c command语言学例子,语言学资料（一）CHAPTER 4

第四章

65.

67. 69.c-command(成分统制): one of the

similarities,or of the more general features, in these two

government relations,is technically called constituent

command,c-command for

short.(这两种管辖关系的相似形之一，或者说更普遍的特征，用专门术语，叫做成分统制，简称C---统制。)

70.government and binding

theory(管辖或约束理论。): it is the fourth

period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of

X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the

utterance.

71.communicative dynamism(交际动力): the

extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development

of the

communication.(表示“句子成分对交际发展所起的作用。”)

72.ideational function(概念功能): the

speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world

of his own

consciousness.(表达说话者对现实世界的经验，包括他自我意识的内心世界。)

73.interpersonal

function(人际功能): the use of language to

establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of

social roles,which include the communication roles created by

language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the

interaction between one person and

another.(语言用来建立和维护社会联系：表达社会角色，包括语言自身创造的人际角色；而且，依靠人与人之间的交互作用，使事情能够做成。)

74.textual function(语篇功能): the use of

language the provide for making links with itself and with features

of the situation in which it is

used.(语言必须把自身与其使用环境联系起来。)

Chapter 4 SyntaxTeaching aims: enable

the students to understand and describe the internal structures of

sentences

Focal points: different treatment of sentence structure

by different linguistic schools

Teaching difficulties: IC analysis, deep structure,

surface structure, tree diagram

Teaching procedure

1.Syntax is the study of how words

combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation

of sentences.

2. Since sentence is usually regarded as the

largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the

center of grammatical study. In this chapter, we introduce some of

the representative approaches to

syntax.因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。

3. In linguistics, syntax refers to the study of

the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and

phrases are combined to form sentences in a language , or simply,

the study of the formation of sentences, the study of the

interrelationship between sentential

elements.在语言学上，句法是指研究语言中组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。

4. syntax----syntax is a subfield of linguistics

that studies the sentence structure of

language.句法学是语言学的一个分支，研究句子的结构。

5. syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that

allow wrords to be combined with other words to form grammatical

sentences.句法是由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，单词按照这些规则组成起来形成符号和语法规则的句子。

4.1. The traditional approach 传统学派

1．The traditional approach is based on the earlier grammars of

Latin or Greek (the traditional grammar is a grammar of

prescription).

2． Sentences and

categories

The traditional view of a sentence:“a series of

words in connected speech or writing, forming the grammatically

complete expression of a single thought”.

? an apple

? John was late, because he overslept.

Lexical categories: part of speech.

e.g.: n, v, adj, det. etc.

Syntactic categories: usually refers to a word or a phrase that

performs a particular grammatical function.

e.g. subject, predicate, object etc.

Grammatical category: a class or group of items which fulfil the

same or similar functions in a language.

e.g.

Number, gender, case:

for nouns, pronouns.

Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs

3. category(范畴)----:parts of speech

and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts

of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the

identification of functions of words in term of

subject,predicate,etc.词类是对词进行的分类，主语，谓语是对词功能的描写等等。这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。

4. What is category?

The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and

functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject,

predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it

refers to the defining properties of these general units: the

categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case

and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect,

voice, etc.

4.1.1 Number, gender, and case数，性和格

1. (1)Number is mostly a category of the noun and

pronoun.主要是名词和代词的范畴。e. g. a book, some

books; I , we; he, they

(2). The English verb also inflects for

number. 英语动词也反应了数的范畴。

e.g. He speaks English. They speak English.

(3). In languages like French, adjectives and articles have

number

too.在法语等语种，形容词和冠词也有数的变化。

2. There are usually two terms of number: singular and plural.

数一般有两种：单数和复数。

3. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and

pronoun.性，主要也是名词和代词的范畴。

(1). In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole

natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature. E.g.

actor, actress; hero, heroine; prince, princess; lion,

lioness英语中，性的差别是自然的，由动物本身的生理性别决定。

(2). The gender distinctions in language like French are

grammatical. They may have nothing to do with the sex of the

real-world entities at all. And all nouns have gender disctinctions

whether they refer to animate

entities.在法语一类的语言里，性的差别是语法上的，跟现实世界中实体的性别可以根本没有关系。不管指称的实体是否有生命，所有名词都有性的差别。

4. Case: The category of case is prominent in the grammar of

Latin, with six distinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative,

genitive, dative and

ablative.格范畴在拉丁语语法里是很显著的。它有六种格：主格，呼格，宾格，属格，与格，离格。

(1). In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative(e.g. I,

he ,she), accusative(e. g. , me, him , her)and genitive (e.g. my,

your,

his)英语里，代词有三种格：主格，宾格和属格。

(2). Nouns have only two cases: general (e.g. John, boy) and

genitive (e.g. John’s, boys’),distinguished by the

morphological form, that is, the genitive has an additional

morpheme

{‘s}.名词只有两种格：普通格和属格，由词的形态区分，属格有附加语素{‘s}.

(3). The distinctions of nominative and accusative in nouns are

realized by word order, with the one before the verb as the

nominative and the one after it as the

accusative.名词的主格和宾格的区别表现在语序上，在动词之前的是主格，在动词之后的是宾格。

The dative is shown by prepositions like” to” as in “I

gave a book to him”. And the ablative case is shown by

prepositions like “with” as in “He opened the door with a

key.”与格用介词如“to”引入，离格用介词如“with”引入。

5. What is number? What is gender? What is case?

“Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of

word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural,

etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are

only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in

the inflections of pronouns and verbs.

“Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”,

“feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and “inanimate”,

etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to

the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite

is grammatical gender).

“Case” identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a

sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the

morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms

“accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English,

the case category is realized in three ways: by following a

preposition and by word order.

4.1.2 Tense and aspect 时和体

1. Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb,

and they were not separated in traditional

grammar.时和体是动词的两个重要范畴，在传统语法中两者并不区分。

2. Nowadays, linguistis make two distingctions:one between time

and tense; the other between tense and

aspect.现在，语言学家作了两个区分：区分了时间和时，区分了时和体。

Time is a universal concept, which every language is capable of

expressing;时间是个普通的概念，每一种语言都能够表达；

Tense is a linguistic concept , which varies

from language to

language.时是个语言学概念，不同语言的时千差万别。

3. The difference between tense and aspect is that the former is

deictic, i.e. indicating time relative to the time of utterance;

while the latter is not deictic, the time indicated is not relative

to the time of utterance, but relative to the time of another event

described, or implied, in the narrative. As a result, there are

only two tenses recognized now: past and

present.时和体之间的区别在于：前者是指别的，也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关；而后者不是指别的，指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系，却与叙述中描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间有关。所以现在一般认为有两种时：过去时和现在时。

4. The aspectual contrast between perfective and imperfective is

found in many Slavic languages.The former refers to the completion

of an action, and the latter expresses duration without completion,

something like the difference in English between “He read a

book”and “He was reading a

book.”完成体和未完成体之间的对立见于许多斯拉夫语。前者指一个动作的完成，后者表示未完成动作的持续，类似于英语中这两个句子的差别:He

read a book(他看了一本书)和He was reading a

book(那时他正在看一本书)。