Algorithms for repeated squaring（重复乘方）

重复乘方（repeated squaring）算法是分治法的一种，其时间复杂度为Θ(lgn) (T(n)=T(n/2)+Θ(1)) 

We've learned two algorithms for the modular exponentiation problem（模块化乘方问题）, one we call the naive algorithm and one we call the repeated squaring algorithm. The naive algorithm simply starts with b and multiplies by b over and over, calculating the result mod m each time. After k-1 multiplications, the result is .

The repeated squaring algorithm consists of two parts. 

1. In the first part, the algorithm starts with b, then multiplies it by itself (''squares'' it) mod m, then squares the result mod m, and then squares that mod m, etc. 
2. In the second part, the algorithm combines together some of these results, multiplying them together mod m. In order to make the algorithm more precise, we need the notion of binary expansion.

介绍十进制和二进制

We ordinarily write numbers in base 10 (``decimal'') notation. The rightmost digit is in the ones place, the second-to-rightmost digit is in the tens place, the third-to-rightmost digit is in the hundreds place, and so on. Thus 765 represents 7 times  plus 6 times  plus 5 times  .

Another system for writing numbers is base 2 (``binary''), where the rightmost digit is in the ones place, the second-to-rightmost digit is in the twos place, the third-to-rightmost digit is in the fours place, the fourth-to-rightmost digit is in the eights place, and so on. Thus 100111 represents 1 times  plus 0 times  plus 0 times  plus 1 times  plus 1 times  plus 1 times  , which is 39. The digits in binary notation are called ``bits'' (short for ``binary digits''). By convention, the leftmost bit must be a 1 (just as ordinarily we don't write the number 7 as 007).

Back to the repeated-squaring algorithm. To calculate  , we write k in binary. The position of the leftmost bit tells us how many squarings need to take place in the first part of the algorithm. For example, if the leftmost bit is in the  s place, then we need to calculate  . Since the first number is just b, we need 11 squarings. The ones in the binary representation of k tell us which powers of b that we have calculated we need to combine to get the final result. 

Here is an example, the multiplications needed to calculate  . Next to each multiplication row, I have indicated an expression for the value calculated in that row.

NAME	COMMAND	value
result0	b
result1	result0  result0
result2	result1  result1
result3	result2  result2
result4	result3  result3
result5	result4  result4
result6	result5  result5
result7	result6  result6
result8	result7  result7
result9	result8  result8
result10	result9  result9
result11	result10  result10
finalresult	result3  result7  result11

Say the exponent k takes L bits to represent. Then the number of multiplications for the first part of the algorithm is L-1. In the second part of the algorithm, we need to multiply together some of the L results we obtained in the first part. Since we need to multiply together at most L values, we need at most L-1 multiplications in the second part of the algorithm.

The number of bits needed to represent a positive integer k is 1 plus the rounded-down value of  , (the base-2 logarithm of k). For example, , so the rounded-down value of the logarithm is 11. Thus this formula predicts that the number of bits needed to represent 2184 is 12. (For most purposes, it is good enough to neglect the ''1 plus'' and estimate the number of bits by  .)

Similarly, the number of decimal digits needed to represent a number, say m, is 1 plus the rounded down value of the base-10 logarithm. for example,  is 2.8836614..., so the rounded-down value is 2. Thus this formula predicts that the number of decimal digits to represent 765 is 3.

It is easy to convert between the base-10 log of a number and its base-2 log using the following formula. Memorize it!

(The symbol  denotes ''is approximately equal to''. For those who are curious about where the 3.3 comes from, this is the base-2 logarithm of 10.)

http://cs.brown.edu/courses/cs007/comp/node2.html