Toefl-geology knowledge & vocabulary 托福地理知识与词汇

### Geology Lesson

Welcome to today's geology lesson! We'll explore several fascinating topics about our planet Earth.

#### 1. Plate Tectonics (地球板块运动原理)

**Plate Tectonics** is the theory that explains the movement of Earth's lithosphere (岩石圈), which is divided into several large and small plates (板块). These plates float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere (软流圈) beneath them. The interactions of these plates can cause earthquakes (地震), form mountains (山脉), and create ocean trenches (海沟).

**Key Concepts:**
- **Divergent Boundaries (离散边界):** Plates move apart, creating new crust, often seen at mid-ocean ridges (洋中脊).
- **Convergent Boundaries (汇聚边界):** Plates move towards each other, which can result in one plate being forced beneath another, a process known as subduction (俯冲).
- **Transform Boundaries (转换边界):** Plates slide past one another, leading to earthquakes.

#### 2. Earthquakes and Earth's Internal Structure (地震以及地球内部结构)

**Earthquakes** occur when stress built up along faults (断层) in the Earth's crust is released. The Earth's internal structure is composed of several layers:

**Layers of the Earth:**
- **Crust (地壳):** The thin, outermost layer of the Earth.
- **Mantle (地幔):** A thick layer of rock that makes up most of Earth's volume.
- **Core (地核):** Composed of a liquid outer core (外核) and a solid inner core (内核), primarily made of iron and nickel.

Seismic waves (地震波) generated by earthquakes help scientists study the interior of the Earth.

#### 3. Glaciers, Ice Ages, and Resulting Landforms (冰川，冰川期以及相应地貌的形成)

**Glaciers** are massive, slow-moving sheets of ice (冰川), which shape the landscape through processes like erosion (侵蚀) and deposition (沉积). During **Ice Ages (冰川期)**, large parts of Earth are covered with ice sheets, dramatically altering the geography.

**Key Landforms:**
- **Moraines (冰碛):** Accumulations of dirt and rocks that have been pushed along by a glacier.
- **U-shaped Valleys (U形谷):** Formed by the erosive action of glaciers.
- **Fjords (峡湾):** Deep, glacially carved valleys that are flooded by the sea.

#### 4. Volcanoes (火山)

**Volcanoes** are openings in Earth's crust that allow magma (岩浆), ash (火山灰), and gases to escape. They are typically found at tectonic plate boundaries, especially convergent and divergent boundaries.

**Types of Volcanoes:**
- **Shield Volcanoes (盾状火山):** Broad, gently sloping sides, formed by low-viscosity lava flows (熔岩流).
- **Stratovolcanoes (复式火山):** Steep, explosive volcanoes with layers of lava and ash.
- **Cinder Cone Volcanoes (火山渣锥):** Small, steep-sided volcanoes built from volcanic debris.

Volcanic eruptions can create new landforms, affect climate, and impact human activities.

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### Conclusion

Geology helps us understand the dynamic processes that shape our planet. By studying plate tectonics, earthquakes, glaciers, and volcanoes, we gain insight into Earth's past, present, and future.

### 翻译

欢迎来到今天的地质学课程！我们将探索关于地球的一些迷人的主题。

#### 1. 地球板块运动原理

**板块构造理论**解释了地球岩石圈的运动，岩石圈被分为若干大大小小的板块。这些板块漂浮在其下方的半流体软流圈上。这些板块的相互作用可以引发地震、形成山脉和创造海沟。

**关键概念：**
- **离散边界：** 板块分离，形成新的地壳，常见于洋中脊。
- **汇聚边界：** 板块相互靠近，导致一个板块被迫进入另一个板块下方，这一过程称为俯冲。
- **转换边界：** 板块相互滑动，导致地震。

#### 2. 地震以及地球内部结构

**地震**发生在地壳的断层上积累的应力被释放时。地球的内部结构由几个层次组成：

**地球的层次：**
- **地壳：** 地球的薄而最外层。
- **地幔：** 由岩石构成的厚层，占据了地球的大部分体积。
- **地核：** 由液态的外核和固态的内核组成，主要由铁和镍构成。

由地震产生的地震波帮助科学家研究地球的内部结构。

#### 3. 冰川，冰川期以及相应地貌的形成

**冰川**是巨大的、缓慢移动的冰层，通过侵蚀和沉积塑造地形。在**冰川期**，地球的大部分被冰盖覆盖，显著改变了地理特征。

**关键地貌：**
- **冰碛：** 冰川推移过程中积累的泥土和岩石。
- **U形谷：** 由冰川的侵蚀作用形成。
- **峡湾：** 由冰川切割的深谷，被海水淹没。

#### 4. 火山

**火山**是地壳上的开口，允许岩浆、火山灰和气体逸出。它们通常位于板块边界，特别是汇聚和离散边界。

**火山类型：**
- **盾状火山：** 较宽广、坡度平缓，由低粘度的熔岩流形成。
- **复式火山：** 陡峭的爆炸性火山，由熔岩和火山灰层构成。
- **火山渣锥：** 小型、坡度陡峭的火山，由火山碎屑构成。

火山喷发可以创造新的地貌，影响气候并对人类活动产生影响。

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### 结论

地质学帮助我们理解塑造地球的动态过程。通过研究板块构造、地震、冰川和火山，我们可以洞察地球的过去、现在和未来。如果你对今天的课程有任何问题，请随时问！

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### TOEFL Exam Questions

#### Reading Comprehension

**Question:** According to the passage, what are the main interactions between tectonic plates, and what geographical features do they create?

**Answer & Strategy:** The main interactions between tectonic plates include divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform boundaries. These interactions create new crust at divergent boundaries, form mountains and ocean trenches at convergent boundaries, and cause earthquakes at transform boundaries. The strategy is to identify key terms related to plate tectonics and their effects.

#### Integrated Writing

**Task:** Summarize the relationship between glaciers and the landforms they create. Use information from the passage to support your summary.

**Answer & Strategy:** Glaciers, as massive ice sheets, shape the landscape through erosion and deposition. They create landforms such as moraines, U-shaped valleys, and fjords. The strategy is to focus on how glaciers transform the earth's surface and provide examples from the text.

#### Integrated Speaking

**Task:** Explain how volcanic eruptions can impact climate and human activities, using details from the lesson.

**Answer & Strategy:** Volcanic eruptions release ash and gases into the atmosphere, which can affect climate by blocking sunlight and cooling the Earth. They also impact human activities by damaging infrastructure and affecting agriculture. The strategy is to clearly articulate the cause-and-effect relationship between volcanic eruptions and their broader impacts, using specific examples from the passage.

【注】

学生：老师，我们今天来学习一下“asthenosphere”这个词吧。能帮我们详细讲解一下吗？

老师：当然可以！首先，“asthenosphere”的音标是/æˈsθɛnəˌsfɪr/。这个词可以分成两个部分：astheno- 和 -sphere。astheno- 来自希腊语，意思是“无力的”或“弱的”，而 -sphere 意指“球体”或“层”。所以，asthenosphere 从字面上可以理解为“弱层”。

学生：那这个词有哪些常见的意思呢？

老师：在地质学中，asthenosphere 指的是地球内部的一层，大约位于地壳和地幔之间。它是一层相对柔软、可流动的固体，支持着更硬的岩石圈（lithosphere）。

学生：有没有这个词的语法变形呢？

老师：asthenosphere 是一个名词，没有常见的语法变形。不过在使用时，可以用形容词形式，如“asthenospheric”，指“与软流圈相关的”。

学生：那在专业领域中，这个词有什么特殊的意思吗？

老师：在地质学中，asthenosphere 是指软流圈，它的存在对于板块构造理论非常重要，因为它允许地壳板块在其上移动。

学生：您能教我们一些助记法吗？

老师：当然。你可以把 asthenosphere 想成“a + stone + sphere”，即“一个无力的石头层”，这样可以帮助你记住它是一个较为柔软的地球层。

学生：有没有近义词和反义词呢？

老师：近义词可能是“mantle”（地幔），虽然地幔更广泛，但它包括了软流圈。反义词可能是“lithosphere”（岩石圈），因为岩石圈是坚硬且不易流动的。

学生：可以给我们举个例子吗？

老师：当然。例句：The lithosphere floats on the more fluid asthenosphere, allowing tectonic plates to move.（岩石圈漂浮在更流动的软流圈上，这允许地壳板块移动。）

学生：能给我们设定一个应用情景并造句吗？

老师：假设你在学习地质学课程，你可以说：“Understanding the properties of the asthenosphere is crucial for comprehending plate tectonics.”（理解软流圈的性质对于理解板块构造是至关重要的。）

学生：可以设计几个练习题吗？

老师：当然。练习题如下：

1. 请解释 asthenosphere 的作用在板块构造中的重要性。
2. 指出以下哪个层是 asthenosphere 的反义词：
   a) crust (地壳)
   b) lithosphere (岩石圈)
   c) core (地核)

解题思路：

1. 在回答时，考虑软流圈的流动性如何帮助地壳板块移动。
2. 找到描述与软流圈性质相反的层。

标准答案：

1. Asthenosphere allows tectonic plates to move due to its semi-fluid nature, which is essential for plate tectonics.（软流圈的半流体性质允许地壳板块移动，这对板块构造至关重要。）
2. b) lithosphere（岩石圈）

学生：谢谢老师，今天的学习让我对“asthenosphere”有了更深入的了解！

老师：不客气，希望这些信息对你们有帮助！继续加油学习！