Rust自学笔记 | struct & enum

第五章 struct

struct User {
    username: String,
    email: String,
    sign_in_count: u64,
    active: bool,
}

fn main() {
    let mut user1 = User {
        email: String::from("someone@example.com"),
        username: String::from("someusername123"),
        active: true,
        sign_in_count: 1,
    };

    user1.email = String::from("anotheremail@example.com");
}

Note that the entire instance must be mutable; Rust doesn’t allow us to mark only certain fields as mutable. As with any expression, we can construct a new instance of the struct as the last expression in the function body to implicitly return that new instance.

field init shorthand

struct User {
    username: String,
    email: String,
    sign_in_count: u64,
    active: bool,
}

fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User {
    User {
        email,
        username,
        active: true,
        sign_in_count: 1,
    }
}

struct update syntax

struct User {
    username: String,
    email: String,
    sign_in_count: u64,
    active: bool,
}

fn main() {
    let user1 = User {
        email: String::from("someone@example.com"),
        username: String::from("someusername123"),
        active: true,
        sign_in_count: 1,
    };

    let user2 = User {
        email: String::from("another@example.com"),
        username: String::from("anotherusername567"),
        ..user1
    };
}

tuple structs
unit-like structs

Refactoring with Tuples

fn main() {
   let rect1 = (30, 50);

   println!(
       "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
       area(rect1)
   );
}

fn area(dimensions: (u32, u32)) -> u32 {
   dimensions.0 * dimensions.1
}

Refactoring with Structs: Adding More Meaning

struct Rectangle {
   width: u32,
   height: u32,
}

fn main() {
   let rect1 = Rectangle {
       width: 30,
       height: 50,
   };

   println!(
       "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
       area(&rect1)
   );
}

fn area(rectangle: &Rectangle) -> u32 {
   rectangle.width * rectangle.height
}

We want to borrow the struct rather than take ownership of it.
We can use {:#?} instead of {:?}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

fn main() {
    let rect1 = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };

    println!("rect1 is {:?}", rect1);
}

Methods are similar to functions: they’re declared with the fn keyword and their name, they can have parameters and a return value, and they contain some code that is run when they’re called from somewhere else. However, methods are different from functions in that they’re defined within the context of a struct(or an enum or a trait object), and their first parameter is always self, which represents the instance of the struct the method is being called on.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
    width: u32,
    height: u32,
}

impl Rectangle {
    fn area(&self) -> u32 {
        self.width * self.height
    }
}

fn main() {
    let rect1 = Rectangle {
        width: 30,
        height: 50,
    };

    println!(
        "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
        rect1.area()
    );
}

In the signature for area, we use &self instead of rectangle: &Rectangle because Rust knows the type of self is Rectangle due to this method’s being inside the impl Rectangle context. Note that we still need to use the & before self, just as we did in &Rectangle. Methods can take ownership of self, borrow self immutably as we’ve done here, or borrow self mutably, just as they can any other parameter.

We’ve chosen &self here for the same reason we used &Rectangle in the function version: we don’t want to take ownership, and we just want to read the data in the struct, not write to it. If we wanted to change the instance that we’ve called the method on as part of what the method does, we’d use &mut self` as the first parameter. Having a method that takes ownership of the instance by using just self as the first parameter is rare; this technique is usually used when the method transforms self into something else and you want to prevent the caller from using the original instance after the transformation.

The main benefit of using methods instead of functions, in addition to using method syntax and not having to repeat the type of self in every method’s signature, is for organization.

Rust doesn’t have an equivalent to the -> operator; instead, Rust has a feature called automatic referencing and dereferencing. Calling methods is one of the few places in Rust that has this behavior.

Another useful feature of impl blocks is that we’re allowed to define functions within impl blocks that don’t take self as a parameter. These are called associated functions because they’re associated with the struct. They’re still functions, not methods, because they don’t have an instance of the struct to work with.

impl Rectangle {
    fn square(size: u32) -> Rectangle {
        Rectangle {
            width: size,
            height: size,
        }
    }
}

第六章 枚举和模式匹配

Rust’s enums are most similar to algebraic data types in functional languages, such as F#, OCaml, and Haskell.

fn main() {
    enum IpAddr {
        V4(String),
        V6(String),
    }
    let home = IpAddr::V4(String::from("127.0.0.1"));
    let loopback = IpAddr::V6(String::from("::1"));
}

There’s another advantage to using an enum rather than a struct: each variant can have different types and amounts of associated data.

fn main() {
    enum IpAddr {
        V4(u8, u8, u8, u8),
        V6(String),
    }

    let home = IpAddr::V4(127, 0, 0, 1);

    let loopback = IpAddr::V6(String::from("::1"));
}

In his 2009 presentation “Null References: The Billion Dollar Mistake,” Tony Hoare, the inventor of null, has this to say:

I call it my billion-dollar mistake. At that time, I was designing the first comprehensive type system for references in an object-oriented language. My goal was to ensure that all use of references should be absolutely safe, with checking performed automatically by the compiler. But I couldn’t resist the temptation to put in a null reference, simply because it was so easy to implement. This has led to innumerable errors, vulnerabilities, and system crashes, which have probably caused a billion dollars of pain and damage in the last forty years.

enum Option<T> {
    Some(T),
    None,
}

fn main() {
    let some_number = Some(5);
    let some_string = Some("a string");
    let absent_number: Option<i32> = None;
}

You have to convert an Option<T> to a T before you can perform T operations with it. Generally, this helps catch one of the most common issues with null: assuming that something isn’t null when it actually is.

Not having to worry about incorrectly assuming a not-null value helps you to be more confident in your code. In order to have a value that can possibly be null, you must explicitly opt in by making the type of that value Option<T>. Then, when you use that value, you are required to explicitly handle the case when the value is null. Everywhere that a value has a type that isn’t an Option<T>, you can safely assume that the value isn’t null. This was a deliberate design decision for Rust to limit null’s pervasiveness and increase the safety of Rust code.

control flow operator match

enum Coin {
    Penny,
    Nickel,
    Dime,
    Quarter,
}

fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
    match coin {
        Coin::Penny => 1,
        Coin::Nickel => 5,
        Coin::Dime => 10,
        Coin::Quarter => 25,
    }
}

fn main() {}

Next are the match arms. An arm has two parts: a pattern and some code.

enum Coin {
    Penny,
    Nickel,
    Dime,
    Quarter,
}

fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
    match coin {
        Coin::Penny => {
            println!("Lucky penny!");
            1
        }
        Coin::Nickel => 5,
        Coin::Dime => 10,
        Coin::Quarter => 25,
    }
}

fn main() {}

50 State Quarters

#[derive(Debug)]
enum UsState {
    Alabama,
    Alaska,
    // --snip--
}

enum Coin {
    Penny,
    Nickel,
    Dime,
    Quarter(UsState),
}

fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
    match coin {
        Coin::Penny => 1,
        Coin::Nickel => 5,
        Coin::Dime => 10,
        Coin::Quarter(state) => {
            println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state);
            25
        }
    }
}

fn main() {
    value_in_cents(Coin::Quarter(UsState::Alaska));
}

Matches in Rust are exhaustive: we must exhaust every last possibility in order for the code to be valid. Especially in the case of Option<T>, when Rust prevents us from forgetting to explicitly handle the None case, it protects us from assuming that we have a value when we might have null, thus making the billion-dollar mistake discussed earlier impossible.

By putting it after our other arms, the _ will match all the possible cases that aren’t specified before it. The () is just the unit value, so nothing will happen in the _ case. As a result, we can say that we want to do nothing for all the possible values that we don’t list before the _ placeholder.

 let some_u8_value = 0u8;
    match some_u8_value {
        1 => println!("one"),
        3 => println!("three"),
        5 => println!("five"),
        7 => println!("seven"),
        _ => (),
    }

Concise Control Flow with if let

 let some_u8_value = Some(0u8);
    match some_u8_value {
        Some(3) => println!("three"),
        _ => (),
    }

  if let Some(3) = some_u8_value {
        println!("three");
    }

Choosing between match and if let depends on what you’re doing in your particular situation and whether gaining conciseness is an appropriate trade-off for losing exhaustive checking.

In other words, you can think of if let as syntax sugar for a match that runs code when the value matches one pattern and then ignores all other values.

let mut count = 0;
    match coin {
        Coin::Quarter(state) => println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state),
        _ => count += 1,
    }

If you have a situation in which your program has logic that is too verbose to express using a match, remember that if let is in your Rust toolbox as well.

    let mut count = 0;
    if let Coin::Quarter(state) = coin {
        println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state);
    } else {
        count += 1;
    }