#Single line comments start with a number symbol.
"""Multiline strings can be written
using three "s, and are often used
as documentation."""
###################################################### 1. Primitive Datatypes and Operators####################################################
#You have numbers
3 #=> 3
#Math is what you would expect
1 + 1 #=> 2
8 - 1 #=> 7
10 * 2 #=> 20
35 / 5 #=> 7.0
#Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative.
5 // 3 #=> 1
5.0 // 3.0 #=> 1.0 # works on floats too
-5 // 3 #=> -2
-5.0 // 3.0 #=> -2.0
#The result of division is always a float
10.0 / 3 #=> 3.3333333333333335
#Modulo operation
7 % 3 #=> 1
#Exponentiation (x**y, x to the yth power)
2**3 #=> 8
#Enforce precedence with parentheses
(1 + 3) * 2 #=> 8
#Boolean values are primitives (Note: the capitalization)
True
False#negate with not
not True #=> False
not False #=> True
#Boolean Operators#Note "and" and "or" are case-sensitive
True and False #=> False
False or True #=> True
#Note using Bool operators with ints#False is 0 and True is 1#Don"t mix up with bool(ints) and bitwise and/or (&,|)
0 and 2 #=> 0
-5 or 0 #=> -5
0 == False #=> True
2 == True #=> False
1 == True #=> True
-5 != False != True #=> True
#Equality is ==
1 == 1 #=> True
2 == 1 #=> False
#Inequality is !=
1 != 1 #=> False
2 != 1 #=> True
#More comparisons
1 < 10 #=> True
1 > 10 #=> False
2 <= 2 #=> True
2 >= 2 #=> True
#Comparisons can be chained!
1 < 2 < 3 #=> True
2 < 3 < 2 #=> False
#(is vs. ==) is checks if two variables refer to the same object, but == checks#if the objects pointed to have the same values.
a = [1, 2, 3, 4] #Point a at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4]
b = a #Point b at what a is pointing to
b is a #=> True, a and b refer to the same object
b == a #=> True, a"s and b"s objects are equal
b = [1, 2, 3, 4] #Point b at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4]
b is a #=> False, a and b do not refer to the same object
b == a #=> True, a"s and b"s objects are equal
#Strings are created with " or "
"This is a string."
"This is also a string."
#Strings can be added too! But try not to do this.
"Hello" + "world!" #=> "Hello world!"#String literals (but not variables) can be concatenated without using "+"
"Hello" "world!" #=> "Hello world!"
#A string can be treated like a list of characters
"This is a string"[0] #=> "T"
#You can find the length of a string
len("This is a string") #=> 16
#.format can be used to format strings, like this:
"{} can be {}".format("Strings", "interpolated") #=> "Strings can be interpolated"
#You can repeat the formatting arguments to save some typing.
"{0} be nimble, {0} be quick, {0} jump over the {1}".format("Jack", "candle stick")#=> "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candle stick"
#You can use keywords if you don"t want to count.
"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") #=> "Bob wants to eat lasagna"
#If your Python 3 code also needs to run on Python 2.5 and below, you can also#still use the old style of formatting:
"%s can be %s the %s way" % ("Strings", "interpolated", "old") #=> "Strings can be interpolated the old way"
#None is an object
None #=> None
#Don"t use the equality "==" symbol to compare objects to None#Use "is" instead. This checks for equality of object identity.
"etc" is None #=> False
None is None #=> True
#None, 0, and empty strings/lists/dicts/tuples all evaluate to False.#All other values are True
bool(0) #=> False
bool("") #=> False
bool([]) #=> False
bool({}) #=> False
bool(()) #=> False
###################################################### 2. Variables and Collections####################################################
#Python has a print function
print("I"m Python. Nice to meet you!") #=> I"m Python. Nice to meet you!
#By default the print function also prints out a newline at the end.#Use the optional argument end to change the end string.
print("Hello, World", end="!") #=> Hello, World!
#Simple way to get input data from console
input_string_var = input("Enter some data:") #Returns the data as a string#Note: In earlier versions of Python, input() method was named as raw_input()
#There are no declarations, only assignments.#Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores
some_var = 5some_var#=> 5
#Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an exception.#See Control Flow to learn more about exception handling.
some_unknown_var #Raises a NameError
#if can be used as an expression#Equivalent of C"s "?:" ternary operator
"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 #=> "yahoo!"
#Lists store sequences
li =[]#You can start with a prefilled list
other_li = [4, 5, 6]#Add stuff to the end of a list with append
li.append(1) #li is now [1]
li.append(2) #li is now [1, 2]
li.append(4) #li is now [1, 2, 4]
li.append(3) #li is now [1, 2, 4, 3]#Remove from the end with pop
li.pop() #=> 3 and li is now [1, 2, 4]#Let"s put it back
li.append(3) #li is now [1, 2, 4, 3] again.
#Access a list like you would any array
li[0] #=> 1#Look at the last element
li[-1] #=> 3
#Looking out of bounds is an IndexError
li[4] #Raises an IndexError
#You can look at ranges with slice syntax.#The start index is included, the end index is not#(It"s a closed/open range for you mathy types.)
li[1:3] #=> [2, 4]#Omit the beginning and return the list
li[2:] #=> [4, 3]#Omit the end and return the list
li[:3] #=> [1, 2, 4]#Select every second entry
li[::2] #=>[1, 4]#Return a reversed copy of the list
li[::-1] #=> [3, 4, 2, 1]#Use any combination of these to make advanced slices#li[start:end:step]
#Make a one layer deep copy using slices
li2 = li[:] #=> li2 = [1, 2, 4, 3] but (li2 is li) will result in false.
#Remove arbitrary elements from a list with "del"
del li[2] #li is now [1, 2, 3]
#Remove first occurrence of a value
li.remove(2) #li is now [1, 3]
li.remove(2) #Raises a ValueError as 2 is not in the list
#Insert an element at a specific index
li.insert(1, 2) #li is now [1, 2, 3] again
#Get the index of the first item found matching the argument
li.index(2) #=> 1
li.index(4) #Raises a ValueError as 4 is not in the list
#You can add lists#Note: values for li and for other_li are not modified.
li + other_li #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
#Concatenate lists with "extend()"
li.extend(other_li) #Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
#Check for existence in a list with "in"
1 in li #=> True
#Examine the length with "len()"
len(li) #=> 6
#Tuples are like lists but are immutable.
tup = (1, 2, 3)
tup[0]#=> 1
tup[0] = 3 #Raises a TypeError
#Note that a tuple of length one has to have a comma after the last element but#tuples of other lengths, even zero, do not.
type((1)) #=>
type((1,)) #=>
type(()) #=>
#You can do most of the list operations on tuples too
len(tup) #=> 3
tup + (4, 5, 6) #=> (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
tup[:2] #=> (1, 2)
2 in tup #=> True
#You can unpack tuples (or lists) into variables
a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) #a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3#You can also do extended unpacking
a, *b, c = (1, 2, 3, 4) #a is now 1, b is now [2, 3] and c is now 4#Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses
d, e, f = 4, 5, 6
#Now look how easy it is to swap two values
e, d = d, e #d is now 5 and e is now 4
#Dictionaries store mappings from keys to values
empty_dict ={}#Here is a prefilled dictionary
filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}#Note keys for dictionaries have to be immutable types. This is to ensure that#the key can be converted to a constant hash value for quick look-ups.#Immutable types include ints, floats, strings, tuples.
invalid_dict = {[1,2,3]: "123"} #=> Raises a TypeError: unhashable type: "list"
valid_dict = {(1,2,3):[1,2,3]} #Values can be of any type, however.
#Look up values with []
filled_dict["one"] #=> 1
#Get all keys as an iterable with "keys()". We need to wrap the call in list()#to turn it into a list. We"ll talk about those later. Note - Dictionary key#ordering is not guaranteed. Your results might not match this exactly.
list(filled_dict.keys()) #=> ["three", "two", "one"]
#Get all values as an iterable with "values()". Once again we need to wrap it#in list() to get it out of the iterable. Note - Same as above regarding key#ordering.
list(filled_dict.values()) #=> [3, 2, 1]
#Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with "in"
"one" in filled_dict #=> True
1 in filled_dict #=> False
#Looking up a non-existing key is a KeyError
filled_dict["four"] #KeyError
#Use "get()" method to avoid the KeyError
filled_dict.get("one") #=> 1
filled_dict.get("four") #=> None#The get method supports a default argument when the value is missing
filled_dict.get("one", 4) #=> 1
filled_dict.get("four", 4) #=> 4
#"setdefault()" inserts into a dictionary only if the given key isn"t present
filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) #filled_dict["five"] is set to 5
filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) #filled_dict["five"] is still 5
#Adding to a dictionary
filled_dict.update({"four":4}) #=> {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
filled_dict["four"] = 4 #another way to add to dict
#Remove keys from a dictionary with del
del filled_dict["one"] #Removes the key "one" from filled dict
#From Python 3.5 you can also use the additional unpacking options
{"a": 1, **{"b": 2}} #=> {"a": 1, "b": 2}
{"a": 1, **{"a": 2}} #=> {"a": 2}
#Sets store ... well sets
empty_set =set()#Initialize a set with a bunch of values. Yeah, it looks a bit like a dict. Sorry.
some_set = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4} #some_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4}
#Similar to keys of a dictionary, elements of a set have to be immutable.
invalid_set = {[1], 1} #=> Raises a TypeError: unhashable type: "list"
valid_set = {(1,), 1}#Add one more item to the set
filled_set =some_set
filled_set.add(5) #filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
#Do set intersection with &
other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6}
filled_set& other_set #=> {3, 4, 5}
#Do set union with |
filled_set | other_set #=> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
#Do set difference with -
{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} #=> {1, 4}
#Do set symmetric difference with ^
{1, 2, 3, 4} ^ {2, 3, 5} #=> {1, 4, 5}
#Check if set on the left is a superset of set on the right
{1, 2} >= {1, 2, 3} #=> False
#Check if set on the left is a subset of set on the right
{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} #=> True
#Check for existence in a set with in
2 in filled_set #=> True
10 in filled_set #=> False
###################################################### 3. Control Flow and Iterables####################################################
#Let"s just make a variable
some_var = 5
#Here is an if statement. Indentation is significant in Python!#Convention is to use four spaces, not tabs.#This prints "some_var is smaller than 10"
if some_var > 10:print("some_var is totally bigger than 10.")elif some_var < 10: #This elif clause is optional.
print("some_var is smaller than 10.")else: #This is optional too.
print("some_var is indeed 10.")"""For loops iterate over lists
prints:
dog is a mammal
cat is a mammal
mouse is a mammal"""
for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]:#You can use format() to interpolate formatted strings
print("{} is a mammal".format(animal))""""range(number)" returns an iterable of numbers
from zero to the given number
prints:
0
1
2
3"""
for i in range(4):print(i)""""range(lower, upper)" returns an iterable of numbers
from the lower number to the upper number
prints:
4
5
6
7"""
for i in range(4, 8):print(i)""""range(lower, upper, step)" returns an iterable of numbers
from the lower number to the upper number, while incrementing
by step. If step is not indicated, the default value is 1.
prints:
4
6"""
for i in range(4, 8, 2):print(i)"""While loops go until a condition is no longer met.
prints:
0
1
2
3"""x=0while x < 4:print(x)
x+= 1 #Shorthand for x = x + 1
#Handle exceptions with a try/except block
try:#Use "raise" to raise an error
raise IndexError("This is an index error")exceptIndexError as e:pass #Pass is just a no-op. Usually you would do recovery here.
except(TypeError, NameError):pass #Multiple exceptions can be handled together, if required.
else: #Optional clause to the try/except block. Must follow all except blocks
print("All good!") #Runs only if the code in try raises no exceptions
finally: #Execute under all circumstances
print("We can clean up resources here")#Instead of try/finally to cleanup resources you can use a with statement
with open("myfile.txt") as f:for line inf:print(line)#Python offers a fundamental abstraction called the Iterable.#An iterable is an object that can be treated as a sequence.#The object returned by the range function, is an iterable.
filled_dict= {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
our_iterable=filled_dict.keys()print(our_iterable) #=> dict_keys(["one", "two", "three"]). This is an object that implements our Iterable interface.
#We can loop over it.
for i inour_iterable:print(i) #Prints one, two, three
#However we cannot address elements by index.
our_iterable[1] #Raises a TypeError
#An iterable is an object that knows how to create an iterator.
our_iterator =iter(our_iterable)#Our iterator is an object that can remember the state as we traverse through it.#We get the next object with "next()".
next(our_iterator) #=> "one"
#It maintains state as we iterate.
next(our_iterator) #=> "two"
next(our_iterator) #=> "three"
#After the iterator has returned all of its data, it raises a StopIteration exception
next(our_iterator) #Raises StopIteration
#You can grab all the elements of an iterator by calling list() on it.
list(filled_dict.keys()) #=> Returns ["one", "two", "three"]
###################################################### 4. Functions####################################################
#Use "def" to create new functions
defadd(x, y):print("x is {} and y is {}".format(x, y))return x + y #Return values with a return statement
#Calling functions with parameters
add(5, 6) #=> prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11
#Another way to call functions is with keyword arguments
add(y=6, x=5) #Keyword arguments can arrive in any order.
#You can define functions that take a variable number of#positional arguments
def varargs(*args):returnargs
varargs(1, 2, 3) #=> (1, 2, 3)
#You can define functions that take a variable number of#keyword arguments, as well
def keyword_args(**kwargs):returnkwargs#Let"s call it to see what happens
keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") #=> {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"}
#You can do both at once, if you like
def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs):print(args)print(kwargs)"""all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) prints:
(1, 2)
{"a": 3, "b": 4}"""
#When calling functions, you can do the opposite of args/kwargs!#Use * to expand tuples and use ** to expand kwargs.
args = (1, 2, 3, 4)
kwargs= {"a": 3, "b": 4}
all_the_args(*args) #equivalent to all_the_args(1, 2, 3, 4)
all_the_args(**kwargs) #equivalent to all_the_args(a=3, b=4)
all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) #equivalent to all_the_args(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4)
#Returning multiple values (with tuple assignments)
defswap(x, y):return y, x #Return multiple values as a tuple without the parenthesis.
#(Note: parenthesis have been excluded but can be included)
x= 1y= 2x, y= swap(x, y) #=> x = 2, y = 1#(x, y) = swap(x,y) # Again parenthesis have been excluded but can be included.
#Function Scope
x = 5
defset_x(num):#Local var x not the same as global variable x
x = num #=> 43
print(x) #=> 43
defset_global_x(num):globalxprint(x) #=> 5
x = num #global var x is now set to 6
print(x) #=> 6
set_x(43)
set_global_x(6)#Python has first class functions
defcreate_adder(x):defadder(y):return x +yreturnadder
add_10= create_adder(10)
add_10(3) #=> 13
#There are also anonymous functions
(lambda x: x > 2)(3) #=> True
(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) #=> 5
#There are built-in higher order functions
list(map(add_10, [1, 2, 3])) #=> [11, 12, 13]
list(map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1])) #=> [4, 2, 3]
list(filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7])) #=> [6, 7]
#We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters#List comprehension stores the output as a list which can itself be a nested list
[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] #=> [11, 12, 13]
[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] #=> [6, 7]
#You can construct set and dict comprehensions as well.
{x for x in "abcddeef" if x not in "abc"} #=> {"d", "e", "f"}
{x: x**2 for x in range(5)} #=> {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}
###################################################### 5. Modules####################################################
#You can import modules
importmathprint(math.sqrt(16)) #=> 4.0
#You can get specific functions from a module
from math importceil, floorprint(ceil(3.7)) #=> 4.0
print(floor(3.7)) #=> 3.0
#You can import all functions from a module.#Warning: this is not recommended
from math import *
#You can shorten module names
importmath as m
math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) #=> True
#Python modules are just ordinary Python files. You#can write your own, and import them. The name of the#module is the same as the name of the file.
#You can find out which functions and attributes#are defined in a module.
importmath
dir(math)#If you have a Python script named math.py in the same#folder as your current script, the file math.py will#be loaded instead of the built-in Python module.#This happens because the local folder has priority#over Python"s built-in libraries.
###################################################### 6. Classes####################################################
#We use the "class" statement to create a class
classHuman:#A class attribute. It is shared by all instances of this class
species = "H. sapiens"
#Basic initializer, this is called when this class is instantiated.
#Note that the double leading and trailing underscores denote objects
#or attributes that are used by Python but that live in user-controlled
#namespaces. Methods(or objects or attributes) like: __init__, __str__,
#__repr__ etc. are called special methods (or sometimes called dunder methods)
#You should not invent such names on your own.
def __init__(self, name):#Assign the argument to the instance"s name attribute
self.name =name#Initialize property
self._age =0#An instance method. All methods take "self" as the first argument
defsay(self, msg):print("{name}: {message}".format(name=self.name, message=msg))#Another instance method
defsing(self):return "yo... yo... microphone check... one two... one two..."
#A class method is shared among all instances
#They are called with the calling class as the first argument
@classmethoddefget_species(cls):returncls.species#A static method is called without a class or instance reference
@staticmethoddefgrunt():return "*grunt*"
#A property is just like a getter.
#It turns the method age() into an read-only attribute of the same name.
#There"s no need to write trivial getters and setters in Python, though.
@propertydefage(self):returnself._age#This allows the property to be set
@age.setterdefage(self, age):
self._age=age#This allows the property to be deleted
@age.deleterdefage(self):delself._age#When a Python interpreter reads a source file it executes all its code.#This __name__ check makes sure this code block is only executed when this#module is the main program.
if __name__ == "__main__":#Instantiate a class
i = Human(name="Ian")
i.say("hi") #"Ian: hi"
j = Human("Joel")
j.say("hello") #"Joel: hello"
#i and j are instances of type Human, or in other words: they are Human objects
#Call our class method
i.say(i.get_species()) #"Ian: H. sapiens"
#Change the shared attribute
Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis"i.say(i.get_species())#=> "Ian: H. neanderthalensis"
j.say(j.get_species()) #=> "Joel: H. neanderthalensis"
#Call the static method
print(Human.grunt()) #=> "*grunt*"
#Cannot call static method with instance of object
#because i.grunt() will automatically put "self" (the object i) as an argument
print(i.grunt()) #=> TypeError: grunt() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given
#Update the property for this instance
i.age = 42
#Get the property
i.say(i.age) #=> "Ian: 42"
j.say(j.age) #=> "Joel: 0"
#Delete the property
deli.age#i.age # => this would raise an AttributeError
###################################################### 6.1 Inheritance####################################################
#Inheritance allows new child classes to be defined that inherit methods and#variables from their parent class.
#Using the Human class defined above as the base or parent class, we can#define a child class, Superhero, which inherits the class variables like#"species", "name", and "age", as well as methods, like "sing" and "grunt"#from the Human class, but can also have its own unique properties.
#To take advantage of modularization by file you could place the classes above in their own files,#say, human.py
#To import functions from other files use the following format#from "filename-without-extension" import "function-or-class"
from human importHuman#Specify the parent class(es) as parameters to the class definition
classSuperhero(Human):#If the child class should inherit all of the parent"s definitions without
#any modifications, you can just use the "pass" keyword (and nothing else)
#but in this case it is commented out to allow for a unique child class:
#pass
#Child classes can override their parents" attributes
species = "Superhuman"
#Children automatically inherit their parent class"s constructor including
#its arguments, but can also define additional arguments or definitions
#and override its methods such as the class constructor.
#This constructor inherits the "name" argument from the "Human" class and
#adds the "superpower" and "movie" arguments:
def __init__(self, name, movie=False,
superpowers=["super strength", "bulletproofing"]):#add additional class attributes:
self.fictional =True
self.movie=movie
self.superpowers=superpowers#The "super" function lets you access the parent class"s methods
#that are overridden by the child, in this case, the __init__ method.
#This calls the parent class constructor:
super().__init__(name)#override the sing method
defsing(self):return "Dun, dun, DUN!"
#add an additional instance method
defboast(self):for power inself.superpowers:print("I wield the power of {pow}!".format(pow=power))if __name__ == "__main__":
sup= Superhero(name="Tick")#Instance type checks
ifisinstance(sup, Human):print("I am human")if type(sup) isSuperhero:print("I am a superhero")#Get the Method Resolution search Order used by both getattr() and super()
#This attribute is dynamic and can be updated
print(Superhero.__mro__) #=> (,
#=> , )
#Calls parent method but uses its own class attribute
print(sup.get_species()) #=> Superhuman
#Calls overridden method
print(sup.sing()) #=> Dun, dun, DUN!
#Calls method from Human
sup.say("Spoon") #=> Tick: Spoon
#Call method that exists only in Superhero
sup.boast() #=> I wield the power of super strength!
#=> I wield the power of bulletproofing!
#Inherited class attribute
sup.age = 31
print(sup.age) #=> 31
#Attribute that only exists within Superhero
print("Am I Oscar eligible?" +str(sup.movie))###################################################### 6.2 Multiple Inheritance####################################################
#Another class definition#bat.py
classBat:
species= "Baty"
def __init__(self, can_fly=True):
self.fly=can_fly#This class also has a say method
defsay(self, msg):
msg= "... ... ..."
returnmsg#And its own method as well
defsonar(self):return "))) ... ((("
if __name__ == "__main__":
b=Bat()print(b.say("hello"))print(b.fly)#And yet another class definition that inherits from Superhero and Bat#superhero.py
from superhero importSuperherofrom bat importBat#Define Batman as a child that inherits from both Superhero and Bat
classBatman(Superhero, Bat):def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):#Typically to inherit attributes you have to call super:
#super(Batman, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
#However we are dealing with multiple inheritance here, and super()
#only works with the next base class in the MRO list.
#So instead we explicitly call __init__ for all ancestors.
#The use of *args and **kwargs allows for a clean way to pass arguments,
#with each parent "peeling a layer of the onion".
Superhero.__init__(self, "anonymous", movie=True,
superpowers=["Wealthy"], *args, **kwargs)
Bat.__init__(self, *args, can_fly=False, **kwargs)#override the value for the name attribute
self.name = "Sad Affleck"
defsing(self):return "nan nan nan nan nan batman!"
if __name__ == "__main__":
sup=Batman()#Get the Method Resolution search Order used by both getattr() and super().
#This attribute is dynamic and can be updated
print(Batman.__mro__) #=> (,
#=> ,
#=> ,
#=> , )
#Calls parent method but uses its own class attribute
print(sup.get_species()) #=> Superhuman
#Calls overridden method
print(sup.sing()) #=> nan nan nan nan nan batman!
#Calls method from Human, because inheritance order matters
sup.say("I agree") #=> Sad Affleck: I agree
#Call method that exists only in 2nd ancestor
print(sup.sonar()) #=> ))) ... (((
#Inherited class attribute
sup.age = 100
print(sup.age) #=> 100
#Inherited attribute from 2nd ancestor whose default value was overridden.
print("Can I fly?" + str(sup.fly)) #=> Can I fly? False
###################################################### 7. Advanced####################################################
#Generators help you make lazy code.
defdouble_numbers(iterable):for i initerable:yield i +i#Generators are memory-efficient because they only load the data needed to#process the next value in the iterable. This allows them to perform#operations on otherwise prohibitively large value ranges.#NOTE: `range` replaces `xrange` in Python 3.
for i in double_numbers(range(1, 900000000)): #`range` is a generator.
print(i)if i >= 30:break
#Just as you can create a list comprehension, you can create generator#comprehensions as well.
values = (-x for x in [1,2,3,4,5])for x invalues:print(x) #prints -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 to console/terminal
#You can also cast a generator comprehension directly to a list.
values = (-x for x in [1,2,3,4,5])
gen_to_list=list(values)print(gen_to_list) #=> [-1, -2, -3, -4, -5]
#Decorators#In this example `beg` wraps `say`. If say_please is True then it#will change the returned message.
from functools importwrapsdefbeg(target_function):
@wraps(target_function)def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
msg, say_please= target_function(*args, **kwargs)ifsay_please:return "{} {}".format(msg, "Please! I am poor :(")returnmsgreturnwrapper
@begdef say(say_please=False):
msg= "Can you buy me a beer?"
returnmsg, say_pleaseprint(say()) #Can you buy me a beer?
print(say(say_p
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