PHYS120: Fluid Mechanics

From Ideal Gas Law,
$$PV=NkT⟹P=\frac{\rho }{\mu m_p}kT$$
Hydrostatic Atmosphere
$$\frac{dP}{dz}=-\rho g=-\frac{\mu m_p}{kT}gP⟹P=P_0{e}^{-z/H}$$
$H$ is the scale height of atmosphere, approximately 8.4km

Hypsometric equation:
$$z=H\log \frac{P_0}{P(z)}$$

Velocity Field

The velocity of a fluid element: $\mathbf{v}(x,y,z,t)$

Notations:
$$a_j{b}_j=\sum _j{a}_j{b}_j\text{Einstein Notation}$$
$${\partial }_j=\frac{\partial }{\partial x_j}{\partial }_t=\frac{\partial }{\partial t}\text{(and same for other derivatives)}$$

Convectiveon Differentiation

consider a scalar function $T(x,y,z,t)$. For a small fluid element, the infinitesimal change is
$$\begin{array}{rl}\delta T& =T(x+v_x\delta t,y+v_y\delta t,z+v_z\delta t,t+\delta t)-T(x,y,z,t)\\ & =\frac{\partial T}{\partial t}\delta t+\frac{\partial T}{\partial x}{v}_x\delta t+\frac{\partial T}{\partial y}{v}_y\delta t+\frac{\partial T}{\partial z}{v}_z\delta t\end{array}$$

Therefore, we define convective derivative (or fluid dervivative) as
$$\frac{\mathcal{D}T}{\mathcal{D}t}=\frac{\delta T}{\delta t}={\partial }_t(T)+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )T\frac{\mathcal{D}}{\mathcal{D}t}={\partial }_t+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )$$

The acceleration:

$$\frac{\mathcal{D}\mathbf{v}}{\mathcal{D}t}=({\partial }_t+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla ))\mathbf{v}$$

which is not linear, resulting super complicated consequences.

Continuity

Define the current as
$$\mathbf{J}=\rho \mathbf{v}⟹{\partial }_t(\rho )+\nabla \cdot \mathbf{J}=0$$
by the conservation of mass

For inconpressible fluid,
$$\nabla \cdot \mathbf{v}=0⟹{\mathcal{D}}_t(\mathbf{v})=0$$

Euler’s Equation

For an infinitesimal volume $dV=dxdydz$
in z direction, $\mathbf{F}=\hat{z}(-P(x,y,z+dz)+P(x,y,z))dxdy$
$$\mathbf{F}=-({\partial }_{x}P\hat{x}+{\partial }_{y}P\hat{y}+{\partial }_{z}P\hat{z})dV=(-\nabla P)dV$$

Apply the Newtonian Mechanics to fluid
$$\mathbf{a}={\mathcal{D}}_t\mathbf{v}=\frac{\mathbf{F}}{m}=\frac{-\nabla P}{\rho }⟹{\partial }_t\mathbf{v}+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )\mathbf{v}=\frac{-\nabla P}{\rho }+\mathbf{g}$$
which is known as Euler’s Equation. This equation has nothing to do with viscosity.

Adiabatic Flow (air)
$$P{V}^{\gamma }=C⟹{\mathcal{D}}_t(P{\rho }^{-\gamma })=0\frac{T^{\gamma }}{P^{\gamma -1}}=C$$

Streamline

The curve which the velocity is tangent to at every point.

In stationary state, streamlines are fixed in space (which is also known as pathline)

Sink and Source are the point where streamline disappears / appears, respectively.

Consider a streamline tube, if there is no sink or source, by the conservation of mass, we can get the Bernoulli’s Principle by the conservation of total energy (kinetic, potential and internal)
$$\frac{\gamma P}{(\gamma -1)\rho }+\frac{1}{2}{v}^2+gh=\text{constant}$$

Vorticity

$$\mathbf{\omega }=\nabla \times \mathbf{v}$$
By the identity $(a\times b)\times c=(c\cdot a)b-(c\cdot b)a$

$$\mathbf{\omega }\times \mathbf{v}=(\nabla \times \mathbf{v})\times \mathbf{v}=(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )\mathbf{v}-\frac{1}{2}\nabla ({\mathbf{v}}^2)$$

Rewrite the Euler’s Equation
$${\partial }_t\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{\omega }\times \mathbf{v}=-\frac{1}{2}\nabla {\mathbf{v}}^2-\frac{1}{\rho }\nabla P-\nabla \Phi$$

In steady flow, dot multiply both sides by $\mathbf{v}$
$$\begin{array}{rl}\mathbf{v}{\partial }_t\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{\omega }\times \mathbf{v})& =-\mathbf{v}\frac{1}{2}\nabla {\mathbf{v}}^2-\mathbf{v}\frac{1}{\rho }\nabla P-\mathbf{v}\nabla \Phi \\ 0& =\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla [\frac{1}{2}{\mathbf{v}}^2+\Phi +\frac{P}{\rho }]\end{array}$$
which indicates that, along a streamline, $\frac{1}{2}{v}^2+\Phi +\frac{P}{\rho }$ is constant, which is the Bernoulli’s Principle again.

For compressible fluid, we have
$$P=k{\rho }^{\gamma }⟹dP=k\gamma {\rho }^{\gamma -1}d\rho =\rho \frac{\gamma }{\gamma -1}d\frac{P}{\rho }$$
Therefore, the Bernoulli’s Equation becomes
$$0=\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla [\frac{1}{2}{v}^2+\Phi +\frac{\gamma P}{(\gamma -1)\rho }]$$

If the vorticity is zero, then this conclusion applies everywhere instead of only along the streamline, because we don’t have to multiply both sides by $\mathbf{v}$.

If the vorticity of a flow is zero, then $\mathbf{v}=\nabla \varphi$, which is known as potential flow. If imcompressible, we have a Laplace Equation $\nabla \varphi =0$

Circulation

For an arbitrary loop in the fluid, the circulation is defined as
$$\Gamma ={\oint }_c\mathbf{v}\cdot d\mathbf{l}={\iint }_S\mathbf{\omega }\cdot d\mathbf{A}$$
by Storker Theorem.

Baroclinity

Calculate the curl of both sides of the vorticity form of Euler’s Equation
$$\nabla \times ({\partial }_t\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{\omega }\times \mathbf{v}=-\frac{1}{2}\nabla {\mathbf{v}}^2-\frac{1}{\rho }\nabla P-\nabla \Phi )$$

Since the curl of gradient is zero, and the curl of velocity is vorticity, we have
$$\begin{array}{rl}{\partial }_t\mathbf{\omega }+\nabla \times (\mathbf{\omega }\times \mathbf{v})& =-\nabla \times \frac{1}{\rho }\nabla P\\ {\mathcal{D}}_t\mathbf{\omega }={\partial }_t\mathbf{\omega }+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )\mathbf{\omega }& =\frac{1}{{\rho }^2}\nabla \rho \times \nabla P\end{array}$$

Define Baroclinity as $\nabla P\times \nabla \rho$, which measures the misalignment between gradient of density and pressure.

If pressure is a function of density (which is known as Barotropic Flow) or the fluid is imcompressible, the RHS is zero. This indicates, the vorticity will stay zero without voscosity.

Stress Tensor

by continuity equation and the Euler’s Equation,
$$\begin{array}{rl}{\partial }_t(\rho \mathbf{v})& =\mathbf{v}{\partial }_t\rho +\rho {\partial }_t\mathbf{v}=-\mathbf{v}\nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{v})-\rho (\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )\mathbf{v}-\nabla P\\ & =-v_i{\partial }_j(\rho v_j)-\rho v_j{\partial }_j{v}_i-{\partial }_{i}P=-{\partial }_j(\rho v_j{v}_i)-{\partial }_{i}P\\ & =-{\partial }_j{\Pi }_{ji}-{\partial }_{i}P\end{array}$$
which is known as the Stress Tensor ${\Pi }_{ji}=\rho v_j{v}_i-{\delta }_{ji}P$

Water Waves

Assume that the water is imcompressible, no voscosity, no surface tension.

Plane Wave

Assume no vorticity, velocity has no y-dependent, with the Euler’s Equation
$${\partial }_t\mathbf{v}+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )\mathbf{v}=-\frac{1}{\rho }\nabla P-g\hat{\mathbf{z}}$$

When amplitude is much smaller then wavelength, we can ignore the second term to make the equation linear. Therefore, we can use superposition principle and complex notation.
$$\begin{array}{rl}\mathbf{v}(x,z,t)& =\text{Re}\mathbf{u}(z)e^{i(kx-\omega t)}\\ P(x,z,t)& =P_0-\rho gz+\delta P(x,z,t)\\ \delta P(x,z,t)& =\text{Re}\delta \tilde{P}(z)e^{i(kx-\omega t)}\end{array}$$

Calculate divergence of both sides of the Euler’s Equation,
$${\nabla }^2\delta P=0⟹\delta \tilde{P}(z)=A{e}^{kz}+B{e}^{-kz}$$

Take this into the Euler’s Equation
$$\begin{array}{rl}{u}_x& =\frac{k}{\rho \omega }\delta \tilde{P}=\frac{k}{\rho \omega }(A{e}^{kz}+B{e}^{-kz})\\ u_z& =\frac{-i}{\rho \omega }{\partial }_z\delta \tilde{P}=\frac{-ik}{\rho \omega }(A{e}^{kz}-B{e}^{-kz})\end{array}$$

Boundary condition:

1. Ocean bottom: $u_z(-h)=0⟹B=A{e}^{-2hk}$
2. Water surface: ${\mathcal{D}}_{t}P=0$

For the surface, drop the second order term,
$${\partial }_{t}P+\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla (P_0-\rho gz+\delta P)=0⟹-i\omega \delta \tilde{P}=\rho g{u}_z$$
simplify to first order, we can set $z=0$ and substitute $B$, we get the dispersion relation $\omega (k)$ for water wave (linear first order).
$${\omega }^2=gk\frac{A-B}{A+B}=gk\tanh (hk)$$

Different situations

• shallow wave $h<<\lambda ⟹\omega =\sqrt{gh}k$
• deep wave $h>>\lambda ⟹\omega =\sqrt{gk}$

Therefore, we can get the velocities of the water waves:
$$\begin{array}{rl}{v}_{phase}& =\frac{\omega }{k}=\sqrt{\frac{g}{k}\tanh (hk)}\\ v_{group}& =\frac{d\omega }{dk}=\frac{1}{2}{v}_{phase}(1+\frac{2kh}{\sinh (2kh)})\end{array}$$

Solution

Let $C=2A{e}^{-kh}$, we have the solution
$$\begin{array}{rl}\delta P& =C\cosh [k(z+h)]\cos (kx-\omega t)\\ v_x& =\frac{Ck}{\rho \omega }\cosh [k(z+h)]\cos (kx-\omega t)\\ v_z& =\frac{Ck}{\rho \omega }\sinh [k(z+h)]\sin (kx-\omega t)\end{array}$$

Deep Water waves: ($kh$ is large)
$$x>>1⟹\cosh (x)\approx \sinh (x)\approx \frac{1}{2}{e}^x$$
Therefore,
$$\left(\begin{array}{c}{v}_x\\ v_y\end{array}\right)=\frac{Ak{e}^{kz}}{\rho \omega }\left(\begin{array}{c}\sin (kx-\omega t)\\ \cos (kx-\omega t)\end{array}\right)$$

Energy

$\eta (x,t)$ is the extra height above $z=0$ due to the wave. $\mathbf{\xi }(x,t)$ is the displacement of a water particle.

Energy density (comes from the time average of Potential energy and Kinetic energy)
$$E=\frac{1}{2}\rho g{\eta }^2$$

Energy flux is carried by the group velocity
$$F=E{v}_{gr}$$

When the wave goes onto beach, where $h$ is gradually decreasing, by the conservation of energy(flux), we have the Green’s Law
$$\eta =\frac{C}{h^{1/4}}$$

Break down of Approximation

In shallow waves,
$$\eta ={\xi }_z(z=0)=\frac{C{k}^{2}h}{\rho {\omega }^2}\cos (kx-\omega t)=h\frac{k}{\omega }{v}_x=h\frac{v_x}{v_{ph}}$$

When $\eta \gtrsim h$, $v_x\gtrsim v_{ph}$, which is breaking down.

In deep waves,
$$v_x\sim v_z\sim {\partial }_t\eta \approx \omega \eta$$

When $\eta \gtrsim 1/k$, $v_x\sim v_z\gtrsim v_{ph}$, which is breaking down.

type	wave shape
spilling	skewed waves
turnel	for surfing

Profile steepen: velocity on the crest is larger, making the front side steeper. Therefore, in shallow water
$$v_{ph}=3\sqrt{g{h}_{effective}}-2\sqrt{gh}$$
which is result of super complex derivation.
$$v_{crest}-v_{trough}=2\sqrt{g(h+\eta )}-3\sqrt{g(h-\eta )}=3\sqrt{gh}\frac{\eta }{h}$$

The time for the crest to catch the trough
$$t\approx \frac{\lambda /2}{3\sqrt{gh}\eta /h}=\frac{\lambda h}{6\eta \sqrt{gh}}=\frac{h}{6\eta }T$$

This forms the effect called Hydrolic Jump, which causes the instability even from a perfect sin/cos wave.

In deep water, Stalling effect acts against steepening, because from Fourier Transform, steeper waves have smaller k, which is slower.

When stalling and steepening balance each other, it is known as Solitary Wave or Solition.

Korteweg-DeVries Equation

2 Dutch in 1895

Correction on the dispersion
$$\tanh x\approx x-\frac{x^3}{3}⟹\omega =\sqrt{gh}k(1-\frac{h^2{k}^2}{6})$$
Substitute $\omega$ and $k$ with the partial derivatives of $\eta$
$${\partial }_t\eta +\sqrt{gh}{\partial }_x\eta +\sqrt{gh}\frac{h^2}{6}{\partial }_x^3\eta =0$$

Adding a non-linear correction (should be something about $\eta /h$), we get to the Korteweg-DeVries Equation
$${\partial }_t\eta +\sqrt{gh}(1+\frac{3\eta }{2h}){\partial }_x\eta +\sqrt{gh}\frac{h^2}{6}{\partial }_x^3\eta =0$$
obviously, the factor $3/2$ comes from the effective $h$ equation in the previous section.

The solution could be
$$\eta ={\eta }_0{\text{sech}}^2[\sqrt{\frac{3{\eta }_0}{4h^3}}(x-ut)]\text{with}u=\sqrt{gh}(1+\frac{{\eta }_0}{2h})$$

Surface Tension

leads to ripples and capillary waves (large $k$, short wavelength)

The effect which trys to minimize the surface, because surface causes energy.
$$\Delta E=\gamma \Delta A$$

Capillary Waves

waves with large k

$${\omega }^2=\frac{\gamma }{\rho }{k}^3$$
can be infered from dimensional analysis

Overrall, for large k
$${\omega }^2=gk+\frac{\gamma }{\rho }{k}^3⟹v_{ph}^2=\frac{h}{k}+\frac{\gamma }{\rho }k$$
which has a minimum value:
$$k=\sqrt{\frac{\rho g}{\gamma }}{v}_{ph}^2=2\sqrt{\frac{g\gamma }{\rho }}⟹v_{ph}\approx 0.23\text{m/s}$$
The following figure is $v_{ph}$ versus $k$ (from shallow to deep to capillary)
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Interface

in the interface between two liquid (${\rho }_1,{\rho }_2$ from up to down)
$${\omega }^2=gk\frac{{\rho }_2-{\rho }_1}{{\rho }_2+{\rho }_1}+\frac{\gamma k^3}{{\rho }_2+{\rho }_1}$$

If the $\omega$ is imarginary, the waves become exponential.

Rayleigh-Taylor Instability
$${\omega }^2<0⟹k^2<\frac{g|{\rho }_2-{\rho }_1|}{\gamma }⟹\lambda >2\pi \sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{g|{\rho }_2-{\rho }_1|}}$$
which implies longer wave length causes more instability.

Viscosity

Parity: $x\to -x,y\to -y,z\to -z⟹v\to -v$
Time reverse: $t\to -t⟹v\to -v$
Newtonian holds parity invariance, but friction does not hold time reverse invariance.

Ignore gravity, Euler’s Equation respects parity and time reverse invariance. However, we can add an extra term that respects parity but violates time reverse invariance. The possible and reasonable choice is Laplacian.

Navier–Stokes equations

Rewrite the Euler’s Equation with the extra term known as the Kinematic Viscosity, we have an equation which deserves the title (also known as N-S Equation):
$$\frac{\partial \mathbf{v}}{\partial t}+(\mathbf{v}\cdot \nabla )\mathbf{v}=-\frac{\nabla P}{\rho }-\nabla \Phi +\nu {\nabla }^2\mathbf{v}$$

• $\nu$ is called kinematic viscosity coefficient.
• $\eta =\rho \nu$ is called dynamic viscosity coefficient.

The curl of the equation gives, even if the liquid is barotropic, viscosity generates vorticity at low velocity (boundary)
$${\mathcal{D}}_t\mathbf{\omega }=\nu {\nabla }^2\mathbf{\omega }$$

Reynolds Number

the relative importance of inertial and viscosity
$$Re=\frac{\text{inertial}}{\text{viscosity}}=\frac{(v\cdot \nabla )v}{\nu {\nabla }^{2}v}=\frac{vl}{\nu }$$
This is not a precisely defined quantity, since the length is any kinds of length scale in the system.

• Low Re: slow, high viscosity (Laminar Flow)
• High Re: Fast, low viscosity (Turbulence Flow)

Hagen-Poisieulle Flow

The steady incompressible flow through a pipe with radius $R$ and length $l$.

Velocity is only function of radius ($\mathbf{v}=v_z(r)\hat{\mathbf{z}}$), which has no dependency on $z$. Thus, the LHS of N-S Equation is zero. Hence
$$\frac{\Delta P}{\rho l}+\nu \frac{d}{dr}[r\frac{d{v}_z}{dr}]=0⟹\frac{d}{dr}[r\frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dr}]=-K<0$$
Solve to get
$$v_z(r)=-\frac{K}{4}(R^2-r^2),K=\frac{\Delta P}{\nu \rho l}$$

The mass current (mass passed per unit time) is
$$J=\int \rho v_z(r)dA=\frac{\pi \Delta P}{8\nu l}{R}^4$$

Murray’s Law

1926

1. Power needed per unit length $\sim J{\mathcal{D}}_{l}P=C{J}^2/R^4$
2. Power needed to maintenance $\sim C^{\prime }{R}^2$

To optimize, we have
$$R_{optional}=k{J}^{1/3}$$

Stokes Drag

A sphere in the fluid in Low Re
$$\mathbf{F}=6\pi \eta R\mathbf{v}$$

Terminal Velocity of a sphere (${\rho }_s$) falling through a fluid
$$6\pi \eta Rv+\frac{4}{3}\pi R^3\rho g=\frac{4}{3}\pi R^3{\rho }_{s}g⟹v=\frac{2({\rho }_s-\rho )R^{2}g}{9\rho \nu }$$

Rain Drop $R=2mm,\nu =15m{m}^2/s⟹v\approx 600m/s$
which is completely wrong! since the Reynolds Number is very large. Stokes Formula cannot be applied.

Boundary Layer

Turbulent flow is super complicated with no analytic solution.

For laminar flow, the thickness of boundary layer is
$$\delta \sim \sqrt{\nu t}=5\sqrt{\frac{\nu x}{v}}⟹\frac{\delta }{x}\sim \frac{5}{\sqrt{R{e}_x}}$$

Turbulence

Turbulence is critical in everyday life, e.g. heat exchanger. Cost: increase drag and require more power.

Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability

Interface of two fluid ${\rho }_1$ and ${\rho }_2$ with velocity $v_1$ and $v_2$ respectively. If $v_1\ne v_2$, then the fluid is instable, known as Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability.

Without gravity/viscosity/surface tension, like water waves:
$$\{\begin{array}{rl}& {\partial }_x{v}_x+{\partial }_z{v}_z=0\\ & {\partial }_t{v}_x+v_x{\partial }_x{v}_x+v_z{\partial }_z{v}_x=-{\partial }_{x}P/\rho \\ & {\partial }_t{v}_z+v_x{\partial }_x{v}_z+v_z{\partial }_z{v}_z=-{\partial }_{z}P/\rho \end{array}$$
Consider derivation $v_x=u+\delta u,v_z=\delta v,P=P_0+\delta P$, drop higher order terms:
$$\{\begin{array}{rl}& {\partial }_x\delta u+{\partial }_z\delta v=0\\ & {\partial }_t\delta u+u{\partial }_x\delta u=-{\partial }_x\delta P/\rho \\ & {\partial }_t\delta v+u{\partial }_x\delta v=-{\partial }_z\delta P/\rho \end{array}$$
Assume wave behavior, $\delta X=\delta \tilde{X}(z)e^{i(kx-\omega t)}$
$$\{\begin{array}{rl}& ik\delta \tilde{u}+{\partial }_z\delta \tilde{v}=0\\ & \rho (-i\omega +uik)\delta \tilde{u}=-ik\delta \tilde{P}\\ & \rho (-i\omega +uik)\delta \tilde{v}=-{\partial }_z\delta \tilde{P}\end{array}$$
Combine the three equation by differentiating the first w.r.t. z again:
$$\begin{array}{rl}\frac{d^2\delta \tilde{v}}{d{z}^2}& =-ik{\partial }_z\delta \tilde{u}=\frac{-k^2}{\rho (-i\omega +uik)}{\partial }_z\delta \tilde{P}\\ & =k^2\delta \tilde{v}\\ ⟹& \delta \tilde{v}=C{e}^{\pm kz}\end{array}$$
For convergence, the upper layer has negative sign, the lower layer has positive sign. Apply boundary condition for a wave form displacement:
$$\delta v(z=0)={\mathcal{D}}_t\eta ⟹\delta \tilde{v}={\eta }_{0}i(uk-\omega )e^{\pm kz}$$
Apply the boundary condition for pressure, we get:
$$P_1(z=0)=P_2(z=0)⟹{\rho }_1(u_{1}k-\omega {)}^2+{\rho }_2(u_{2}k-\omega {)}^2=0$$

which gives a complex solution:
$$\omega =\frac{{\rho }_1{u}_1+{\rho }_2{u}_2}{{\rho }_1+{\rho }_2}k\pm i\frac{\sqrt{{\rho }_1{\rho }_2}(u_1-u_2)}{{\rho }_1+{\rho }_2}k$$

Von Karman Vortex Street

with high Reynold number, the time reversed invariance can be held. The sphere in the flow will result in a turbulence, because the high speed fluid element passing by the sphere will not merge into a higher pressure region.

The increasing pressure along the sphere surface causes a Boundary Layer Separation (reversed flow)

Drag Coefficient $C_D$ is defined by the equation below
$$F_D=\frac{1}{2}\rho v^{2}A{C}_D$$
where $A$ is the incident area.

• Stokes: $C_D=24/Re$
• Constant: Pressure difference goes from $\sim v$ to $\sim v^2$
• Dip: Boundary layer becomes turbulent.

Kolmogoror Theory

$ϵ$ is the energy per unit mass per unit of time supplied into the fluid. For eddy size $d$, the velocity of the eddy should be
$$v(d)=(ϵd{)}^{1/3}$$
the minimum eddy is determined by the viscosity and the energy supplied:
$$d_{min}=\frac{{\nu }^{3/4}}{{ϵ}^{1/4}}$$
Combine the two equation together, we have a surprising result
$$\frac{d_{max}}{d_{min}}=(\frac{v_{max}{d}_{max}}{\nu }{)}^{3/4}=R{e}^{3/4}$$

Fourier Transform gives $d\sim \lambda /2\sim \pi /k$, the energy spectrum is
$$E=[{ϵ}^{2/3}{k}^{-5/3}]dk$$

Temperature

Diffusion Equation
$${\partial }_{t}T=\kappa {\nabla }^{2}T$$

with fluid derivatives
$${\mathcal{D}}_{t}T=\kappa {\nabla }^{2}T$$

Boussinesq Approximation: $\rho =(1-\alpha T)$, only with $g$