最大素数---Mersenne Prime --2^32582657-1

        最近有幸听几个程序员瞎白话“能发现新的素数就能得到几百万美元的奖励，他们还打算回去自己编个循序程序去计算 ……”，我的第一个反应是long int内的素数一定已经用这个简单的算法找到了，2^32582657-1 这个是比较新的质数（素数），如何简化的存储一个整数估计就成了一个问题，或者能找出合理的寻找素数的新逻辑等等，关于质数有个简单的原理，“不能被现有质数整除的数就是新质数”有待证明，或者已经被证明！

迄今为止，人类发现的最大的素数是 2^32582657-1，这是第 46个 梅森(Mersenne)素数。

http://www.mersenne.org/various/freeware.htm

　　素数也叫质数，是只能被自己和 1 整除的数，例如2、3、5、7、11等。2500 年前，希腊数学家欧几里德证明了素数是无限的，并提出少量素数可写成“2 的n次方减 1”的形式，这里 n 也是一个素数。此后许多数学家曾对这种素数进行研究，17 世纪的法国教士马丁·梅森(Martin Mersenne)是其中成果较为卓著的一位，因此后人将“2的n次方减1”形式的素数称为梅森素数。

　　第19~41个梅森素数

　　序号 素数 位数 发现人 时间

　　41 224036583-1 7235733 John Findley 2004

　　40 220996011-1 6320430 Michael Shafer 2003

　　39 213466917-1 4053946 Michael Cameron 2001

　　38 26972593-1 2098960 Nayan, Woltman, Kurowski 1999

　　37 23021377-1 909526 Clarkson, Woltman, Kurowski 1998

　　36 22976221-1 895932 Spence, Woltman 1997

　　35 21398269-1 420921 Armengaud, Woltman 1996

　　34 21257787-1 378632 Slowinski & Gage 1996

　　33 2859433-1 258716 Slowinski & Gage 1994

　　32 2756839-1 227832 Slowinski & Gage 1992

　　31 2216091-1 65050 David Slowinski 1985

　　30 2132049-1 39751 David Slowinski 1983

　　29 2110503-1 33265 Welsh & Colquitt 1988

　　28 286243-1 25962 David Slowinski 1982

　　27 244497-1 13395 Slowinski & Nelson 1979

　　26 223209-1 6987 L. Curt Noll 1979

　　25 221701-1 6533 Nickel & Noll 1978

　　24 219937-1 6002 Bryant Tuckerman 1971

　　23 211213-1 3376 Donald B. Gillies 1963

　　22 29941-1 2993 Donald B. Gillies 1963

　　21 29689-1 2917 Donald B. Gillies 1963

　　20 24423-1 1332 Alexander Hurwitz 1961

　　19 24253-1 1281 Alexander Hurwitz 1961

　　1995 年，美国程序设计师乔治·沃特曼整理有关梅森素数的资料，编制了一个梅森素数计算程序，并将其放置在因特网上供数学爱好者使用，这就是“因特 网梅森素数大搜索”计划。目前有6万多名志愿者、超过20万台计算机参与这项计划。该计划采取分布式计算方式，利用大量普通计算机的闲置时间，获得相当于 超级计算机的运算能力，第 37、38 和 39 个梅森素数都是用这种方法找到的。美国一家基金会还专门设立了 10 万美元的奖金，鼓励第一个找到超过千万位素数的人。

About Mersenne numbers

In computer science, unsigned n-bit integers can be used to express numbers up to M_n.

In the mathematical problem Tower of Hanoi, solving a puzzle with an n-disc tower requires at least M_n steps.

[edit] About Mersenne primes

Unsolved problems in mathematics: Are there infinitely many Mersenne primes?

Many fundamental questions about Mersenne primes remain unresolved. It is not even known whether the set of Mersenne primes is infinite. The Lenstra-Pomerance-Wagstaff conjecture asserts that, on the contrary, there are infinitely many Mersenne primes and predicts their order of growth. It is also not known whether infinitely many Mersenne numbers with prime exponents are composite, although this would follow from widely believed conjectures about prime numbers, for example, the infinitude of Sophie Germain primes.

A basic theorem about Mersenne numbers states that in order for M_n to be a Mersenne prime, the exponent n itself must be a prime number. This rules out primality for numbers such as M₄ = 2⁴−1 = 15: since the exponent 4=2×2 is composite, the theorem predicts that 15 is also composite; indeed, 15 = 3×5. The three smallest Mersenne primes are

M ₂ = 3, M ₃ = 7, M ₅ = 31.

While it is true that only Mersenne numbers M_p, where p = 2, 3, 5, … could be prime, it may nevertheless turn out that M_p is not prime even for a prime exponent p. The smallest counterexample is the Mersenne number

M ₁₁ = 2 ¹¹ − 1 = 2047 = 23 × 89,

which is not prime, even though 11 is a prime number. The lack of an obvious rule to determine whether a given Mersenne number is prime makes the search for Mersenne primes an interesting task, which becomes difficult very quickly, since Mersenne numbers grow very rapidly. The Lucas–Lehmer test for Mersenne numbers is an efficient primality test that greatly aids this task. Search for the largest known prime has somewhat of a cult following. Consequently, a lot of computer power has been expended searching for new Mersenne primes, much of which is now done using distributed computing.

Mersenne primes are used in pseudorandom number generators such as the Mersenne twister, Park–Miller random number generator, Generalized Shift Register and Fibonacci RNG.

[edit] Searching for Mersenne primes

The identity

shows that M_n can be prime only if n itself is prime—that is, the primality of n is necessary but not sufficient for M_n to be prime—which simplifies the search for Mersenne primes considerably. The converse statement, namely that M_n is necessarily prime if n is prime, is false. The smallest counterexample is 2¹¹ − 1 = 2,047 = 23×89, a composite number.

Fast algorithms for finding Mersenne primes are available, and the largest known prime numbers as of 2008 are Mersenne primes.

The first four Mersenne primes M₂ = 3, M₃ = 7, M₅ = 31 and M₇ = 127 were known in antiquity. The fifth, M₁₃ = 8191, was discovered anonymously before 1461; the next two (M₁₇ and M₁₉) were found by Cataldi in 1588. After nearly two centuries, M₃₁ was verified to be prime by Euler in 1772. The next (in historical, not numerical order) was M₁₂₇, found by Lucas in 1876, then M₆₁ by Pervushin in 1883. Two more (M₈₉ and M₁₀₇) were found early in the 20th century, by Powers in 1911 and 1914, respectively.

The best method presently known for testing the primality of Mersenne numbers is based on the computation of a recurring sequence, as developed originally by Lucas in 1856^[2][3] and improved by Lehmer in the 1930s, now known as the Lucas-Lehmer test for Mersenne numbers. Specifically, it can be shown that (for n > 2) M_n = 2ⁿ − 1 is prime if and only if M_n divides S_n−2, where S₀ = 4 and for k > 0, .

Graph of number of digits in largest known Mersenne prime by year - electronic era. Note that the vertical scale is logarithmic.

The search for Mersenne primes was revolutionized by the introduction of the electronic digital computer. The first successful identification of a Mersenne prime, M₅₂₁, by this means was achieved at 10:00 P.M. on January 30, 1952 using the U.S. National Bureau of Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) at the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the University of California, Los Angeles, under the direction of Lehmer, with a computer search program written and run by Prof. R.M. Robinson. It was the first Mersenne prime to be identified in thirty-eight years; the next one, M₆₀₇, was found by the computer a little less than two hours later. Three more — M₁₂₇₉, M₂₂₀₃, M₂₂₈₁ — were found by the same program in the next several months. M₄₂₅₃ is the first Mersenne prime that is titanic, M₄₄₄₉₇ is the first gigantic, and M_6,972,593 was the first megaprime to be discovered, being a prime with at least 1,000,000 digits.^[4] All three were the first known prime of any kind of that size.

In September 2008, mathematicians at UCLA participating in GIMPS appear to have won part of a $100,000 prize from the Electronic Frontier Foundation for their discovery of a very nearly 13-million-digit Mersenne prime. The prize is for the first known prime with at least 10 million digits. The prime was found on a Dell OptiPlex 745 on August 23. This is the eighth Mersenne prime discovered at UCLA.^[5]

[edit] Theorems about Mersenne numbers

• 1) If n is a positive integer, by the binomial theorem we can write:

or

by setting c = 2^a, d = 1, and n = b

proof

= aⁿ − bⁿ

• 2) If 2ⁿ − 1 is prime, then n is prime.

proof

By

If n is not prime, or n = ab where 1 < a, b < n. Therefore, 2^a − 1 would divide 2ⁿ − 1, or 2ⁿ − 1 is not prime.

• 3) If p is an odd prime, then any prime q that divides 2^p − 1 must be 1 plus a multiple of 2p. This holds even when 2^p − 1 is prime. Example I: 2⁵ − 1 = 31

is prime, and 31 is 1 plus a multiple of 2×5. Example II: 2¹¹ − 1 = 23×89', 23 = 1 + 2×11, and 89 = 1 + 8×11, and also 23×89 = 1 + 186×11.

proof

If q divides 2^p − 1 then 2^p ≡ 1 (mod q). By Fermat's Little Theorem, 2^{(q − 1)} ≡ 1 (mod q). Assume p and q − 1 are relatively prime, a similar application of Fermat's Little Theorem says that (q − 1)^{(p − 1)} ≡ 1 (mod p). Thus there is a number x ≡ (q − 1)^{(p − 2)} for which (q − 1)·x ≡ 1 (mod p), and therefore a number k for which (q − 1)·x − 1 = kp. Since 2^{(q − 1)} ≡ 1 (mod q), raising both sides of the congruence to the power x gives 2^{(q − 1)x} ≡ 1, and since 2^p ≡ 1 (mod q), raising both sides of the congruence to the power k gives 2^kp ≡ 1. Thus 2^{(q − 1)x} ÷ 2^kp = 2^{(q − 1)x − kp} ≡ 1 (mod q). But by definition, (q − 1)x − kp = 1, implying that 2¹ ≡ 1 (mod q); in other words, that q divides 1. Thus the initial assumption that p and q − 1 are relatively prime is untenable. Since p is prime q-1 must be a multiple of p.

• 4) If p is an odd prime, then any prime q that divides 2^p − 1 must be congruent to . Proof: 2^{p + 1} = 2(mod q), so 2^{(p + 1) / 2} is a square root of 2 modulo q. By quadratic reciprocity, any prime modulo which two has a square root is congruent to .

[edit] History

Mersenne primes were considered already by Euclid, who found a connection with the perfect numbers. They are named after 17th century French scholar Marin Mersenne, who compiled a list of Mersenne primes with exponents up to 257. His list was only partially correct, as Mersenne mistakenly included M₆₇ and M₂₅₇ (which are composite), and omitted M₆₁, M₈₉, and M₁₀₇ (which are prime). Mersenne gave little indication how he came up with his list^[6], and its rigorous verification was completed more than two centuries later.

[edit] List of known Mersenne primes

The table below lists all known Mersenne primes (sequence A000668 in OEIS):

#	p	Mp	Digits in Mp	Date of discovery	Discoverer
1	2	3	1	5th century BC[7]	Ancient Greek mathematicians
2	3	7	1	5th century BC[7]	Ancient Greek mathematicians
3	5	31	2	3rd century BC[7]	Ancient Greek mathematicians
4	7	127	3	3rd century BC[7]	Ancient Greek mathematicians
5	13	8191	4	1456	anonymous [8]
6	17	131071	6	1588	Cataldi
7	19	524287	6	1588	Cataldi
8	31	2147483647	10	1772	Euler
9	61	2305843009213693951	19	1883	Pervushin
10	89	618970019…449562111	27	1911	Powers
11	107	162259276…010288127	33	1914	Powers[9]
12	127	170141183…884105727	39	1876	Lucas
13	521	686479766…115057151	157	January 30, 1952	Robinson
14	607	531137992…031728127	183	January 30, 1952	Robinson
15	1,279	104079321…168729087	386	June 25, 1952	Robinson
16	2,203	147597991…697771007	664	October 7, 1952	Robinson
17	2,281	446087557…132836351	687	October 9, 1952	Robinson
18	3,217	259117086…909315071	969	September 8, 1957	Riesel
19	4,253	190797007…350484991	1,281	November 3, 1961	Hurwitz
20	4,423	285542542…608580607	1,332	November 3, 1961	Hurwitz
21	9,689	478220278…225754111	2,917	May 11, 1963	Gillies
22	9,941	346088282…789463551	2,993	May 16, 1963	Gillies
23	11,213	281411201…696392191	3,376	June 2, 1963	Gillies
24	19,937	431542479…968041471	6,002	March 4, 1971	Tuckerman
25	21,701	448679166…511882751	6,533	October 30, 1978	Noll & Nickel
26	23,209	402874115…779264511	6,987	February 9, 1979	Noll
27	44,497	854509824…011228671	13,395	April 8, 1979	Nelson & Slowinski
28	86,243	536927995…433438207	25,962	September 25, 1982	Slowinski
29	110,503	521928313…465515007	33,265	January 28, 1988	Colquitt & Welsh
30	132,049	512740276…730061311	39,751	September 19, 1983[7]	Slowinski
31	216,091	746093103…815528447	65,050	September 1, 1985[7]	Slowinski
32	756,839	174135906…544677887	227,832	February 19, 1992	Slowinski & Gage on Harwell Lab Cray-2[10]
33	859,433	129498125…500142591	258,716	January 4, 1994[11]	Slowinski & Gage
34	1,257,787	412245773…089366527	378,632	September 3, 1996	Slowinski & Gage[12]
35	1,398,269	814717564…451315711	420,921	November 13, 1996	GIMPS / Joel Armengaud[13]
36	2,976,221	623340076…729201151	895,932	August 24, 1997	GIMPS / Gordon Spence[14]
37	3,021,377	127411683…024694271	909,526	January 27, 1998	GIMPS / Roland Clarkson[15]
38	6,972,593	437075744…924193791	2,098,960	June 1, 1999	GIMPS / Nayan Hajratwala[16]
39	13,466,917	924947738…256259071	4,053,946	November 14, 2001	GIMPS / Michael Cameron[17]
40[*]	20,996,011	125976895…855682047	6,320,430	November 17, 2003	GIMPS / Michael Shafer[18]
41[*]	24,036,583	299410429…733969407	7,235,733	May 15, 2004	GIMPS / Josh Findley[19]
42[*]	25,964,951	122164630…577077247	7,816,230	February 18, 2005	GIMPS / Martin Nowak[20]
43[*]	30,402,457	315416475…652943871	9,152,052	December 15, 2005	GIMPS / Curtis Cooper & Steven Boone[21]
44[*]	32,582,657	124575026…053967871	9,808,358	September 4, 2006	GIMPS / Curtis Cooper & Steven Boone[22]
45[*]	37,156,667	202254406…308220927	11,185,272	September 6, 2008	GIMPS / Hans-Michael Elvenich[23]
46[*]	43,112,609	316470269…697152511	12,978,189	August 23, 2008	GIMPS / Edson Smith[23]

^* It is not known whether any undiscovered Mersenne primes exist between the 39th (M_13,466,917) and the 46th (M_43,112,609) on this chart; the ranking is therefore provisional. For a historical example, note that the 29th Mersenne prime was discovered after the 30th and the 31st. It is also remarkable that the current record holder was followed 14 days later by a smaller Mersenne prime.

To help visualize the size of the 46th known Mersenne prime, it would require 3,461 pages to display the number in base 10 with 75 digits per line and 50 lines per page. ^[7]

[edit] Factorization of Mersenne numbers

The factorization of a prime number is by definition the number itself. This section is about composite numbers. Mersenne numbers are very good test cases for the special number field sieve algorithm, so often the largest number factorized with this algorithm has been a Mersenne number. As of March 2007^[update], 2¹⁰³⁹−1 is the record-holder,^[24] after a calculation taking about a year on a couple of hundred computers, mostly at NTT in Japan and at EPFL in Switzerland. See integer factorization records for links to more information. The special number field sieve can factorize numbers with more than one large factor. If a number has only one very large factor then other algorithms can factorize larger numbers by first finding small factors and then making a primality test on the cofactor. As of 2008^[update], the largest composite Mersenne number with proven prime factors is 2¹⁷⁰²⁹−1 = 418879343 × p, where p was proven prime with ECPP.^[25] The largest with probable prime factors allowed is 2¹⁷³⁸⁶⁷−1 = 52536637502689 × q, where q is a probable prime.^[26]

[edit] Perfect numbers

Mersenne primes are interesting to many for their connection to perfect numbers. In the 4th century BC, Euclid demonstrated that if M_n is a Mersenne prime then

2 ⁿ⁻¹×(2 ⁿ−1) = M _n( M _n+1)/2

is an even perfect number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that, conversely, all even perfect numbers have this form. It is unknown whether there are any odd perfect numbers.