《OSPF网络设计解决方案(第2版)》一2.2 选择路由协议

本节书摘来自异步社区《OSPF网络设计解决方案(第2版)》一书中的第2章,第2.2节,作者 【美】Thomas M. Thomas II, CCIE #9360,更多章节内容可以访问云栖社区“异步社区”公众号查看

2.2 选择路由协议

OSPF网络设计解决方案(第2版)
网络设计者和工程师经常会提出这样的问题,“我应当选择使用哪种路由协议?”本节比较上文已经介绍过的两种链路状态协议——IS-IS和OSPF。在选择路由协议之前,你需考虑三个方面的问题。

操作事项——决定了在网络长期运行的过程中,对网络进行管理的难易程度。这些考虑事项包括:如何确定协议性能以适应网络更变、如何最小化对网络的影响以及如何对故障进行排除。
技术事项——有助于判断特定的协议是否能够满足一系列特定的网络需求。
商业事项——定义影响网络设计决策的商业优先级和策略。这类考虑事项一般来自于公司内部,并且通常对于网络实施的成败起到关键性的作用。

2.2.1 操作事项

表2-1列出了在选择路由协议时需要考虑的操作事项。


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1.所支持的协议
纵观网络的发展,所有被动路由协议都拥有自己独立的路由协议:AppleTalk使用路由表维护协议(RTMP),Novell使用互联网络分组交换(IPX)RIP协议,而 IP 使用 RIP、EIGRP 或 OSPF。每一种被动路由协议使用自己的路由协议,从概念上非常容易理解,但通常却难以实施。不仅如此,这还需要网络工程师对支持多协议环境的网络进行设计和维护,从而要求网络工程师必须掌握大量的路由协议。

OSPF 仅支持 TCP/IP 协议簇。尽管 TCP/IP 是当前最为常用的协议簇,但除此以外确实还存在其他正在使用的协议簇。如果路由协议无法支持多种协议,那么这种短板对于老式遗留网络或存在多种路由需求的网络是不利的。

当开发 IS-IS时,协议设计者给出了一个非常有意义的提议:为什么一种路由协议不能处理多种被动路由协议呢?因此,为了增强集成IS-IS协议的性能,它被设计成为能够同时支持OSI CLNP和TCP/IP网络。另外,集成IS-IS还支持其他的一些网络协议;这种支持多协议的能力在多协议网络环境中将是巨大的优势。

2.路由分层
构建大型网络的关键是引入逻辑分层结构。如果合理使地用分层设计,那么网络复杂度及扩展性等相关问题都将引刃而解。使用分层网络的设计能够带来很多好处,最为显著的便是有利于路由汇总和降低SPF运算,这些优势可以极大地减少网络收敛的时间。

OSPF 是最早支持分层网络设计的协议之一,它可以在单个路由域内(AS)划分多个分层结构(区域)。OSPF支持两级分层:一个骨干区域(backbone)和连接于骨干区域的其他区域。因此,OSPF骨干路由器将携带骨干区域的完整拓扑信息和所有其他区域的连接性信息。在每个区域内,OSPF 路由器相互交换关于该区域的完整拓扑信息。由于区域边界位于路由器上,因此路由器的一个接口属于一个区域。路由器通常拥有多个接口,所以路由器也能够连接到多个区域。但是如果路由器连接了过多的区域,那么该路由器则需要为每个所连接的区域执行SPF运算;因此,在设计网络时应当注意这一点,避免造成路由器负载过重。

集成IS-IS和OSPF一样,也使用两级分层设计;但不同之处在于每个区域内路由器所携带的信息量。在集成 IS-IS 的区域内,路由器将所有需要发出区域的流量交付给最近的IS-IS L2路由器。而OSPF则是将其他区域的所有连接性信息注入到各个区域内。这种方式有利于 OSPF 区域内的路由器将需要发出区域的流量交付给最佳的区域边界路由器(ABR)。

IS-IS 的区域边界位于两台路由器之间的链路上;因此,集成 IS-IS 的一台路由器仅属于一个区域。但是由于一些原因,你很难使用IS-IS部署真正的分层网络结构。原因之一便是当 IS-IS 运行在非常大型的区域时,IS-IS路由器必须被置于同一层级内才能获得最佳的运行效果,这也是ISP在其网络核心内部署单个IS-IS区域的主要原因。当前许多ISP已经开始放弃IS-IS,并慢慢地迁移到OSPF。

3.IP地址管理
构建一个成功的分层网络结构的关键是使用正确的IP地址管理。如果地址分配十分合理,那么将有利于路由信息的汇总。对路由信息进行汇总的两个重要原因是:

汇总能够把拓扑更变的影响限制在局部,从而有利于提高网络稳定性;
汇总能够减少每台路由器所携带的路由信息的数量。
这些原因能够简化网络的管理和故障排除,另外路由汇总还能降低路由协议所消耗的资源(CPU、内存等)。

提示
应该为OSPF或集成IS-IS的每个区域分配连续的网络或子网号。这样,区域边界路由器才能使用单个地址掩码来汇总区域内的地址。实施汇总将给网络带来实质性的好处。
4.IP封装支持
OSPF 是一个基于 TCP/IP 的协议,并且完全支持 IP。而 IS-IS 却是一个原生的 OSI 协议,因此在操作实施时它依然需要使用 ISO 编址。尽管 IS-IS 支持转发IP数据包,但是这并不是它的设计初衷。

5.相关资料
在对路由协议进行选择时,还应当以务实的角度去考虑。这意味着你所选择的路由协议应当拥有丰富的可用资料,这些资料能够帮助网络工程师从各个层面去掌握需要实施的协议特性。

OSPF 是一个被广泛实施的路由协议,你可以在各类相关书籍(例如本书)中学习到它的知识。这些可用的资料通常提供了大量的实用性示例,这些示例帮助工程师加深理解OSPF的重要性和功能性。另外,应当感谢归属于Internet工程任务组(IETF)的OSPF工作小组的卓越贡献,OSPF 的相关标准都已经非常完美地被归档;但是这些规范文档对于“如何”和“为什么”的问题解释较少。

尽管IS-IS仍然被使用和部署在某些环境中,但与 OSPF 相比,它依然被视为一种“小众”的协议。虽然一些ISP正在使用IS-IS,但是几乎所有的企业网络都不会选择使用它。另外,IS-IS 的规范文档使用的是 ISO 文档的表达形式和术语,并未采用通用的IP术语。

如果你对培训课程感兴趣,那么你可以参加一些专门研究 OSPF 的课程;而IS-IS几乎没有类似的资源。

2.2.2 技术事项

表2-2列出了在选择路由协议时需要考虑的技术问题。


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1.快速收敛
所有的路由协议在处理收敛问题时都必须拥有以下三个重要特征。

1.检测网络更变的发生。

2.适应网络更变。

3.更新网络拓扑以反映网络更变。

IS-IS和OSPF能够立即检测到某些类型的网络更变。通常,所有的路由协议都能够立即检测到由物理更变(例如链接丢失)所引起的网络更变。

另外,IS-IS 和 OSPF 都使用 Hello 包保活(keepalive)并检测失效(例如邻接路由器的丢失,或者一些不可靠的接口突然发生故障)。OSPF 和 IS-IS 都需要在邻接路由器之间定期交换信息。

当路由协议检测到拓扑更变之后,它需要对路由表进行调整以适应新的拓扑。OSPF 和集成IS-IS都拥有更新路由表的能力。如果拓扑更变发生在区域内,那么受网络更变所影响的已存在路由都将被丢弃,然后路由器将新产生的路由表。通常,OSPF和集成IS-IS将在2秒内完成收敛。并且,CPU 执行重新计算的时间长短和路由条目及网络内冗余链路的数量直接相关。

2.路由更新
所有的路由协议都动态地交换路由信息。关于路由更新的操作可以表述为三个重要的问题,如下所示。

何时发送路由更新——路由协议周期性地发送Hello包,并且在路由器初次启动时交换完整的拓扑信息。根据路由协议的配置,完整拓扑信息的交换也可能发生在后续操作中。RIP每30秒泛洪一次完整的路由条目,OSPF 每 30 分钟泛洪一次完整的拓扑表,而集成 IS-IS 则是每 15分钟泛洪一次。这种定期泛洪的行为都是为了确保信息的同步。
路由更新的内容是什么——在区域内,OSPF 和集成IS-IS交换更变的链路状态信息。在区域之间,OSPF 和集成 IS-IS 交换更变的路由信息。
路由更新被发送到何处——当网络完成了拓扑的更新之后,RIP网络中的更变信息将被广播到所有的邻居路由器上。而OSPF和集成IS-IS的更变信息将被泛洪到发生更变的整个区域。如果未进行路由汇总,那么更变信息还可能会被传递到骨干及其他区域。
3.支持VLSM和CIDR
OSPF 和集成 IS-IS 都支持可变长子网掩码(VLSM)和无类域间路由(CIDR)。实施路由汇总必须支持VLSM。另外,VLSM和CIDR还能够帮助网络管理员更加有效地利用网络地址空间。

4.负载均衡
如今的网络通常都设计了冗余路径。冗余路径将在两个方面为网络带来益处:失效后的路由重选和负载均衡。Cisco 所支持的所有路由协议都拥有负载均衡的能力,并且最大可支持6条等价路径1。OSPF默认使用4条等价路径,如果想要支持更多的路径条目,那么必须对OSPF进行配置。

5.度量
路由选择结果的好坏,本质上是由赋予各条路由条目的度量所决定的。在路由协议如何使用度量这一问题上,拥有两个重要的组件:度量值所能表示的范围和如何计算度量。

OSPF 使用长度为 16 比特的扁平结构度量。也就是说,OSPF 的度量范围是0~65,535。默认情况下,OSPF 的度量和接口带宽成反比——以光纤分布式数据接口(FDDI)的度量为1作为标准。OSPF通过累加路径上每一跳的度量来计算最终的路径开销。

集成IS-IS使用扁平结构度量,其度量范围是0~1023。默认情况下,对于集成IS-IS协议而言,所有链路的度量都是10。如果想要使用非默认的值,那么网络管理员需要进行手动配置。集成 IS-IS 通过累加路径上每一跳的度量来计算最终的路径开销。

6.可扩展性
根据 ISO 10589 文档的说明,在IS-IS协议中每个区域最多容纳100台路由器,协议总共可以部署400台L2路由器。这种扩展规模是非常可观的。但是当前最大的可扩展问题已经转变成了在大型全互连网络中的大量泛洪流量。例如,在扁平结构的ATM网云中,可能拥有过多的路由器全互连连接。

对于 OSPF 而言,无论网络规模的大小,该协议都能够具有很好的扩展性。但是为了获得最优的网络运行效果,你应该按照实际需求来部署物理和逻辑区域。

7.物理介质支持
OSPF和IS-IS都支持点到点链路,同时对LAN的处理方式也类似。但是IS-IS不支持非广播多路访问(NBMA)的网络类型,因此IS-IS在路由器上总是以LAN或多条点到点链路的形式来处理NBMA网络;这种方式可能会引起一些问题。OSPF不存在这样的问题,但是在Cisco路由器上,OSPF网络类型的相关配置较为复杂。

8.协议扩展性
路由协议必须在性能和功能上拥有可增长和可扩展的能力,从而满足多变和发展的网络环境。OSPF可以通过新的Opaque LSA来提升其扩展能力,但是这要求所有的路由器都必须理解这些LSA,才能有效地适应动态的网络环境。IS-IS则不同,它可以泛洪不识别的LSA并忽略它们。

OSPF和IS-IS都支持流量工程,因此无论选择使用哪种协议,MPLS都可以运行于网络并提供流量工程的特性。

2.2.3 商业事项

表2-3列出了在选择路由协议时需要考虑的商业事项。


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1.标准
许多公司在选择路由协议时,更喜欢使用那些基于标准的协议;我们推荐在所有的网络环境中都这么做。如果网络运行并未形成标准的路由协议,那么可能会造成很多问题。

OSPF是一个标准的协议,由IETF的OSPF工作组所开发,并用于替代RIP协议。OSPF被定义在RFC 2328中。

IS-IS是由ISO所开发的一个标准协议,并且由国际标准10589文档所定义。集成 IS-IS 作为IS-IS协议的标准扩展,由IETF所开发。集成IS-IS被定义在Internet草案中。

2.多厂商支持
当前的大型网络极少情况下会使用同一家厂商的设备来搭建,不同的网络部分通常会选择不同厂商的设备产品。网络工程师在构建多厂商设备的网络环境时存在很多选择,最为常见的便是在所有路由器上选择相同的路由协议。在多厂商设备环境下比较OSPF和IS-IS的可行性时,应注意:

几乎所有的设备厂商都支持OSPF协议;
大部分的设备厂商能够支持集成IS-IS协议。
3.成熟的技术
OSPF 协议在很早就已经被各大设备厂商所支持,并且当前越来越多的网络开始选择部署OSPF协议,无论是结构简单的小型网络,或是极为复杂的大型网络。

Cisco从很早以前就开始对集成 IS-IS 协议提供支持,并且当前集成 IS-IS也在一些重要的网络中被使用。在选择路由协议时,几乎所有人都能想到OSPF;如果网络需要同时支持 OSI 和 IP,那么你应该选择集成 IS-IS。集成IS-IS是DECnet Phase V网络的标准路由协议。

提示
有关IS-IS协议的更多信息,你可以参考另一本由Cisco出版的书籍,IS-IS Network Design Solutions,Abe Martey著。
1译者注:当前Cisco IOS已经将某些协议最大支持的等价路径数量增加到16条。

Contents at a Glance Introduction xix Part I OSPF Fundamentals and Communication 3 Chapter 1 Networking and Routing Fundamentals 5 Chapter 2 Introduction to OSPF 47 Chapter 3 OSPF Communication 103 Part II OSPF Routing and Network Design 161 Chapter 4 Design Fundamentals 163 Chapter 5 Routing Concepts and Configuration 225 Chapter 6 Redistribution 339 Chapter 7 Summarization 405 Part III OSPF Implementation, Troubleshooting, and Management 439 Chapter 8 Managing and Securing OSPF Networks 441 Chapter 9 Troubleshooting OSPF 533 Chapter 10 BGP and MPLS in an OSPF Network 655 Part IV Additional OSPF Resources 707 Appendix A OSPF RFCs 705 Index 724 0323FMf.book Page vi Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM vii Contents Introduction xix Part I OSPF Fundamentals and Communication 3 Chapter 1 Networking and Routing Fundamentals 5 Foundations of Networking 6 Why Was the OSI Reference Model Needed? 6 Characteristics of the OSI Layers 7 Understanding the Seven Layers of the OSI Reference Model 9 Upper Layers 9 Layer 7—Application 9 Layer 6—Presentation 10 Layer 5—Session 10 Lower Layers 10 Layer 4—Transport 10 Layer 3—Network 11 Layer 2—Data Link 11 Layer 1—Physical 12 OSI Reference Model Layers and Information Exchange 13 Headers, Trailers, and Data 13 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 14 TCP/IP Functions 15 TCP Overview 15 IP Overview 16 Types of Network Topologies 16 Local-Area Networks 16 Wide-Area Networks 17 IP Addressing 21 Class A Addresses 22 Class B Addresses 22 Class C Addresses 23 Class D Addresses 23 Class E Addresses 23 How IP Addresses Are Used 24 Role of IP Addresses 27 How IP Addresses Are Read 27 IP Subnet Addressing 28 Subnet Masking 29 Subnetting Restrictions 31 Explaining the Need for VLSM and CIDR 31 Route Summarization 33 Classful Routing 34 Impact of Classful Routing 34 Classless Routing 34 VLSMs 35 VLSM Design Guidelines and Techniques 36 CIDR 37 Validating a CIDRized Network 37 What Do Those Slashes Mean? 38 Important CIDR Terms 38 IP Classless 39 CIDR Translation Table 39 Manually Computing the Value of a CIDR IP Prefix 40 Case Study: VLSMs 41 Route Aggregation 42 Summary 44 0323FMf.book Page vii Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM viii Chapter 2 Introduction to OSPF 47 What Is a Routing Protocol? 48 Basic Routing Protocol Operation 50 Link-State Versus Distance Vector Routing Protocols 51 Link-State Routing Protocols 52 OSPF Characteristics 53 Integrated Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System 54 Distance Vector Routing Protocols 55 Routing Information Protocol Characteristics 56 Conclusion 56 Selecting a Routing Protocol 57 Operational Considerations 57 Protocols Supported 57 Routing Hierarchies 58 IP Address Management 59 IP Encapsulation Support 59 Available Resources 59 Technical Considerations 60 Fast Convergence 60 Routing Updates 61 VLSM and CIDR Support 61 Load Sharing 61 Metrics 61 Scalability 62 Physical Media Support 62 Extensibility 62 Business Considerations 62 Standards 63 Multivendor Environments 63 Proven Technology 63 SPF Overview 63 SPF in Operation 64 SPF Functions 68 Full and Partial SPF Calculations 70 Verifying SPF Operation 70 OSPF Routing Hierarchy 71 Hierarchical Network Design Techniques 71 Routing Types Within an OSPF Network 72 Intra-Area Routing 72 Inter-Area Routing 72 External Routes 73 OSPF Areas 74 Characteristics of a Standard OSPF Area 74 Standard Area Design Rules 74 Area 0: The OSPF Backbone Area 75 Stub Areas 75 Not-So-Stubby Areas 76 OSPF Operational Environment 77 Types of OSPF Routers 77 Internal Routers 78 Area Border Routers 78 Autonomous System Boundary Routers 78 Backbone Routers 79 OSPF Network Types 79 Router Identification 80 Neighbors 81 Adjacencies 82 Neighbor Versus Adjacent OSPF Routers 82 Designated Routers 83 Case Study: Adding a New OSPF Router to a Network 85 0323FMf.book Page viii Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM ix Case Study: Developing the Link-State Database 88 Case Study: OSPF Network Evolution and Convergence 95 Configuring Loopback Interfaces 96 Enabling OSPF 96 Verifying OSPF Operation 97 Summary 101 Chapter 3 OSPF Communication 103 Link-State Advertisements 103 Types of LSAs 103 Type 1: Router LSAs 104 Type 2: Network LSAs 105 Type 3: ABR Summary LSAs 107 Type 4: ASBR Summary LSAs 108 Type 5: Autonomous System External LSAs 109 Type 7: Not-So-Stubby Area LSAs 110 Type 9: Opaque LSA: Link-Local Scope 112 Type 10: Opaque LSA: Area-Local Scope 113 Type 11: Opaque LSA: Autonomous System Scope 113 LSA Operation Example 113 Link-State Database Synchronization 116 Speaking OSPF 121 Types of OSPF Packets 121 Hello Process/Protocol 122 Hello Protocol Operational Variations 124 Hello Protocol Packet Format 125 Exchange Process/Protocol 126 Flooding Process/Protocol 127 Manipulating LSAs 128 Understanding LSA Group Pacing 128 How to Configure LSA Group Pacing 130 Understanding OSPF Packet Pacing 131 Blocking LSA Flooding 131 Ignoring MOSPF LSA Packets 132 Altering LSA Retransmissions 132 Altering LSA Transmission Delay 133 Detailed Neighbor Establishment 133 Hello Protocol State Changes 133 Database Exchange State Changes 134 Case Study: OSPF Initialization 138 Case Study: Troubleshooting Neighbor Problems 149 Neighbor Stuck in Init STATE 150 Neighbor Stuck in Exstart/Exchange State 151 What’s the Solution? 156 Neighbor Stuck in 2-Way State 156 Summary 158 Part II OSPF Routing and Network Design 161 Chapter 4 Design Fundamentals 163 OSPF Design Guidelines 164 OSPF Design Goals 164 Functionality 165 Scalability 165 Adaptability 166 Manageability 166 Cost Effectiveness 166 0323FMf.book Page ix Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM x OSPF Network Design Methodology 167 Step 1: Analyze the Requirements 168 OSPF Deployment 169 Load Balancing with OSPF 170 OSPF Convergence 170 Step 2: Develop the Network Topology 171 Fully Meshed Topology 171 Hierarchical Topology 171 OSPF Backbone Design in the Hierarchical Model 173 Area Design in the Hierarchical Model 174 Using a Stub Area 175 Example of an OSPF Network with a Hierarchical Structure 177 Step 3: Determine the Addressing and Naming Conventions 180 Public or Private Address Space 180 Plan Now for OSPF Summarization 181 Bit Splitting (Borrowing Bits) 184 Map OSPF Addresses for VLSM 184 Discontiguous Subnets 185 Naming Schemes 186 Step 4: Provision the Hardware 186 Step 5: Deploy Protocol and Cisco IOS Software Features 187 OSPF Features 187 Cisco IOS Software Features 188 Step 6: Implement, Monitor, and Manage the Network 189 OSPF Network Scalability 189 OSPF Network Topology 190 Area Sizing 191 Determining the Number of Areas per ABR 192 Determining the Number of Areas per Router 194 Determining the Number of Neighbors per Router 194 Selecting the Designated Router 195 Fully Meshed Versus Partially Meshed Network Topology 196 Link-State Database Size Considerations 197 Determining Router Memory Requirements 197 Router CPU Requirements 199 Bandwidth Usage 199 OSPF Security 199 Area Design Considerations 200 Area Design Overview 200 Considering Physical Proximity 201 Reducing the Area Size if Links Are Unstable 201 Ensuring Contiguous Areas 201 Using Tunable OSPF Parameters 202 Naming an Area 204 Standard Area Design 205 Golden Rules of Standard Area Design 205 Backbone Area Design 205 Backbone Design Golden Rules 206 Stub Area Design 207 Stub Area Design Golden Rules 208 Stub Area Configuration 208 Totally Stubby Areas 212 Not-So-Stubby Areas 212 NSSA Implementation Considerations 214 OSPF Virtual Links: Bane or Benefit? 215 Mending a Partitioned Area 0 215 Ensuring a Connection to Area 0 216 Golden Rules of Virtual Link Design 217 Virtual Link Configuration Example 217 OSPF Design Tools 230 Altering Neighbor Cost 230 0323FMf.book Page x Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xi Configuring a Neighbor’s Cost on Point-to-Multipoint Broadcast Networks 231 Configuring an Interface as Point-to-Multipoint Nonbroadcast 231 Configuring Route Calculation Timers 232 Suppressing OSPF Updates 232 Summary 232 Case Studies 233 Case Study: Understanding Subinterfaces 233 Point-to-Point Subinterfaces 233 Multipoint Subinterfaces 234 Case Study: Point-to-Multipoint Link Networks 235 Router Configuration Examples 237 Case Study Conclusion 239 Case Study: Designing an OSPF Network 240 New WAN Requirements 242 Determining the Frame Relay PVC Architecture 242 Determining Multiprotocol Support 242 Determining the Traffic Flow 243 Determining the Number of Routers 244 Determining the IP Addressing Scheme 244 Determining Internet Connectivity 244 Determining Enterprise Routing Policies 244 Establishing Security Concerns 244 Implementing Your Design 245 IP Addressing 245 OSPF Area Organization 247 Specifying the OSPF Network Type 248 Implementing Authentication 248 Configuring Link Cost 249 Tuning OSPF Timers 249 Strategizing Route Redistribution 250 Chapter 5 Routing Concepts and Configuration 255 OSPF Routing Concepts 255 OSPF Cost 256 ip cost Interface Command 259 Changing the Reference Bandwidth 259 Altering OSPF Convergence 261 Hello Timers 261 Dead Timers 262 SPF Timers 262 Setting the Router ID 264 Loopback Interfaces 264 Configuring a Loopback Interface 265 Routing Loopback Interfaces 265 Configuring the Designated Router 266 Route Types 266 Which Is Better—E1 or E2 Routes? 268 Controlling Inter-Area Traffic 269 Configuring OSPF 270 Activating OSPF 271 network Command 272 OSPF Router Considerations 273 ABR Considerations 273 ASBR Considerations 274 Backbone Router Considerations 275 Different Network Types and OSPF 276 Configuring the Network Type 276 Broadcast Networks 277 Nonbroadcast Networks 278 Point-to-Multipoint Networks 279 Point-to-Point Networks 283 0323FMf.book Page xi Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xii Area Configuration 284 Normal Area Configuration 285 Stub Area Configuration 289 Totally Stubby Area Configuration 294 Not-So-Stubby-Area (NSSA) Configuration 297 area default-cost Command 306 Area Range 309 Tuning OSPF Operation 313 Altering OSPF Administrative Distance 313 Load Balancing 314 Default Routes 318 Passive Interfaces 321 On-Demand Circuits 322 Implementation Considerations 324 On-Demand Configuration Examples 324 On-Demand Circuits Summary 328 Summary 328 Case Study: Assigning Unique Network Numbers to Each OSPF Area 329 Case Study: OSPF with Multiple Areas 330 Case Study: OSPF with Stub and Totally Stubby Areas 335 Chapter 6 Redistribution 339 OSPF Redistribution 340 Administrative Distance and Metrics 341 Redistribution Golden Rules 342 Redistribution Configuration 343 External Routes 347 Default Routes 347 default-information originate Command 348 Assigning Metrics for Redistributed Protocols 354 Using the redistribute Command to Assign a Metric 354 Using the default-metric Command to Assign a Metric 354 Configuration Example 1: Setting the Default Metric for Redistributed Routes 355 Route Tagging 359 Mutual Redistribution 360 Distribute List Concerns 361 Avoiding Redistribution Loops 364 Route Maps 365 Configuration Example 2: RIP and OSPF 366 Configuring the RIP Network 366 Adding OSPF to the Center of a RIP Network 368 Adding OSPF Areas 372 What If Mutual Redistribution Were Required? 375 Configuration Example 3: Redistributing Connected and Loopback Interfaces 376 Configuration Example 4: Redistributing OSPF and EIGRP 380 OSPF and EIGRP Mutual Redistribution 384 Using Route Maps to Protect Against Routing Loops 385 Using Route Tagging to Protect Against Routing Loops 388 Configuration Example 5: Redistributing OSPF and RIP and Tagging Routes 390 OSPF and RIP Mutual Redistribution 392 Redistributing into OSPF with Route Tagging 393 Configuration Example 6: Controlling Redistribution 396 Altering Link Cost 396 Altering Routes 397 Filtering Routes 398 Distribute Lists and OSPF 398 Chapter Summary 403 0323FMf.book Page xii Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xiii Chapter 7 Summarization with OSPF 405 Summarization with OSPF 406 Benefits of Summarization 408 Summarization Golden Rules 409 Troubleshooting Summarization 410 Types of OSPF Summarization 410 Summarize Area Routes 411 Summarize External Routes 414 Summarizations Effect on the Routing Table 418 Configuration Example 3: Subnetting with Summarization 420 Alternative Area Summarization Example 423 Using Private Addressing to Summarize? 424 Configuration Example 4: Using VLSM with Summarization 426 Summary 431 Final Router Example Configurations 431 Part III OSPF Implementation, Troubleshooting, and Management 439 Chapter 8 Managing and Securing OSPF Networks 441 Network Management 442 Network Management Tools 444 CiscoView 444 CiscoWorks 445 Cisco ConfigMaker 446 Simple Network Management Protocol 446 Introduction to SNMP 450 Network Management System 451 Agents 452 Managed Devices 452 Management Information Base Overview 453 SNMP Operation 455 SNMP Operation Definitions 455 Network Management System Operation 456 Agent Response to NMS Request 458 Cisco’s MIB Extensions+ 459 Access Lists for SNMP 462 Multiple Community Strings 462 OSPF MIBs 462 Network Security 466 Assessing the Need for Security 467 Golden Rules for Designing a Secure Network 467 Document Your Security Plan 468 Know Your Enemy 469 Count the Cost 469 Identify Your Assumptions 470 Control and Limit Your Secrets 470 Remember Human Factors 471 Know Your Weaknesses 472 Limit the Scope of Access 472 Understand Your Environment 472 Limit Your Trust 472 Remember Physical Security 473 Security Is Pervasive 473 Additional Resources on Network Security 473 Securing Your OSPF Network 473 OSPF and Network Devices 474 Cisco IOS Password Encryption 474 Network Impact: User Passwords (vty and Enable) 475 Increasing SNMP Security 477 Network Data Encryption 478 0323FMf.book Page xiii Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xiv OSPF Authentication 479 Benefits of OSPF Neighbor Authentication 480 When to Deploy OSPF Neighbor Authentication 481 How OSPF Authentication Works 481 Configuring OSPF Authentication in an Area 483 Configuring OSPF Authentication on a Virtual Link 489 Changing the Virtual Link Password 492 Restricting Access to Network Devices 493 Controlling Access to Network Equipment 493 Terminal Access Controller Access Control System 497 Nonprivileged Access 498 Privileged Access 498 Privilege Level Security 499 Access Lists to Restrict Access 501 User Authentication to Restrict Access 504 Summary 505 Case Study: IOS Secure Template 506 Case Study: Router and Firewall Deployment 518 Defending Against Attacks Directly to Network Devices 518 Controlling Traffic Flow 519 Configuring the Firewall Router 520 Defining Firewall Access Lists 520 Applying Access Lists to Interfaces 527 Configuring the Communication Server 528 Defining the Communication Server’s Access Lists 528 Applying Access Lists to Lines 529 Spoofing and Inbound Access Lists 529 Additional Firewall Security Considerations 530 File Transfer Protocol Port 530 Chapter 9 Troubleshooting OSPF 533 The Mechanics of Troubleshooting OSPF 533 Preparing for Network Failure 534 Troubleshooting Methodology 535 Step 1: Clearly Define the Problem 537 Step 2: Gather Facts 537 Step 3: Consider Possible Problems 538 Step 4: Create an Action Plan 539 Step 5: Implement the Action Plan 539 Step 6: Gather Results 539 Step 7: Reiterate the Process 540 Determining That OSPF Is Operating Properly 540 Monitoring the Operation of OSPF 541 Configuring Lookup of DNS Names 541 System Logging (SYSLOG) 543 Configuring SYSLOG 543 Logging OSPF Neighbor Changes 548 OSPF Troubleshooting Commands 549 show ip ospf Command 550 show ip ospf process-id Command 553 show ip ospf interface Command 553 show ip ospf border-routers Command 555 show ip ospf database Command 556 show ip ospf database asbr-summary Command 560 show ip ospf database database-summary Command 563 show ip ospf database external Command 564 show ip ospf database network Command 566 show ip ospf database router Command 568 show ip ospf database summary Command 570 show ip ospf delete Command (Hidden) 572 show ip ospf events Command (Hidden) 575 show ip ospf flood-list Command 579 0323FMf.book Page xiv Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xv show ip ospf maxage-list Command (Hidden) 579 show ip ospf neighbor Command 580 show ip ospf neighbor ip address Command 581 show ip ospf neighbor int ip-address Command 581 show ip ospf neighbor detail Command 581 show ip ospf virtual-links Command 583 show ip ospf stat Command (Hidden) 583 show ip ospf summary-address Command 585 clear ip ospf Command 585 clear ip ospf counters Command 585 clear ip ospf process Command 586 clear ip ospf redistribution Command 587 OSPF debug Commands 587 When to Use debug Commands 587 How to Use debug Commands 588 Timestamping debug Output 589 Complete OSPF debug Commands 589 debug ip ospf adjacency Command 591 debug ip ospf events Command 593 debug ip ospf flood Command 595 debug ip ospf hello Command 597 debug ip ospf lsa-generation Command 598 debug ip ospf monitor Command (Hidden) 599 debug ip ospf packet Command 600 debug ip ospf retransmission Command 602 debug ip ospf spf Command 602 debug ip routing Command 614 Summary 615 Case Study: In the Trenches with OSPF 616 Problem No. 1 616 Step 1: Define the Problem 617 Step 2: Gather Facts 617 Step 3: Consider Possible Problems 621 Step 4: Create an Action Plan 622 Step 5: Implement the Action Plan 622 Step 6: Gather Results 623 Step 7: Reiterate the Process, If Needed, in Steps 4–7 623 Step 4: Create a New Action Plan 624 Step 5: Implement the New Action Plan 624 Step 6 Revisited: Gather Results 625 Step 7: Reiterate Steps 4–6 625 Step 6 Visited Again: Gather Results 627 Problem #2: Performance Issues 628 Step 1: Define the Problem 628 Step 2: Gather Facts 628 Step 4: Create an Action Plan 629 Step 5: Implement the Action Plan 630 Step 6: Gather Results 631 Case Study Conclusion and Design Tips 632 Case Study: OSPF Issues and Teasers 633 OSPF Error Messages 634 What Do %OSPF-4-ERRRCV Error Messages Mean? 635 What Does the Adv router not-reachable Error Message Mean? 635 OSPF Is Having Neighbor and Adjacency Problems 635 OSPF Stuck in INIT 636 OSPF Stuck in EXSTART/EXCHANGE 638 OSPF Stuck in LOADING 641 OSPF Stuck in TWO-WAY 641 OSPF Routes Missing from Routing Table 642 OSPF Routes Are in the Database but Not in the Routing Table 643 0323FMf.book Page xv Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xvi Miscellaneous Known OSPF Issues 647 Why Doesn’t My Cisco 1600 Router Recognize the OSPF Protocol? 647 Why Doesn’t My Cisco 800 Router Run OSPF 647 Why Is the ip ospf interface-retry 0 Configuration Command Added to All Interfaces? 648 How Do I Produce a Stable OSPF Network with Serial Links Flapping? 648 OSPF Routing Issues 648 Chapter 10 BGP and MPLS in an OSPF Network 655 Review of Interior Gateway Protocols and Exterior Gateway Protocols 655 Role of IGPs and EGPs in a Network 656 Introduction to BGP 660 Characteristic Overview of BGP 661 Operational Overview of BGP 662 Preventing Routing Loops 663 Types of BGP 664 BGP and OSPF Interaction 665 Routing Dependencies and Synchronization 667 Synchronization Is Good 668 Synchronization Is Bad 669 Next-Hop Reachability 671 Redistributing OSPF into BGP 673 Redistributing OSPF Internal (Intra- and Inter-Area) Routes into BGP 676 Redistributing OSPF External (Type 1 and 2) Routes into BGP 677 Redistributing Both Internal and External Routes into BGP 679 Redistributing OSPF NSSA-External Routes into BGP 679 Conclusions About BGP 680 Case Study: BGP 680 Problem Description 680 MPLS and OSPF 683 Background of MPLS 684 What Is the Benefit of MPLS? 686 Why Not IP Routing or ATM Switching? 686 Conventional Best Effort Routing 687 MPLS Overview 689 Label Structure 691 Label Placement 692 MPLS Addresses Traffic Engineering 693 Looking up the Label Path 695 Configuring OSPF and MPLS 696 Configuring MPLS 697 Verifying OSPF and MPLS Operation 701 Summary 703 Part IV Additional OSPF Resources 705 Appendix A Overview of the OSPF RFCs 707 0323FMf.book Page xvi Wednesday, March 12, 2003 9:41 AM xvii
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