object. By default, os.walk does not follow symbolic links to subdirectories on systems that support them. In order to get this functionality, set the optional argument 'followlinks' to true. Caution: if you pass a relative pathname for top, don't change the current working directory between resumptions of walk. walk never changes the current directory, and assumes that the client doesn't either. Example: import os from os.path import join, getsize for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'): print(root, "consumes", end="") print(sum([getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files]), end="") print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files") if 'CVS' in dirs: dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories write(fd, data, /) Write a bytes object to a file descriptor. DATA F_OK = 0 O_APPEND = 8 O_BINARY = 32768 O_CREAT = 256 O_EXCL = 1024 O_NOINHERIT = 128 O_RANDOM = 16 O_RDONLY = 0 O_RDWR = 2 O_SEQUENTIAL = 32 O_SHORT_LIVED = 4096 O_TEMPORARY = 64 O_TEXT = 16384 O_TRUNC = 512 O_WRONLY = 1 P_DETACH = 4 P_NOWAIT = 1 P_NOWAITO = 3 P_OVERLAY = 2 P_WAIT = 0 R_OK = 4 SEEK_CUR = 1 SEEK_END = 2 SEEK_SET = 0 TMP_MAX = 2147483647 W_OK = 2 X_OK = 1 __all__ = ['altsep', 'curdir', 'pardir', 'sep', 'pathsep', 'linesep', ... altsep = '/' curdir = '.' defpath = r'.;C:\bin' devnull = 'nul' environ = environ({'ALLUSERSPROFILE': 'C:\\ProgramData', '...\BVTBin\\... extsep = '.' linesep = '\r\n' name = 'nt' pardir = '..' pathsep = ';' sep = r'\' supports_bytes_environ = False FILE g:\python\lib\os.py
9.0 min() ：
min() 方法返回给定参数的最小值，参数可以为序列。
10.0 setattr():
用于设置属性值，该属性不一定是存在的
setattr(object, name, value)
11.0 all() ：
all() 函数用于判断给定的可迭代参数 iterable 中的所有元素是否都为 TRUE，如果是返回 True，否则返回 False。
元素除了是 0、空、None、False 外都算 True。
def all(iterable): for element in iterable: if not element: return False return True
返回值 如果iterable的所有元素不为0、''、False或者iterable为空，all(iterable)返回True，否则返回False； 注意：空元组、空列表返回值为True，这里要特别注意
12.0 dir() ：
查看当前文件夹的文件
dir() 函数不带参数时，返回当前范围内的变量、方法和定义的类型列表；带参数时，返回参数的属性、方法列表。如果参数包含方法__dir__()，该方法将被调用。如果参数不包含__dir__()，该方法将最大限度地收集参数信息。
13.0 hex() ：
hex() 函数用于将一个指定数字转换为 16 进制数。
14.0 next() ：
next() 返回迭代器的下一个项目。
next 语法：
next(iterator[, default])
参数说明：
- iterator -- 可迭代对象
- default -- 可选，用于设置在没有下一个元素时返回该默认值，如果不设置，又没有下一个元素则会触发 StopIteration 异常
# 首先获得Iterator对象: it = iter([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) # 循环: while True: try: # 获得下一个值: x = next(it) print(x) except StopIteration: # 遇到StopIteration就退出循环 break
14.0 slice() ：
slice() 函数实现切片对象，主要用在切片操作函数里的参数传递。
slice 语法：
class slice(stop) class slice(start, stop[, step])
15.0 any() ：
any() 函数用于判断给定的可迭代参数 iterable 是否全部为 False，则返回 False，如果有一个为 True，则返回 True。
元素除了是 0、空、FALSE 外都算 TRUE。
def any(iterable): for element in iterable: if element: return True return False
15.0 id() ：
id() 函数用于获取对象的内存地址。
16.0 enumerate() ：这个很重要
enumerate() 函数用于将一个可遍历的数据对象(如列表、元组或字符串)组合为一个索引序列，同时列出数据和数据下标，一般用在 for 循环当中。
enumerate(sequence, [start=0])
参数
- sequence -- 一个序列、迭代器或其他支持迭代对象。
- start -- 下标起始位置。
返回值
返回 enumerate(枚举) 对象
str = [1,2,3,4,5] t = list(enumerate(str)) print(t) #执行结果： [(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)]
str = [1,2,3,4,5] t = list(enumerate(str)) t2 = list(enumerate(str,start=1)) #可以自己设置索引值的开始 print(t2) #执行结果： [(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)]
普通的 for 循环
str = [1,2,3,4,5] i = 0 for x in str: print(i,str[i]) i += 1 #执行结果： 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
str = [1,2,3,4,5] for x,y in enumerate(str): print(x,str[x]) #执行结果： 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
str = [1,2,3,4,5,"rollo"] for x in enumerate(str,start=1): print(x) #执行结果： (1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 'rollo'
17.0 input() ：这个很重要
这个用来做用户交互，所得的值就string
注意：在 Python3.x 中 raw_input() 和 input() 进行了整合，去除了 raw_input( )，仅保留了input( )函数，其接收任意任性输入，将所有输入默认为字符串处理，并返回字符串类型。
18.0 input() ：
oct() 函数将一个整数转换成8进制字符串。
19.0 staticmethod()：
python staticmethod 返回函数的静态方法。
该方法不强制要求传递参数，如下声明一个静态方法：
class C(object): @staticmethod def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...
staticmethod(function)
20.0 bin()：
bin() 返回一个整数 int 或者长整数 long int 的二进制表示。
21.0 eval()：
eval() 函数用来执行一个字符串表达式，并返回表达式的值。
eval(expression[, globals[, locals]])
参数
- expression -- 表达式。
- globals -- 变量作用域，全局命名空间，如果被提供，则必须是一个字典对象。
- locals -- 变量作用域，局部命名空间，如果被提供，可以是任何映射对象。
22.0 int()：
int() 函数用于将一个字符串或数字转换为整型。
23.0 open()：
opne()用来打开一个文件，一定要配合close()来关闭，才能保存。
我们一般用这种方式打开文件，就可以不调用close()的来关闭。
with open(filename,mode) as object:
如果该文件无法被打开，会抛出 OSError。
注意：使用 open() 方法一定要保证关闭文件对象，即调用 close() 方法。
open() 函数常用形式是接收两个参数：文件名(file)和模式(mode)。
open(file, mode='r')
完整的语法格式为：
open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)
参数说明:
- file: 必需，文件路径（相对或者绝对路径）。
- mode: 可选，文件打开模式
- buffering: 设置缓冲
- encoding: 一般使用utf8
- errors: 报错级别
- newline: 区分换行符
- closefd: 传入的file参数类型
- opener:
mode 参数有：
x : 写模式，新建一个文件，如果该文件已存在则会报错。
r: 以只读方式打开文件。文件的指针将会放在文件的开头。这是默认模式。
r+: 打开一个文件用于读写。文件指针将会放在文件的开头。
w: 打开一个文件只用于写入。如果该文件已存在则打开文件，并从开头开始编辑，即原有内容会被删除。如果该文件不存在，创建新文件。
w+: 打开一个文件用于读写。如果该文件已存在则打开文件，并从开头开始编辑，即原有内容会被删除。如果该文件不存在，创建新文件。
a: 打开一个文件用于追加。如果该文件已存在，文件指针将会放在文件的结尾。也就是说，新的内容将会被写入到已有内容之后。如果该文件不存在，创建新文件进行写入。
a+: 打开一个文件用于读写。如果该文件已存在，文件指针将会放在文件的结尾。文件打开时会是追加模式。如果该文件不存在，创建新文件用于读写。
24.0 bool()：
函数用于将给定参数转换为布尔类型，如果没有参数，返回 False。
25.0 exec()：
exec 执行储存在字符串或文件中的 Python 语句，相比于 eval，exec可以执行更复杂的 Python 代码。
exec(object[, globals[, locals]]) 参数 object：必选参数，表示需要被指定的Python代码。它必须是字符串或code对象。如果object是一个字符串，该字符串会先被解析为一组Python语句，然后在执行（除非发生语法错误）。如果object是一个code对象，那么它只是被简单的执行。 globals：可选参数，表示全局命名空间（存放全局变量），如果被提供，则必须是一个字典对象。 locals：可选参数，表示当前局部命名空间（存放局部变量），如果被提供，可以是任何映射对象。如果该参数被忽略，那么它将会取与globals相同的值。
返回值
exec 返回值永远为 None。
26.0 isinstance()：
isinstance() 函数来判断一个对象是否是一个已知的类型，类似 type()。
isinstance() 与 type() 区别：
type() 不会认为子类是一种父类类型，不考虑继承关系。
isinstance() 会认为子类是一种父类类型，考虑继承关系。
如果要判断两个类型是否相同推荐使用 isinstance()。
isinstance(object, classinfo)
返回值
如果对象的类型与参数二的类型（classinfo）相同则返回 True，否则返回 False。。
27.0 ord()：
ord() 函数是 chr() 函数（对于 8 位的 ASCII 字符串）的配对函数，它以一个字符串（Unicode 字符）作为参数，返回对应的 ASCII 数值，或者 Unicode 数值。
28.0 sum()：求和
sum(iterable[, start])
参数
- iterable -- 可迭代对象，如：列表、元组、集合。
- start -- 指定相加的参数，如果没有设置这个值，默认为0。
>>>sum([0,1,2]) 3 >>> sum((2, 3, 4), 1) # 元组计算总和后再加 1 10 >>> sum([0,1,2,3,4], 2) # 列表计算总和后再加 2 12
29.0 issubclass()：
issubclass() 方法用于判断参数 class 是否是类型参数 classinfo 的子类。
issubclass(class, classinfo)
参数 class -- 类。 classinfo -- 类。 返回值 如果 class 是 classinfo 的子类返回 True，否则返回 False。
30.0 pow()：
pow() 方法返回 xy（x的y次方） 的值。
31.0 super()：
super() 函数是用于调用父类(超类)的一个方法。
super 是用来解决多重继承问题的，直接用类名调用父类方法在使用单继承的时候没问题，但是如果使用多继承，会涉及到查找顺序（MRO）、重复调用（钻石继承）等种种问题。
MRO 就是类的方法解析顺序表, 其实也就是继承父类方法时的顺序表。
32.0 bytes()：
bytes 函数返回一个新的 bytes 对象，该对象是一个 0 <= x < 256 区间内的整数不可变序列。它是 bytearray 的不可变版本
33.0 float() ：
float() 函数用于将整数和字符串转换成浮点数。
34.0 iter() ：
iter() 函数用来生成迭代器。
35.0 print() ：
print() 方法用于打印输出，最常见的一个函数。
print 在 Python3.x 是一个函数，但在 Python2.x 版本不是一个函数，只是一个关键字。
print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout)
参数 objects -- 复数，表示可以一次输出多个对象。输出多个对象时，需要用 , 分隔。 sep -- 用来间隔多个对象，默认值是一个空格。 end -- 用来设定以什么结尾。默认值是换行符 \n，我们可以换成其他字符串。 file -- 要写入的文件对象。
print("www","google","com",sep=".") # 设置间隔符 #执行结果： www.google.com
36.0 tuple() ：
tuple 函数将列表转换为元组。
37.0 callable() ：
callable() 函数用于检查一个对象是否是可调用的。如果返回 True，object 仍然可能调用失败；但如果返回 False，调用对象 object 绝对不会成功。
对于函数、方法、lambda 函式、 类以及实现了 __call__ 方法的类实例, 它都返回 True
callable(object)
38.0 format() ：格式化输出，相当%
一种格式化字符串的函数 str.format()，它增强了字符串格式化的功能。
基本语法是通过 {} 和 : 来代替以前的 % 。
format 函数可以接受不限个参数，位置可以不按顺序。
>>>"{} {}".format("hello", "world") # 不设置指定位置，按默认顺序 'hello world' >>> "{0} {1}".format("hello", "world") # 设置指定位置 'hello world' >>> "{1} {0} {1}".format("hello", "world") # 设置指定位置 'world hello world'
也可以设置参数：
print("网站名：{name}, 地址 {url}".format(name="菜鸟教程", url="www.runoob.com")) # 通过字典设置参数 site = {"name": "菜鸟教程", "url": "www.runoob.com"} print("网站名：{name}, 地址 {url}".format(**site)) # 通过列表索引设置参数 my_list = ['菜鸟教程', 'www.runoob.com'] print("网站名：{0[0]}, 地址 {0[1]}".format(my_list)) # "0" 是必须的
39.0 len() ：
Python len() 方法返回对象（字符、列表、元组等）长度或项目个数。
40.0 property() ：
property() 函数的作用是在新式类中返回属性值。
41.0 type() ：
type() 函数如果你只有第一个参数则返回对象的类型，三个参数返回新的类型对象
42.0 range() ：
Python3 range() 函数返回的是一个可迭代对象（类型是对象），而不是列表类型， 所以打印的时候不会打印列表。
Python3 list() 函数是对象迭代器，可以把range()返回的可迭代对象转为一个列表，返回的变量类型为列表。
range(stop)
range(start, stop[, step])
参数说明：
- start: 计数从 start 开始。默认是从 0 开始。例如range（5）等价于range（0， 5）;
- stop: 计数到 stop 结束，但不包括 stop。例如：range（0， 5） 是[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]没有5
- step：步长，默认为1。例如：range（0， 5） 等价于 range(0, 5, 1)
43.0 vars() ：
vars() 函数返回对象object的属性和属性值的字典对象。
43.0 repr() ：
repr() 函数将对象转化为供解释器读取的形式。
44.0 xrange() ：
xrange() 函数用法与 range 完全相同，所不同的是生成的不是一个数组，而是一个生成器。
返回生成器。
45.0 cmp() ：
cmp(x,y) 函数用于比较2个对象，如果 x < y 返回 -1, 如果 x == y 返回 0, 如果 x > y 返回 1。
46.0 golbals() ：
globals() 函数会以字典类型返回当前位置的全部全局变量。
47.0 max() ：
返回最大值。
48.0 reverse() ：
列表反转排列
49.0 zip() ：
zip() 函数用于将可迭代的对象作为参数，将对象中对应的元素打包成一个个元组，然后返回由这些元组组成的列表。
如果各个迭代器的元素个数不一致，则返回列表长度与最短的对象相同，利用 * 号操作符，可以将元组解压为列表
zip 方法在 Python 2 和 Python 3 中的不同：在 Python 3.x 中为了减少内存，zip() 返回的是一个对象。如需展示列表，需手动 list() 转换。
>>>a = [1,2,3] >>> b = [4,5,6] >>> c = [4,5,6,7,8] >>> zipped = zip(a,b) # 打包为元组的列表 [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)] >>> zip(a,c) # 元素个数与最短的列表一致 [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)] >>> zip(*zipped) # 与 zip 相反，*zipped 可理解为解压，返回二维矩阵式 [(1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 6)]
50.0 compile() ：
compile() 函数将一个字符串编译为字节代码。
51.0 hasattr() ：
hasattr() 函数用于判断对象是否包含对应的属性。
52.0 min() ：
min() 方法返回给定参数的最小值，参数可以为序列。
53.0 set() ：
set() 函数创建一个无序不重复元素集，可进行关系测试，删除重复数据，还可以计算交集、差集、并集等。
54.0 delattr() ：
delattr 函数用于删除属性。
55.0 complex() ：
complex() 函数用于创建一个值为 real + imag * j 的复数或者转化一个字符串或数为复数。如果第一个参数为字符串，则不需要指定第二个参数。
56.0 round() ：
round() 方法返回浮点数x的四舍五入值。
57.0 hash() ：
hash() 用于获取取一个对象（字符串或者数值等）的哈希值。
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