Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................................i
Target Audience, Assumptions, and Recommendations.....................................................................i
Conventions........................................................................................................................................i
Bugs and Roadmap ........................................................................................................................... ii
Technical Note and Summary of Approach...................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements and Request for Remarks ................................................................................. ii
I. Concepts..................................................................................................................................................i
1. Basic IP Connectivity....................................................................................................................1
IP Networking Control Files ....................................................................................................1
Reading Routes and IP Information .........................................................................................2
Sending Packets to the Local Network ...........................................................................4
Sending Packets to Unknown Networks Through the Default Gateway ........................5
Static Routes to Networks...............................................................................................6
Changing IP Addresses and Routes..........................................................................................7
Changing the IP on a machine ........................................................................................7
Setting the Default Route................................................................................................9
Adding and removing a static route ................................................................................9
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................10
2. Ethernet .......................................................................................................................................12

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).......................................................................................12
Overview of Address Resolution Protocol....................................................................12
The ARP cache .............................................................................................................15
ARP Suppression ..........................................................................................................17
The ARP Flux Problem.................................................................................................17
ARP flux prevention with arp_filter .............................................................18
ARP flux prevention with hidden......................................................................19
Proxy ARP ....................................................................................................................20
ARP filtering .................................................................................................................20
Connecting to an Ethernet 802.1q VLAN..............................................................................21
Link Aggregation and High Availability with Bonding .........................................................22
Link Aggregation ..........................................................................................................22
High Availability...........................................................................................................23
3. Bridging ......................................................................................................................................25
Concepts of Bridging..............................................................................................................25
Bridging and Spanning Tree Protocol ....................................................................................25
Bridging and Packet Filtering.................................................................................................25
Traffic Control with a Bridge .................................................................................................25
ebtables .................................................................................................................................25
4. IP Routing ...................................................................................................................................26
Introduction to Linux Routing................................................................................................26
Routing to Locally Connected Networks ...............................................................................29
Sending Packets Through a Gateway .....................................................................................30
Operating as a Router .............................................................................................................31
Route Selection......................................................................................................................31
The Common Case........................................................................................................31

The Whole Story...........................................................................................................32
Summary.......................................................................................................................34
Source Address Selection .......................................................................................................34
Routing Cache ........................................................................................................................35
Routing Tables........................................................................................................................37
Routing Table Entries (Routes).....................................................................................39
The Local Routing Table ..............................................................................................41
The Main Routing Table ...............................................................................................43
Routing Policy Database (RPDB) ..........................................................................................43
ICMP and Routing..................................................................................................................45
MTU, MSS, and ICMP.................................................................................................45
ICMP Redirects and Routing........................................................................................45
5. Network Address Translation (NAT) ...........................................................................................48
Rationale for and Introduction to NAT...................................................................................48
Application Layer Protocols with Embedded Network Information .....................................50
Stateless NAT with iproute2 ..................................................................................................51
Stateless NAT Packet Capture and Introduction ...........................................................51
Stateless NAT Practicum...............................................................................................52
Conditional Stateless NAT............................................................................................53
Stateless NAT and Packet Filtering ........................................................................................54
Destination NAT with netfilter (DNAT) .................................................................................56
Port Address Translation with DNAT...........................................................................56
Port Address Translation (PAT) from Userspace....................................................................57
Transparent PAT from Userspace ...........................................................................................57
6. Masquerading and Source Network Address Translation............................................................58

Concepts of Source NAT ........................................................................................................58
Differences Between SNAT and Masquerading ...........................................................58
Double SNAT/Masquerading........................................................................................58
Issues with SNAT/Masquerading and Inbound Traffic...........................................................58
Where Masquerading and SNAT Break .................................................................................58
7. Packet Filtering ............................................................................................................................59
Rationale for and Introduction to Packet Filtering .................................................................59
History of Linux Packet Filter Support.........................................................................59
Limits of the Usefulness of Packet Filtering.................................................................60
Weaknesses of Packet Filtering ..............................................................................................61
Complex Network Layer Stateless Packet Filters.........................................................61
General Packet Filter Requirements .......................................................................................61
The Netfilter Architecture.......................................................................................................62
Packet Filtering with iptables.......................................................................................62
Packet Filtering with ipchains ...............................................................................................62
Packet Mangling with ipchains ....................................................................................62
Protecting a Host ....................................................................................................................62
Protecting a Network..............................................................................................................63
Further Resources...................................................................................................................63
8. Statefulness and Statelessness......................................................................................................65
......................................................................................................................................65
Statelessness of IP Routing ....................................................................................................65
Netfilter Connection Tracking ................................................................................................65

II. Cookbook............................................................................................................................................66
9. Advanced IP Management ...........................................................................................................67
Multiple IPs and the ARP Problem ........................................................................................67
Multiple IP Networks on one Ethernet Segment....................................................................67
Breaking a network in two with proxy ARP ..........................................................................67
Multiple IPs on an Interface ...................................................................................................68
Multiple connections to the same Ethernet ............................................................................69
Multihomed Hosts ..................................................................................................................69
Binding to Non-local Addresses.............................................................................................69
10. Advanced IP Routing .................................................................................................................70
Introduction to Policy Routing ...............................................................................................70
Overview of Routing and Packet Filter Interactions ..............................................................70
Using the Routing Policy Database and Multiple Routing Tables .........................................71
Using Type of Service Policy Routing..........................................................................72
Using fwmark for Policy Routing.................................................................................72
Policy Routing and NAT...............................................................................................72
Multiple Connections to the Internet......................................................................................72
Outbound traffic Using Multiple Connections to the Internet ......................................73
Inbound traffic Using Multiple Connections to the Internet .........................................75
Using Multiple Connections to the Internet for Inbound and Outbound Connections.77
11. Scripts for Managing IP .............................................................................................................79
Proxy ARP Scripts..................................................................................................................79
NAT Scripts ............................................................................................................................82
12. Troubleshooting .........................................................................................................................90
Introduction to Troubleshooting.............................................................................................90
Troubleshooting at the Ethernet Layer ...................................................................................90

Troubleshooting at the IP Layer .............................................................................................90
Handling and Diagnosing Routing Problems .........................................................................90
Identifying Problems with TCP Sessions ...............................................................................90
DNS Troubleshooting.............................................................................................................90
III. Appendices and Reference ...............................................................................................................91
A. An Example Network and Description .......................................................................................92
Example Network Map and General Notes............................................................................92
Example Network Addressing Charts ....................................................................................92
B. Ethernet Layer Tools ...................................................................................................................94
arp .........................................................................................................................................94
arping....................................................................................................................................95
ip link ....................................................................................................................................96
Displaying link layer characteristics with ip link show...............................................96
Changing link layer characteristics with ip link set .....................................................97
Deactivating a device with ip link set ..........................................................................98
Activating a device with ip link set ..............................................................................99
Using ip link set to change the MTU.........................................................................100
Changing the device name with ip link set ................................................................100

Changing hardware or Ethernet broadcast address with ip link set ...........................100
vi
ip neighbor ..........................................................................................................................101
mii-tool................................................................................................................................104
C. IP Address Management ...........................................................................................................107
ifconfig ................................................................................................................................107
Displaying interface information with ifconfig ..........................................................107
Bringing down an interface with ifconfig ...................................................................108
Bringing up an interface with ifconfig........................................................................108
Reading ifconfig output ..............................................................................................109
Changing MTU with ifconfig .....................................................................................109
Changing device flags with ifconfig ...........................................................................110
General remarks about ifconfig ..................................................................................111
ip address............................................................................................................................111
Displaying interface information with ip address show............................................111

Using ip address add to configure IP address information .......................................112
Using ip address del to remove IP addresses from an interface ................................113
Removing all IP address information from an interface with ip address flush .........114
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................114
D. IP Route Management...............................................................................................................116
route ....................................................................................................................................116
Displaying the routing table with route......................................................................116
Reading route’s output ...............................................................................................117
Using route to display the routing cache....................................................................118
Creating a static route with route add........................................................................119
Creating a default route with route add default ........................................................121
Removing routes with route del.................................................................................121
ip route................................................................................................................................123
Displaying a routing table with ip route show...........................................................123
Displaying the routing cache with ip route show cache............................................125
Using ip route add to populate a routing table ..........................................................127
Adding a default route with ip route add default......................................................128
Setting up NAT with ip route add nat .......................................................................128
Removing routes with ip route del.............................................................................129
Altering existing routes with ip route change ...........................................................130
Programmatically fetching route information with ip route get ................................131
Clearing routing tables with ip route flush ................................................................131
ip route flush cache ...................................................................................................132
Summary of the use of ip route..................................................................................132
ip rule..................................................................................................................................133
ip rule show................................................................................................................133
Displaying the RPDB with ip rule show....................................................................133
Adding a rule to the RPDB with ip rule add .............................................................134
ip rule add nat ...........................................................................................................135
ip rule del ...................................................................................................................136
E. Tunnels and VPNs .....................................................................................................................138
Lightweight encrypted tunnel with CIPE ............................................................................138
GRE tunnels with ip tunnel .................................................................................................138
All manner of tunnels with ssh.............................................................................................138
IPSec implementation via FreeS/WAN ...............................................................................138

IPSec implementation in the kernel......................................................................................138
PPTP...................................................................................................................................138
F. Sockets; Servers and Clients ......................................................................................................139
telnet....................................................................................................................................139
nc .........................................................................................................................................139
socat ....................................................................................................................................140
tcpclient ...............................................................................................................................141
xinetd ..................................................................................................................................141
tcpserver ..............................................................................................................................141
redir.....................................................................................................................................142
G. Diagnostics ...............................................................................................................................143
ping......................................................................................................................................143
Using ping to test reachability....................................................................................144
Using ping to stress a network....................................................................................146
Recording a network route with ping .........................................................................146
Setting the TTL on a ping packet ...............................................................................147
Setting ToS for a diagnostic ping ...............................................................................148
Specifying a source address for ping..........................................................................149
Summary on the use of ping.......................................................................................149
traceroute ............................................................................................................................149
Using traceroute ........................................................................................................150
Telling traceroute to use ICMP echo request instead of UDP...................................151
Setting ToS with traceroute .......................................................................................151
Summary on the use of traceroute.............................................................................151
mtr.......................................................................................................................................151

netstat..................................................................................................................................151
Displaying socket status with netstat .........................................................................151
Displaying the main routing table with netstat ..........................................................154
Displaying network interface statistics with netstat ..................................................155
Displaying network stack statistics with netstat ........................................................155
Displaying the masquerading table with netstat ........................................................155
tcpdump..............................................................................................................................155
Using tcpdump to view ARP messages.....................................................................156
Using tcpdump to see ICMP unreachable messages .................................................156
Using tcpdump to watch TCP sessions......................................................................157
Reading and writing tcpdump data............................................................................157
Understanding fragmentation as reported by tcpdump..............................................158
Other options to the tcpdump command....................................................................158
tcpflow.................................................................................................................................159
tcpreplay.............................................................................................................................159
H. Miscellany ................................................................................................................................160
ipcalc and other IP addressing calculators ...........................................................................160
Some general remarks about iproute2 tools ........................................................................160
Brief introduction to sysctl...................................................................................................161
I. Links to other Resources ............................................................................................................162
Links to Documentation .......................................................................................................162
Linux Networking Introduction and Overview Material ............................................162
Linux Security and Network Security.........................................................................162

General IP Networking Resources..............................................................................162
Masquerading topics ...................................................................................................163
Network Address Translation .....................................................................................163
iproute2 documentation ..............................................................................................164
Netfilter Resources......................................................................................................164
ipchains Resources.....................................................................................................165
ipfwadm Resources....................................................................................................165
General Systems References.......................................................................................165
Bridging ......................................................................................................................166
Traffic Control.............................................................................................................166
IPv4 Multicast.............................................................................................................167
Miscellaneous Linux IP Resources.............................................................................167
Links to Software .................................................................................................................168
Basic Utilities..............................................................................................................168
Virtual Private Networking software ..........................................................................168
Traffic Control queueing disciplines and command line tools....................................169
Interfaces to lower layer tools.....................................................................................169
Packet sniffing and diagnostic tools............................................................................169
J. GNU Free Documentation License ............................................................................................171
PREAMBLE........................................................................................................................171
APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS.............................................................................171
VERBATIM COPYING.......................................................................................................172
COPYING IN QUANTITY..................................................................................................172
MODIFICATIONS...............................................................................................................173
COMBINING DOCUMENTS.............................................................................................174

COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS...................................................................................175
AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS..........................................................175
TRANSLATION...................................................................................................................175
TERMINATION...................................................................................................................176
FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE .......................................................................176
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents..............................................176
Reference Bibliography and Recommended Reading........................................................................178
Index.......................................................................................................................................................179

List of Tables
2-1. Active ARP cache entry states ...........................................................................................................15
4-1. Keys used for hash table lookups during route selection ...................................................................33
5-1. Filtering an iproute2 NAT packet with ipchains...............................................................................54
A-1. Example Network; Network Addressing...........................................................................................92
A-2. Example Network; Host Addressing .................................................................................................93
B-1. ip link link layer device states...........................................................................................................98
B-2. Ethernet Port Speed Abbreviations..................................................................................................104
C-1. Interface Flags ................................................................................................................................110
C-2. IP Scope under ip address ..............................................................................................................112
G-1. Possible Session States in netstat output ........................................................................................153
H-1. iproute2 Synonyms........................................................................................................................161
List of Examples
1-1. Sample ifconfig output .........................................................................................................................2
1-2. Testing reachability of a locally connected host with ping..................................................................4
1-3. Testing reachability of non-local hosts.................................................................................................5
1-4. Sample routing table with a static route ...............................................................................................6
1-5. ifconfig and route output before the change........................................................................................7
1-6. Bringing down a network interface with ifconfig ................................................................................8
1-7. Bringing up an Ethernet interface with ifconfig...................................................................................8
1-8. Adding a default route with route........................................................................................................9

1-9. Adding a static route with route ........................................................................................................10
1-10. Removing a static network route and adding a static host route ......................................................10
2-1. ARP conversation captured with tcpdump 3 .......................................................................................13
2-2. Gratuitous ARP reply frames .............................................................................................................13
2-3. Unsolicited ARP request frames ........................................................................................................14
2-4. Duplicate Address Detection with ARP.............................................................................................14
2-5. ARP cache listings with arp and ip neighbor ...................................................................................15
2-6. ARP cache timeout............................................................................................................................16
2-7. ARP flux............................................................................................................................................17
2-8. Correction of ARP flux with conf/$DEV/arp_filter..................................................................18
2-9. Correction of ARP flux with net/$DEV/hidden.............................................................................20
2-10. Bringing up a VLAN interface.........................................................................................................21
2-11. Link aggregation bonding ................................................................................................................22
2-12. High availability bonding .................................................................................................................23
4-1. Classes of IP addresses......................................................................................................................27
4-2. Using ipcalc to display IP information...............................................................................................29
4-3. Identifying the locally connected networks with route .....................................................................29
4-4. Routing Selection Algorithm in Pseudo-code ....................................................................................33
4-5. Listing the Routing Policy Database (RPDB)....................................................................................33
4-6. Typical content of /etc/iproute2/rt_tables ............................................................................38
4-7. unicast route types ..............................................................................................................................39
4-8. broadcast route types ..........................................................................................................................39
4-9. local route types.................................................................................................................................40
4-10. nat route types .................................................................................................................................40
4-11. unreachable route types ....................................................................................................................40
4-12. prohibit route types..........................................................................................................................41
4-13. blackhole route types........................................................................................................................41
4-14. throw route types ..............................................................................................................................41
4-15. Kernel maintenance of the local routing table...............................................................................42
4-16. unicast rule type...............................................................................................................................43
4-17. nat rule type .....................................................................................................................................44
4-18. unreachable rule type........................................................................................................................44
4-19. prohibit rule type ..............................................................................................................................44
4-20. blackhole rule type ...........................................................................................................................45
4-21. ICMP Redirect on the Wire 14...........................................................................................................46
5-1. Stateless NAT Packet Capture 3 ..........................................................................................................51
5-2. Basic commands to create a stateless NAT ........................................................................................52
5-3. Conditional Stateless NAT (not performing NAT for a specified destination network).....................53
5-4. Using an ipchains packet filter with stateless NAT ...........................................................................54
5-5. Using DNAT for all protocols (and ports) on one IP..........................................................................56
5-6. Using DNAT for a single port ............................................................................................................56
5-7. Simulating full NAT with SNAT and DNAT......................................................................................56
7-1. Blocking a destination and using the REJECT target, cf. Example D-17 ...........................................63
10-1. Multiple Outbound Internet links, part I; ip route...........................................................................73
10-2. Multiple Outbound Internet links, part II; iptables..........................................................................74
10-3. Multiple Outbound Internet links, part III; ip rule ..........................................................................75
10-4. Multiple Internet links, inbound traffic; using iproute2 only 5 ........................................................77
11-1. Proxy ARP SysV initialization script...............................................................................................79

11-2. Proxy ARP configuration file ...........................................................................................................80
11-3. Static NAT SysV initialization script ...............................................................................................82
11-4. Static NAT configuration file............................................................................................................86
B-1. Displaying the arp table with arp......................................................................................................94
B-2. Adding arp table entries with arp......................................................................................................95
B-3. Deleting arp table entries with arp....................................................................................................95
B-4. Displaying reachability of an IP on the local Ethernet with arping..................................................95
B-5. Duplicate Address Detection with arping.........................................................................................96
B-6. Using ip link show...........................................................................................................................97
B-7. Using ip link set to change device flags............................................................................................97
B-8. Deactivating a link layer device with ip link set ...............................................................................98
B-9. Activating a link layer device with ip link set ..................................................................................99
B-10. Using ip link set to change device flags........................................................................................100
B-11. Changing the device name with ip link set ...................................................................................100
B-12. Changing broadcast and hardware addresses with ip link set.......................................................101
B-13. Displaying the ARP cache with ip neighbor show.......................................................................102
B-14. Displaying the ARP cache on an interface with ip neighbor show..............................................102
B-15. Displaying the ARP cache for a particular network with ip neighbor show................................102
B-16. Entering a permanent entry into the ARP cache with ip neighbor add .......................................102
B-17. Entering a proxy ARP entry with ip neighbor add proxy ...........................................................103
B-18. Altering an entry in the ARP cache with ip neighbor change .....................................................103
B-19. Removing an entry from the ARP cache with ip neighbor del ....................................................103

B-20. Removing learned entries from the ARP cache with ip neighbor flush.......................................103
B-21. Detecting link layer status with mii-tool .......................................................................................104
B-22. Specifying Ethernet port speeds with mii-tool --advertise...........................................................105
B-23. Forcing Ethernet port speed with mii-tool --force ........................................................................105
C-1. Viewing interface information with ifconfig ...................................................................................107
C-2. Bringing down an interface with ifconfig........................................................................................108
C-3. Bringing up an interface with ifconfig.............................................................................................108
C-4. Changing MTU with ifconfig ..........................................................................................................109
C-5. Setting interface flags with ifconfig.................................................................................................110
C-6. Displaying IP information with ip address.....................................................................................111
C-7. Adding IP addresses to an interface with ip address ......................................................................112
C-8. Removing IP addresses from interfaces with ip address ................................................................113
C-9. Removing all IPs on an interface with ip address flush .................................................................114
D-1. Viewing a simple routing table with route......................................................................................116
D-2. Viewing a complex routing table with route...................................................................................117
D-3. Viewing the routing cache with route.............................................................................................118
D-4. Adding a static route to a network route add .................................................................................119
D-5. Adding a static route to a host with route add ...............................................................................120
D-6. Adding a static route to a host on the same media with route add.................................................120
D-7. Setting the default route with route ................................................................................................121
D-8. An alternate method of setting the default route with route ...........................................................121
D-9. Removing a static host route with route del ...................................................................................122
D-10. Removing the default route with route del ...................................................................................122
D-11. Viewing the main routing table with ip route show .....................................................................124

D-12. Viewing the local routing table with ip route show table local ...................................................124
D-13. Viewing a routing table with ip route show table ........................................................................125
D-14. Displaying the routing cache with ip route show cache ..............................................................126
D-15. Displaying statistics from the routing cache with ip -s route show cache...................................126
D-16. Adding a static route to a network with route add, cf. Example D-4...........................................127
D-17. Adding a prohibit route with route add ...................................................................................127
D-18. Using from in a routing command with route add ......................................................................127
D-19. Using src in a routing command with route add ........................................................................128
D-20. Setting the default route with ip route add default......................................................................128
D-21. Creating a NAT route for a single IP with ip route add nat.........................................................129
D-22. Creating a NAT route for an entire network with ip route add nat..............................................129
D-23. Removing routes with ip route del 11............................................................................................130
D-24. Altering existing routes with ip route change..............................................................................130
D-25. Testing routing tables with ip route get........................................................................................131
D-26. Removing a specific route and emptying a routing table with ip route flush...............................131
D-27. Emptying the routing cache with ip route flush cache ................................................................132
D-28. Displaying the RPDB with ip rule show ......................................................................................133
D-29. Creating a simple entry in the RPDB with ip rule add 13 .............................................................134
D-30. Creating a complex entry in the RPDB with ip rule add .............................................................135
D-31. Creating a NAT rule with ip rule add nat ....................................................................................135
D-32. Creating a NAT rule for an entire network with ip rule add nat..................................................135
D-33. Removing a NAT rule for an entire network with ip rule del nat ................................................136
F-1. Simple use of nc..............................................................................................................................139
F-2. Specifying timeout with nc ..............................................................................................................139

F-3. Specifying source address with nc...................................................................................................139
F-4. Using nc as a server .........................................................................................................................139
F-5. Delaying a stream with nc................................................................................................................140
F-6. Using nc with UDP..........................................................................................................................140
F-7. Simple use of socat ..........................................................................................................................140
F-8. Using socat with proxy connect.......................................................................................................140
F-9. Using socat perform SSL.................................................................................................................140
F-10. Connecting one end of socat to a file descriptor............................................................................140
F-11. Connecting socat to a serial line ....................................................................................................140
F-12. Using a PTY with socat .................................................................................................................140
F-13. Executing a command with socat ..................................................................................................141
F-14. Connecting one socat to another one.............................................................................................141
F-15. Simple use of tcpclient ..................................................................................................................141
F-16. Specifying the local port which tcpclient should request..............................................................141
F-17. Specifying the local IP to which tcpclient should bind.................................................................141
F-18. IP redirection with xinetd ..............................................................................................................141
F-19. Publishing a service with xinetd....................................................................................................141
F-20. Simple use of tcpserver.................................................................................................................142
F-21. Specifying a CDB for tcpserver....................................................................................................142
F-22. Limiting the number of concurrently accept TCP sessions under tcpserver ................................142
F-23. Specifying a UID for tcpserver’s spawned processes ...................................................................142
F-24. Redirecting a TCP port with redir.................................................................................................142
F-25. Running redir in transparent mode................................................................................................142
F-26. Running redir from another TCP server........................................................................................142
F-27. Specifying a source address for redir’s client side ........................................................................142

G-1. Using ping to test reachability ........................................................................................................144
G-2. Using ping to specify number of packets to send ...........................................................................145
G-3. Using ping to specify number of packets to send ...........................................................................145
G-4. Using ping to stress a network ........................................................................................................146
G-5. Using ping to stress a network with large packets ..........................................................................146
G-6. Recording a network route with ping..............................................................................................147
G-7. Setting the TTL on a ping packet....................................................................................................148
G-8. Setting ToS for a diagnostic ping....................................................................................................148
G-9. Specifying a source address for ping ..............................................................................................149
G-10. Simple usage of traceroute...........................................................................................................150
G-11. Displaying IP socket status with netstat .......................................................................................152
G-12. Displaying IP socket status details with netstat............................................................................153
G-13. Displaying the main routing table with netstat.............................................................................154
G-14. Displaying the routing cache with netstat ....................................................................................154
G-15. Displaying the masquerading table with netstat...........................................................................155
G-16. Viewing an ARP broadcast request and reply with tcpdump.......................................................156
G-17. Viewing a gratuitous ARP packet with tcpdump .........................................................................156
G-18. Viewing unicast ARP packets with tcpdump ...............................................................................156
G-19. tcpdump reporting port unreachable ............................................................................................156
G-20. tcpdump reporting host unreachable ............................................................................................156
G-21. tcpdump reporting net unreachable..............................................................................................157
G-22. Monitoring TCP window sizes with tcpdump..............................................................................157
G-23. Examining TCP flags with tcpdump ............................................................................................157

G-24. Examining TCP acknowledgement numbers with tcpdump........................................................157
G-25. Writing tcpdump data to a file......................................................................................................158
G-26. Reading tcpdump data from a file ................................................................................................158
G-27. Causing tcpdump to use a line buffer...........................................................................................158
G-28. Understanding fragmentation as reported by tcpdump ................................................................158
G-29. Specifying interface with tcpdump ..............................................................................................158
G-30. Timestamp related options to tcpdump ........................................................................................158