English Grammar

Reference to http://www.wwenglish.com/en/z/grammar/

2.1 不定冠词的用法
   冠词是虚词，本省不能单独使用，也没有词义，它用在名词的前面，帮助指明名词的含义。英语中的冠词有三种，一种是定冠词，另一种是不定冠词，还有一种是零冠词。
   1）不定冠词a与数词one 同源，是一个的意思。A用于
   2）代表一类人或物
   3）词组或成语
    A little/a few/a lot/a type of/a pile/a great many/many a/as a rule/
    In a hurry/in a minute/in a word/in a short while/after a while/have a cold/
    Have a try/ keep an eye on/all of a sudden

2.2 定冠词的用法
   定冠词the与指示代词this，that同源
  1)特指双方都明白的人或物
     Take the medicine
  2)上文提到过的人或事
     He bought a house , I’ve been to the house.
  3)指世上独一无二的事物
     The sun , the sky, the moon, the earth
  4)单数名词连用，表示一类人 the dollar the rich the living
  5)用在序数词和形容词最高级，及形容词only，very same
     Where do you live? I live on the second floor
     That’s the very thing I’ve been looking for
  6)与复数名词连用，指整个群体
     They are the teachers of this school
     They are teachers of this school
  7)表示所有，相当于物主代词，用在表示身体部位的名词前面
     She caught me by the arm
  8)用在某些由普通名词构成的国家名称，机关团体，阶级，等专有名词前
     The people’s republic of china
     The united states
  9)用在乐器的名词之前
     She plays the piano
  10）用在姓氏的复数名词前，表示一家人
     The Greens
  11）用在惯用语中
     In the day, in the morning the day after tomorrow
     The day before yesterday
     The next morning
     In the sky
     In the dark
     In the rain
     In the distance
     In the middle of
     On the whole
     By the way
     Go to the theatre
2.3 零冠词的用法
    1）国名，人名前通常不用定冠词：England, Mary;
    2) 范指的复数名词，表示一类人或事物时，可不用定冠词；
        They are teachers
    3) 抽象名词表示一般概念时，通常不加冠词；
        Failure is the mother of success
   4) 物质名词表示一般概念时，通常不加冠词，当表示特定的意思时，需要加定冠词；
        Man cannot live without water
   5) 在季节，月份，节日，假日，日期，星期等表示时间的名词之前，不加冠词
        We go to school from Monday to Friday
   6) 在称呼或表示官衔，职位的名词前不加冠词；
        The guards took the American to General Lee
        士兵们把这个美国人送到李将军那里
   7) 在三餐，球类运动和娱乐运动的名称前，不加冠词 如：have breakfast, play chess
   8) 当两个或两个以上名词并用时，常省去冠词
       I can’t write without pen or pencil
   9) 当by与火车等交通工具连用，表示一种方式时，中间无冠词 by bus, by train
   10) 有些个体名词不用冠词 如：
       School, college, prison, market, hospital, bed, table, class, town, church,
       Court等个体名词，直接置于介词后，表示该名词的深层含义；
       Go to hospital 去医院看病
       Go to the hospital 去医院（并不是去看病，而是其他目的）
   11）不用冠词的序数词
       a.不用冠词的序数词
       b.序数词作副词 He came first in the race.
       c.在固定词组中 at first , first of all, from first to last
2.4 冠词与形容词+名词结构
   1） 两个形容词都有冠词，表示两个不同东西
      He raise a black and a white cat. 他养了一只黑猫和一只白猫
      The black and the white cats are hers 这只黑猫和白猫都是他的。
   2)如后一个形容词无冠词，则指一物。
      He raises a black and white cat.
2.5 冠词位置
   1）不定冠词位置
        不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。注意：
    a. 位于下列形容词之后：
        Such, what, many, half
        I have never seen such an animal.
        Many a man is fit for the job.
    b. 当名词前的形容词被副词as, so , too, how, however, enough修饰时，不定冠词应放在形容词之后:
        It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent.
        So short a time.
        Too long a distance.
    c. quite, rather与单数名词连用，冠词放在其后。
       但当rather, quite前仍有形容词，不定冠词放其前后均可。Quit a lot
 
   d. 在as, though引导的让步状语从句中，当标语为形容词修饰的名词时，不定冠词放形容词后：
       Brave a man though he is, he trembles at the sight of snakes.他尽管勇敢，
       可见到蛇还是发抖。
       当名词被比较级形容词修饰时，不定冠词通常置于比较级形容词之后。

  2）定冠词位置
        定冠词通常位于名词或名词修饰语前，但放在all, both, double, half, twice, three  Times 等词之后
     All the students in the class went out.

 

2.6 数词
      表示数目多少或顺序多少的词叫数词，数词分为基数词和序数词。
      一,  基数词
      1）基数词的写法和读法：345 three hundred and forty-five;
      2)  基数词一般是单数形式，但下列情况，常用复数：
          a. 与of短语连用，表示概数，不能与具体数目连用，如score of people
          b. They arrived in twos and threes
          c.  表示”几十岁”
          d.  表示“年代”, 用in + the + 数词复数
          e.  在乘法运算的一种表示法里，如3X5=15 Three fives is  fifteen
      二,  序数词
      三,  数词的用法
      1） 倍数表示法
          a.   I have three times as many as you。
          b.  The earth is 49 times the size of the moon
          c.   The grain output is 8 percent higher this year than that of last year.
          d.   the production of grain has been increased by four times this year.

      2) 分数表示法
                 
3.1    人称代词的用法
     1) 人称代词的主格在句子中作主语和主语补语
         John waited a while but eventually he went home.
         John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.
         说明：在复合句中，如果主语和从句主语相同，代词主语要用在从句中，名词主语用在主句中，
            如：When he arrived, John went straight to bank.
    2) 人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语，但在口语中也能做主语补语，第一人称在省略句中，还可以作主语，
         I saw her with them, at least , I thought it was her
       a. – Who broke the vase?
       b. -  Me
3.2 人称代词之主 宾格的替换
    1）宾格代替主格
     a. 在简短对话中，当代词单独使用或在not后，多用宾语。
     ---- I like English
     ---- Me too.
     ---- Have more wine?
     ---- Not me
     b. 在表示比较的非正式文体中，常用宾格代替主格。但如果比较状语的谓语保留，则主语能用主格

    2) 主格代替宾格
    I wish to speak to Mary
    This is I


3.3 代词的指代问题
1) 不定代词anybody, everybody, nobody, anyone, someone, everyone , one ,及whoever 和person 在正式场合使用时，可用he, his, him
Nobody came, did he?

3.4 并列人称代词的排列顺序
1) 单数人称代词并列作主语，其顺序是
第二人称-》第三人称-》第一人称
You, he and I should return on time.

2) 复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为：
第一人称-》第二人称—》 第三才
We you they
在承认错误，承认责任时，第一人称放在前面。
b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时,如 长辈对晚辈,长官对下属说话时,如I and you try to finish it.

3.5  物主代词
1) 物主代词既有表示所属的作用又有指代作用，例如：
John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk.
物主代词有形容词性的和名词性的两种，形容词性的物主代词属于限定词
3.6  双重所有格
物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any several, no, each,
Every, such, another, which 等词一起前置，修饰一个名词，而必须用双重所有格。
公式为：
A, an, this, that +名词性物主代词。如：
A friend of mine
Each brother of his.
3.7  反身代词
I –myself
You – yourself
You – yourselves
She – herself
He – himself
We –ourselves
They – themselves
It – itself
One – oneself
2) 做宾语
a. 有些动词需要反身代词
absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave
we enjoyed ourselves very much last night.
Please help yourself to some fish
b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词
take pride in , be annoyed with, help oneself to sth


3.8相互代词
1) 相互代词只有each other 和 one another两个词组。他们表示句中动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的
It is easy to see that the people of different cultures have always copied each other.

2) 相互代词的句法功能：
A. 作动词宾语
People should love on another
b. 可作介词宾语
Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other

3.8  指示代词
1)  指示代词分单数和复数两种形式，既可作限定词又可做代词
2)  指示代词的句法功能;
A,作主语
This is the way to do it.
B,作宾语
I like this better than that.
C, 作主语补语
My point is this.
d. 作介词宾语
I don’t say no to that

3.9  疑问代词
1)  疑问代词在句中起名词词组的作用，用来构成疑问句。
指人:who, whom, whose
指物: what
既可指人又可指物：which
2)  疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前，
未读完待续

5.动词
1）表示动作中状态的词叫做动词。
2）根据其在句中的功能，动词可以分为四类，分别是：实义动词（Notional Verb）,系动词（link verb）,
助动词(Auxiliary Verb),情态动词(Modal Verb).
说明：有些情况下，有些动词是兼类词，例如：
We are having a meeting.(having 是实义动词)
He has gone to New York. 他已去纽约。(has 是助动词)
2)  动词根据其后是否带有宾语，可分为两类，分别是：及物动词，不及物动词。

5.1 系动词
系动词亦称联系动词(Link Verb),作为系动词，它本身有词义，但不能单独用作谓语，后边必须跟表语，构成系表结构
说明主语的状况，性质，特征等情况。

1)  状态系动词
用来表示主语状态，只有be一词，例如：
He is a teacher

3)  持续系动词
用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度，主要有Keep, rest, remain, stay, lie, stand,
例如：
He always kept silent at meeting.
This matter rests a mystery.
4)  表像系动词
用来表示看起来像这一概念，主要有seem, appear, look,例如：
He looks tired.
He seems very sad.
5)  感官系动词
感官系动词主要有feel, smell, sound, taste,例如：
This kind of cloth feels very soft.
3)  变化系动词
这些系动词表示主语变成什么样，变化系动词主要有become, grow, turn, fall, get, go,
Come, run.
例如：
He became mad after that.
She grew rich within a short time.
6） 终止系动词
      表示主语已经终止动作，主要有prove，turn out，表达“证实”，“变成”之意，例如：
      The rumor proved false.
      The search proved difficult
      His plan turned out a success.

5.3 助动词be的用法
1） be+现在分词，构成进行时态，例如：
They are having a meeting. 他们正在开会。
2） be+过去分词，构成被动语态，例如：
The window was broken by tom.
English is taught throughout the world.

3)  Be+动词不定式，可表示下列内容：
a.  表示最近，未来的计划或安排。
He is to go to New York next week.
We are to teach the fresh persons.
b.  表示命令，例如：
You are to explain this.
He is to come to the office this afternoon.
d.  征求意见
How am I to answer him.
Who’s is to go there?
表示相约，商定，例如：
We are to meet at the school gate at seven tomorrow morning.

6. 动名词
6.1 动名词作主语，宾语和表语
1）作主语
   Fighting broke out between the south and the North.
2) 作宾语
   a. 动词后加动名词doing 作宾语 V.+ doing sth
admit 承认    appreciate 感激，赞赏  avoid 避免
complete 完成   consider 认为    delay 耽误  deny 否认  detest讨厌
endure 忍受   enjoy 喜欢        escape 逃脱   prevent 阻止
fancy 想象    finish 完成     imagine 想象   mind 介意   miss 想念
postpone 推迟  practice 训练   recall 回忆   resent 讨厌
resist 抵抗    resume 继续    risk 冒险
suggest 建议   face 面对      include 包括   stand 忍受
understand 理解  forgive 宽恕  keep 继续

c.  词组后接doing
Admit to   prefer.. to      be used to     lead to
Devote oneself to
        Object to     
        Stick to
        Busy
        Look forward to     
        No good doing sth
        No use doing sth
        It’s worth doing sth
        As well as
        Can’t help
        It’s no use
        Be tired of
        Be fond of
        Be capable of
        Be afraid of
        Be proud of
        Think of/about
        Hold off
        Put off
        Keep on
        Insist on
        Count on/upon
        Set about
        Be successful in
        Good at
        Take up
        Give up
        Burst out
        Prevent .. from
       
6.2 worth 的用法
   Worth, worthy, worth-while 都为adj. 意为“值得“
1.  Worth: be worth+ n. 当名词为金钱，表示“… 值得…“
2.  Worthy: be worthy of+ n. 当名词为抽象名词时表示

7 动词不定式
7.1 不定式作宾语
1）动词+不定式
Afford
Aim
Appear
Agree
Arrange
Ask
Be
Decide
Bother
Care
Choose
Come
Dare
Demand
Desire
Determine
Expect
Elect
Endeavor
Hope
Fail
Happen
Help
Hesitate
Learn
Long
Mean
Manage
Offer
Ought
Plan
Prepare
Pretend
Promise
Refuse
Seem
Tend
Wait
Wish
Undertake
Example:
The driver failed to see the other car in time.
I happen to know the answer to your question
2) 动词+不定式； 动词+宾语+不定式
Ask, beg, choose, expect, hate, help , intend, like, love, need,
Prefer, prepare, promise, want, wish…
I like to keep everything tidy.
I like you to keep everything tidy.
I want to speak to tom.
I want you to speak to Tom.
4)  动词+疑问词+to
Decide , know, consider, forget, learn, remember, show, understand, see, wonder,
Hear, find out, explain, tell
Please show us how to do that.
There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can’t make up my mind which to buy.
Note: 疑问词带不定式在句中作成分时，谓语动词用单数。
The question is how to put it into practice.

7.2 不定式作补语
1）动词+宾语+不定式
Advise   allow   appoint believe cause challenge command
Compel
Consider
Declare
Drive
Enable
Encourage
Find
Forbid
Force
Guess
Hire
Imagine
Impel
Induce
Inform
Instruct
Invite
Judge
Know
Like
Order
Permit
Persuade
Remind
Report
Request
Require
Select
Send
State
Suppose
Tell
Think
Train
Trust
Understand
Urge
Warn

Example
a.  Father allow us to play on the street.
b.  We believe him to be guilty

Find 的特殊用法：
//Find 后可用分词做补语，或先加形式宾语，再加形容次，
I found him lying on the ground
I found it important to learn
I found that to learn English is important.
2) to + be 的不定式结构，作补语的动词。
Acknowledge, believe, consider, think, declare, discover, fancy,
Feel find, guess, judge, imagine, know, prove, see, show, suppose,
Take, understand,
We consider tom to be one of the best students in our class.
3) to be +形容词
Seem, appear, be said, be supposed, be believed, be thought,
Be known, be reported, hope, wish, desire, want, plan, expect,
Mean …
The book is believed to be uninteresting.
5)  There be + 不定式
Believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, understand
We didn’t expect there to be so many people there.
Notes：
有些动词需要用as短语做补语， 如regard，think, believe, take, consider.
We regard tom as our best teacher.
Mary took him as her father.

7.3 不定式作主语
1)  It’s easy for me to do that
Easy, difficult, hard, important, possible, impossible, comfortable,
Necessary, better;
The first, the next, the last, the best, too much, too little, not enough
It’s so nice to hear your voice.
It’s necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it.
2) It’s very kind of you to help us.
Kind, nice, stupid, rude, clever, foolish, thoughtful, thoughtless, brave,
Considerate, silly, selfish,
It was silly of us to believe him.
It seemed selfish of him not to give them anything.
Note:

1)  其他系动词如，look, appear 等也可用于此句型
2)  不定式作句子成分时，动词用单数形式。
3）当不定式作主语的句子中又有一个不定式作表语时，不能用it is .. to..的句型
（对）to see is to believe.百闻不如一见
（错）it’s to believe to see.

9. 分词
分词作定语
分词前置
We can see the rising sun
He is a retired worker.
分词后置
There was a girl sitting there.
This is the question given
There is nothing interesting.

过去分词作定语
与其修饰的词是被动关系，相当于一个被动语态的定语从句。
Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists.

9.2 分词作状语
As I didn’t receive any letter from him, I gave him a call.
Not receiving any letter from him, I gave him a call.
If more attention was given, the trees could have grown better.
Followed some officials, Napoleon inspected his army.
There was a terrible noise following the sudden burst of light.

9.3 连词+分词（短语）
有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚，可在分词前加连词。 连词有：when, while, if
Though, after, before, as. 但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个。
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.

9.4 通常在感官动词和使役动词之后

如：

I found my car missing.
I’ll have my watch repaired.

9.5 分词作表语
现在分词：表示主动，正在进行
过去分词：表示被动，已经完成
She looked tired with cooking.
He remained standing beside the table.

9.6 分词作插入语
其结构是固定的，意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。
Generally speaking 一般来说
Talking of 说道
Strictly speaking 严格的说
Judging from 从…判断
All things considered
Taking all things into consideration
Judging from his face, he must be ill.
Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs.

9.7 与主语动词同时
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy.
Arriving there, they found the boy dead.
典型例题
The secretary worked late into the night, preparing a long speech for the president.

2) 先于主动词
While walking in the garden, he hurt his leg.
Having finished his homework, he went out.
典型例题
Not having received a reply, he decided to write again.

17.1 引导名词性从句的连接词
引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类：
连接词： that , whether, if (不充当从句的任何成分)
连接代词： what, whatever, who, whoever, whom,
whose, which.
连接副词：when, where, how, why
不可省略的连词
1. 介词后的连词
2. 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。

That she was chosen made us very happy.
We heard that news that our team had won.

比较： whether 与if 均为“是否”的意思。但在下列情况下，whether 不能被if取代：
1. whether 引导主语从句并在句首
2. 引导表语从句
3. whether 从句作介词宾语
4.从句后有"or not"
whether he will come is not clear.


17.2 名词性that-从句
1） 由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。that只起连接主句和从句的作用，在从句中不担任
任何成分，本身也没有词义.名词性that-从句在句中能充当主语，宾语，表语，同位语，和形容词宾语。

主语： that he is still alive is sheer luck.

宾语： John said that he was leaving for london on Wednesday.

表语: That fact is that he has not been seen recently.

同位语： The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his
office.

形容词宾语： I am glad that you are satisfied with your job.


2)that-从句作主语通常用it作现行词，而将that-从句置于句末。for instance
it is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure.
it's a pity that you should have to leave.

用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句
  It is necessary that...
  It is important that...
  It is obvious that ...


b.It + be + -ed分词+that-从句
  It is believed that ...
  It is known to all that ...
  It has been decided that ...

c.It + be + 名词 + that-从句
 
 It is common knowledge that ...
 It is a surprise that ...
 It is a fact that  ...


d.It + 不及物动词+ that-从句

 It appears that ...
 It happens that ...
 It occurred to me that ...


17.3 名词性wh-从句
1） 由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。 wh-词包括who, whom, whose,
whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever 等连接代词和where, when,
how, why 等连接副词。wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外，还可从当介词宾语，宾语补语和
间接宾语等，例如：
主语：How the book will sell depends on its author.

直接宾语： In one's own home one can do what one likes.

间接宾语： The club will give whoever wins a prize.

表语： My question is who will take over president of the foundation

宾语补足语： she will name him whatever she wants to .

同位语： I have no idea when he will return.

形容词宾语： I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.

介词宾语： That depends on where we shall go.

2） Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it形式主语。
it is not yet decided who will do that job.

It remains unknown when they are going to get married.


18.  定语从句
     定语从句在句中做定语，修饰一个名词或代词，并修饰的名词，词组或代词即先行词。
定语从句通常出现在先行词之后，由关系词引出。
     关系代词有：who, whom, whose, that, which等。
     关系副词有: when, where, why等。


18.1 关系代词引导的定语从句
   关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词，并在句中充当主语，宾语，定语等成分。关系代词
在定语从句中作主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。
1）who,whom, that
  这些词代替的先行词是人的名称或代词，在从句中所起作用如下：
  Is he the man who/that wants to see you?
  He is the man whom/that I saw yesterday.

2)Whose 用来指人或物，（只用作定语，若指物，它还可以同of which互换），例如：
  They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down.
  Please pass me the book whose(of which) cover is green.

3) which, that
   他们所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词，在从句中可作主语，宾语，例如：
   A prosperity which/that had never been seen before appears in the countryside.
  The package you are carring is about to come unwrapped.



18.2 关系副词引导的定语从句
  关系副词可代替的先行词是时间，地点或理由的名词，在从句中作状语。
  1）when, where, why
   there are occassions when(on which) one must yield.
   Beijing is the place where (in which) I was born.
   Is this the reason why (for which) he refused our offer?
  2)that 代替关系副词
    that 可以用于表示时间，地点，方式，理由的名词取代when，where，why 和“介词+which”
   引导的定语从句，在口语中that常被省略，例如：
   His father died the year (that/when/in which) he was born.
   He is unlikely to find the place(that/where/in which)he lived forty years ago.


18.3 判断关系代词与关系副词
   方法一： 用关系代词，还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语，就必须要求用
关系代词；而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。
    This is the mountain village where I stayed last year.
    I'll never forget the days when I worked together with you.

判断改错（注：先显示题，再显示答案，横线；用不同的颜色表示出。）
　 （错） This is the mountain village where I visited last year.
　 （错） I will never forget the days when I spent in the countryside.
　 （对） This is the mountain village (which) I visited last year.
　 （对） I'll never forget the days (which) I spent in the countryside.
习惯上总把表地点或时间的名词与关系副词 where, when联系在一起。此两题错在关系词的误用上。
 

方法二：判断先行词在定语从句中的成分（主，谓，宾，定，状），也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词.



18.4 限定性和非限定性定语从句
1）定语从句有限定性和非限定性两种。限定性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的部分，去掉它主句意思往往不明确；
非限定性定语从句是先行词的附加说明，去掉了也不影响主句的意思，它与主句之间通常用逗号分开，例如：
This is the house which we bought last month.(限定性)
The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.(非限定性)

2）当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时，其后的定语从句通常是非限定性的，例如：
  Charles smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year.
  My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden.
  This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching.

3) 非限定性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词，对其进行修饰，这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数，
例如：
   He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me.
   Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation.

 说明： 关系代词that和关系副词why不能引导非限定性定语从句。


18.5 介词+关系词
 1） 介词后面的关系词不能省略。
 2） that 前不能有介词
 3） 某些从句中充当时间，地点或原因状语的“介词+关系词”结构可以同关系副词when和where互换。
  This is the house in which I lived two years ago.
  This is the house where I lived two years ago.
  Do you remember the day on which you joined our club?
  Do you remember the day when you joined our club?


18.6 as, which 非限定性定语从句
  由as, which 引导的非限定性定语从句，as 和which 可代整个主句，相当于and this 或and that. As一般放在句首，which在句中。
  As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health.
  The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us.

It rained hard yesterday, ____ prevented me from going to the park..
A. that　B. which　　C. as　 D. it
　答案B.

as和which在引导非限定性定语从句时，这两个关系代词都指主句所表达的整个意思，且在定语从句中都可以
作主语和宾语，但不同之处主要有两点：
（1）as 引导的定语从句可置于句首，而which不可。
（2）as 代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时，从句中的谓语必须是系动词；若为行为动词，则从句中的关系
代词只能用which。

AS 的用法
例一： the same ... as; such .. as


18.7 先行词和关系词二合一
  1） whoever spits in public whill be punished here.
  2) The partents will use what thay have to send their son to technical school.

19.  状语从句
  19.1 地点状语从句
   where I live there are planty of trees.
   wherever I am I will be thinking of you.


  19.2 方式状语从句
   方式状语从句通常由as，(just) as...so..., as if, as though



  19.3 原因状语从句
     比较： because, since, as 和for
    1)becasuse 语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的
或已为人们所知，就用as或since。
    I didn't go, because I was afraid.
    Since/As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.
    2） 由because 引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。
     he is absent today, because/ for he is ill.
     he must be ill, for he is absent today.


  19.4 目的状语从句
     表示目的状语的从句可以由that，so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case等词引导，例如：
    you must speak louder so that/in order that you can be heard by all.
    he wrote the name down for fear that (lest) he should forget it.
    Better take more clothes in case the weather is cold.

 


  19.5 结果状语从句
    结果状语从句常由so ... that 或 such ... that 引导， 掌握这两个句型，首先要了解so和such与其后的词的搭配规律。

   比较： so 和 such
    其规律由so 和 such 的不同词性决定。 such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。 so还可与表示数量的形容词many，few， much，little，形成固定搭配。
    so follish       such a fool
    so nice a flower    such a nice flower
    so many / few flowers  such nice flowers
 


  19.6 条件状语从句
    连接词主要有 if, unless, as/ so long as, on condition that 等。
    if 引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。 非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。
    unless = if not.
    let's go out for a walk unless you are too tired.
    if you are nit too tied, let's go out for a walk.


   19.7 让步状语从句
   though, although
    注意： 当有though, although时，后面的从句不能有but, 但是though和yet可连用
   Although it's raining, they are still working in the field.
   He is very old, but he still works very hard.
   Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain.
  
    1) as, though 引导的倒装句
     as/though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前（形容词，副词，分词，实义动词提前）。
     Child as/though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.
     = Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.

    注意： a. 句首名词不带任何冠词。
         b. 句首是实义动词，其他助动词放在主语后。 如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主句之前。
    Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
    = though he tries hard, he never seems...

   3) even if, even though 即使
     We'll make a trip even though the weather is bad.
  

   4） whether .. or 不管 ... 都
    whether you believe it or not, it is true.

   5) no matter + 疑问词  或疑问词+后缀ever
      no matter what happened, he would not mind.
      whatever happened, he would not mind.

      替换： no matter what = what ever
           no matter who  = whoever
           no matter when = whenever
           no matter where = wherever
           no matter which = whichever
           no matter how =  however
           note: no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句



19.8 比较while, when, as
  1) as, when 引导短暂性动作的动词。
   just as/just when/ when I stopped my car, a man came up to me.
  2) 当从句的动作发生与主句动作之前，只能用when引导这个从句，不能用as或while
    when you have finished your work, you may have a rest.
  3) 从句表示“随时间推移”连词能用as, 不能用when或while
    As the day went on, the weather got worse.
    日子一天天过去，天气越变越坏。




19.9 比较until 和till
  此两个连词意义相同，肯定形式表示的意思是“做某事直至某时”，动词必须是延续性的。
否定形式表达的意思是“直至某时才做某事”。动词为延续性或非延续性都可以。正确使用这两个
连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定还是否定式。
  


19.10 表示“一 ... 就 ...” 的结构
  hardly/scarcely ... when/ before, no sooner ... than 和as soon as 都可以表示"一 ... 就 ..."的意思， 例：
I had hardly/scarcely got home when it began to rain.
I had no sooner got home than it began to rain.
As soon as I got home, it began to rain.

注意: 如果 hardly, scarcely 或no sooner置于句首，句子必须用倒装结构：
Hardly/Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.
No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.




11.动词的时态
11.1 一般现在时的用法
1）经常性或习惯性的动作，常与表示频度的时间状语连用。
时间状语：every，sometimes，at， on Sunday

I leave home for school at 7 every morning.

2) 客观真理，客观存在，科学事实。
The earth moves around the sun.
Shanghai lies in the east of China.
3)表示格言或警句中。
Pride goes before a fall.
注意：此用法如果出现在宾语从句中，即使主句是过去时，从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例：Columbus proved that the earth is round..
4)现在时刻的状态，能力，性格，个性。
I don’t want so much.
Ann Wang writes good English but does not speak well.