数二-导数与微分

导数

*定义

$f^{\prime }(x_0)=\underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0}=\underset{\Delta x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{f(x_0+\Delta x)-f(x_0)}{\Delta x}$

例题

$设f(x)连续，且对于任意x，y\in (-\infty ,+\infty )有f(x+y)=f(x)+f(y)+2xy，f^{\prime }(0)=1,求f(x).$

解：
$由题意易知f(0)=2f(0)，则f(0)=0.$

$\begin{array}{rl}{f}^{\prime }(x_0)=& \underset{\Delta x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{f(x_0+\Delta x)-f(x_0)}{\Delta x}\\ =& \underset{\Delta x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{f(x_0)+f(\Delta x)+2x_0\Delta x-f(x_0)}{\Delta x}\\ =& \underset{\Delta x\to 0}{\lim }[\frac{f(\Delta x)-f(0)}{\Delta x}+2x_0]\\ =& f^{\prime }(0)+2x_0\\ =& 2x_0+1\end{array}$

$\therefore f^{\prime }(x)=2x+1$

$\therefore f(x)=x^2+x+C$

$又\because f(0)=0$

$f(x)=x^2+x$

基础

基础数值

• $e=2.7\dots$
• $\sqrt{2}=1.414\dots$
• $\sqrt{3}=1.732\dots$
• $\sqrt[3]{3}=1.44\dots$
• ${\int }_0^{\pi }\sin x=2$

标根穿线

$A{x}^{max},A>0,从右上开始画，遵循“奇穿偶不穿”的原则，A<0，则从右下开始画。$

基本公式

$\{\begin{array}{l}(x^a{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=a{x}^{a-1}\{\begin{array}{l}(\sqrt{x}{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\frac{1}{2\sqrt{x}}\\ (\frac{1}{x}{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=-\frac{1}{x^2}\end{array}\\ (a^x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=a^x\ln (a);(e^x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=e^x\\ ({\log }_{a}x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\frac{1}{x\ln (a)};(\ln x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\frac{1}{x}\\ (\sin x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\cos x;\\ (\cos x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=-\sin x;\\ (\tan x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}={\sec }^{2}x\\ (\cot x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=-{\csc }^{2}x\\ (\sec x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\sec x\tan x\\ (\csc x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=-\csc x\cot x\\ (\arcsin x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}\\ (\arccos x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=-\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}\\ (\arctan x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=\frac{1}{1+x^2}\\ (arccotx{)}^{{}^{\prime }}=-\frac{1}{1+x^2}\end{array}$

导数微分四则

$$\begin{gathered} [u(x)+v(x){]}^{{}^{\prime }}=u(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}+v(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}d[u(x)+v(x)]=d[u(x)]+d[v(x)] \\ [u(x)v(x){]}^{{}^{\prime }}=u(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}v(x)+u(x)v(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}d[u(x)v(x)]=d[u(x)]v(x)+u(x)d[v(x)] \\ [u_1(x)u_2(x)\dots u_n(x){]}^{{}^{\prime }}=u_1(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}{u}_2(x)\dots u_n(x)+u_1(x)u_2(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}\dots u_n(x)+u_1(x)u_2(x)\dots u_n(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }} \\ [\frac{u(x)}{v(x)}{]}^{{}^{\prime }}=\frac{u(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}v(x)-u(x)v(x{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}{v(x{)}^2} \\ d[\frac{u(x)}{v(x)}]=\frac{d[u(x)]v(x)-u(x)d[v(x)]}{v(x{)}^2} \end{gathered}$$

高阶导数

$\{\begin{array}{l}归纳法\\ 莱布尼兹公式\\ 泰勒展开式\end{array}$

归纳法

例：$y=\ln (2x-1)求：y^{(n)}$

$$\begin{gathered} y^{{}^{\prime }}=2\ast (2x-1{)}^{-1} \\ {y}^{{}^{\prime \prime }}=2\ast 2\ast (-1)\ast (2x-1{)}^{-2} \\ \dots \\ {y}^{(n)}=\frac{2^n\ast (-1{)}^{n-1}\ast (n-1)!}{(2x-1{)}^n} \end{gathered}$$

莱布尼兹公式

例：$y=x^2\ln (1+x)求：y^{(8)}$

$$\begin{gathered} y^{(8)}=C_8^0{x}^2\ast \ln (1+x{)}^{(8)} \\ +C_8^{1}2x\ast \ln (1+x{)}^{(7)} \\ +C_8^{2}2\ast \ln (1+x{)}^{(6)} \\ \ln (x+1{)}^{(6)}=\frac{(-1{)}^5\ast 5!}{(x+1{)}^6} \\ \ln (x+1{)}^{(7)}=\frac{(-1{)}^6\ast 6!}{(x+1{)}^7} \\ \ln (x+1{)}^{(8)}=\frac{(-1{)}^7\ast 7!}{(x+1{)}^8} \end{gathered}$$

$\star$泰勒展开式

$f(x)=f(x_0)+f^{\prime }(x_0)(x-x_0)+\frac{f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)}{2!}(x-x_0{)}^2+\cdots +\frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}(x-x_0{)}^n+R(x^n)$
根据展开式的唯一性，通过比较 $(x-x_0{)}^n$ 的系数，得到 $f^{(n)}(x_0)$.

例：$f(x)=(x-1{)}^5{e}^{-x}，求f^{(10)}(1)$

1. f(x)展开式 $(x-1{)}^{10}$ 的系数=$\frac{f^{(10)}(1)}{10!}$
2. $(x-1{)}^5\ast e^{-x}展开式=(x-5{)}^{10}，\frac{(e^{-x_0}{)}^{(5)}}{5!}(x-x_0{)}^5{|}_{x_0=1}=\frac{-e^{-1}}{5!}(x-1{)}^5$
3. $\frac{-e^{-1}}{5!}=\frac{f^{(10)}(1)}{10!}\therefore f^{(10)}(1)=-\frac{10!e^{-1}}{5!}$

隐式函数求导数

1. 等式两边同时对x求导
2. $\frac{dy}{dx}=-\frac{F_x^{\prime }}{F_y^{\prime }}$

例：$2^{xy}=x^2+y+1求：\frac{dy}{dx}{|}_{x=0}$

$$\begin{gathered} x=0\to y=0 \\ {2}^{xy}\ast \ln 2\ast (y+x\frac{dy}{dx})=2x+\frac{dy}{dx} \\ 当x=0,y=0时，\frac{dy}{dx}=0 \end{gathered}$$

例：$\arctan \frac{y}{x}=\frac{1}{2}\ln (x^2+y^2)求：\frac{dy}{dx}$

$\frac{1}{1+(\frac{y}{x}{)}^2}\ast \frac{\frac{dy}{dx}x-y}{x^2}=\frac{1}{2}\ast \frac{2x+2y\frac{dy}{dx}}{x^2+y^2}$
$\frac{dy}{dx}x-y=x+y\frac{dy}{dx}$
$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{x+y}{x-y}$

例:$\{\begin{array}{l}x=\ln (1+t^2)\\ y=\arctan t\end{array}求\frac{dy}{dx}$

$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{\frac{1}{1+t^2}}{\frac{2t}{1+t^2}}=\frac{1}{2t}$

隐函数二阶导数

$\{\begin{array}{l}x=\Phi (t)\\ y=\Psi (t)\end{array}\Psi (t),\Phi (t)二阶可导，且\Phi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}\ne 0$
$\frac{d^{2}y}{d{x}^2}=\frac{d[\frac{\Psi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}{\Phi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}]}{dx}=\frac{\frac{d}{dt}[\frac{\Psi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}{\Phi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}]}{\frac{dx}{dt}}=\frac{[\frac{\Psi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}{\Phi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}{]}^{{}^{\prime }}}{\Phi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}}=\frac{\Psi (t{)}^{\prime \prime }\Phi (t{)}^{\prime }-\Phi (t{)}^{\prime \prime }\Psi (t{)}^{\prime }}{[\Phi (t{)}^{{}^{\prime }}{]}^3}$

例：$\{\begin{array}{l}x=t-\sin t\\ y=1-\cos t\end{array}求\frac{d^{2}y}{d{x}^2}$

$$\begin{gathered} \frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{\sin t}{1-cos} \\ \frac{d^{2}y}{d{x}^2}=\frac{[\frac{\sin t}{1-\cos t}{]}^{{}^{\prime }}}{1-\cos t}=\frac{\frac{\cos t(1-\cos t)-{\sin }^{2}t}{(1-\cos t{)}^2}}{1-\cos t}= \\ -\frac{1}{(1-\cos t{)}^2} \end{gathered}$$

反函数求导

$f^{{}^{\prime }}(x)=\frac{1}{{\phi }^{{}^{\prime }}(y)}\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{1}{\frac{dx}{dy}}$

反函数二阶导数

$f^{{}^{\prime \prime }}(x)=\frac{d^{2}y}{d{x}^2}=\frac{d(\frac{dy}{dx})}{dx}=\frac{d(\frac{1}{x_y^{\prime }})}{dx}=\frac{d(\frac{1}{x_y^{\prime }})}{dy}\ast \frac{dy}{dx}=-\frac{x_y^{\prime \prime }}{{x_y^{\prime }}^2}\frac{1}{x_y^{\prime }}=-\frac{x_y^{\prime \prime }}{{x_y^{\prime }}^3}$
$\{\begin{array}{l}{y}_x^{\prime \prime }=-\frac{x_y^{\prime \prime }}{{x_y^{\prime }}^3}\\ x_y^{\prime \prime }=-\frac{y_x^{\prime \prime }}{{y_x^{\prime }}^3}\end{array}$

重点

基础推论

• $若f(x)在x=x_0处连续，且\underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x-x_0}=A（存在）,则f(x_0)=0且f^{{}^{\prime }}(x_0)=A.$
• $f(x)在x=x_0处二阶可导，且f^{\prime }(x_0)=0,f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)\ne 0，则在x=x_0有极值.$
• $f(x)在x=x_0的某邻域内三阶可导，且f^{\prime }’(x_0)=0,f{‘}^{\prime \prime }(x_0)\ne 0，则(x_0,f(x_0))为拐点.$

复合函数求导

f [ g ( x ) ] ′ = d { f [ g ( x ) ] } d x        f ′ [ g ( x ) ] = d { f [ g ( x ) ] } d [ g ( x ) ] f[g(x)]^{'}=\cfrac{d\{f[g(x)]\}}{dx}\ \ \ \ \ \ f^{'}[g(x)]=\cfrac{d\{f[g(x)]\}}{d[g(x)]} f[g(x)]′=dxd{f[g(x)]}​      f′[g(x)]=d[g(x)]d{f[g(x)]}​

求导公式拓展

$[\ln |f(x)|{]}^{\prime }=\frac{f^{\prime }(x)}{f(x)}$

$[\ln (x+\sqrt{x^2+A}){]}^{\prime }=\frac{1}{\sqrt{x^2+A}}$

$(\frac{x-a}{x+a}{)}^{\prime }=\frac{-2a}{(x+a{)}^2}$

$(\frac{x+a}{x-a}{)}^{\prime }=\frac{2a}{(x-a{)}^2}$

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微分

*定义

$增量\Delta y=f(x+\Delta x_0)-f(x)，若存在与\Delta x无关的常数使得\Delta y=A\Delta x+o(x)，A\Delta x$称为线性主部$，o(x)为误差，称f(x)在x_0处可微，并称A\Delta x为f(x)在x_0处的微分。$

$\begin{array}{rl}dy{|}_{x=x_0}& =A\Delta x\\ & =f^{{}^{\prime }}(x_0)\Delta x\\ & =f^{{}^{\prime }}(x_0)dx\end{array}$

注意

df(x)问题

• 题目为求$df(x)$，注意结果为g(x) dx形式

一阶微分形式不变

$df(■)=f^{{}^{\prime }}(■)d■$

积分求导公式

$f(x)={\int }_{h(x)}^{g(x)}f(t)dt$

$f^{\prime }(x)=g^{\prime }(x)f[g(x)]-h^{\prime }(x)f[h(x)]$

例题

$f(x)={\int }_0^1|x-y|\sin \sqrt{y}dy(0<x<1)，求f^{\prime \prime }(x)$

解：
$\begin{array}{rl}f(x)=& {\int }_0^x(x-y)\sin \sqrt{y}dy+{\int }_x^1(y-x)\sin \sqrt{y}dy\\ =& x{\int }_0^x\sin \sqrt{y}dy-{\int }_0^{x}y\sin \sqrt{y}dy+{\int }_x^{1}y\sin \sqrt{y}dy-x{\int }_x^1\sin \sqrt{y}dy\end{array}$
$f^{\prime }(x)={\int }_0^x\sin \sqrt{y}dy-{\int }_x^1\sin \sqrt{y}dy$

$f^{\prime \prime }(x)=2\sin \sqrt{x}$

函数图像性质

极大值极小值判定

注意：在x处取极值，并不需要保证在x点处的函数状态。

1. 求函数的二阶导数，将极值点代入，二级导数值>0, 为极小值点，反之为极大值点

2. 判断极值点左右邻域的导数值的正负：左+右- 为极大值点，左-右+ 为极小值点，左右正负不变，不是极值点。

3. $\star f(x)在x=x_0处二阶可导，且f^{\prime }(x_0)=0,f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)\ne 0,则f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)<0，f(x)在x=x_0处取极大值，f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)>0，f(x)在x=x_0处取极小值。$

拐点

• 连续曲线 凹弧与凸弧的分界点，写作 $(x_0,f(x_0))$。
• $\star f(x)在x=x_0处三阶可导，且f^{\prime }(x_0)=0,f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)\ne 0,则(x_0,f(x_0))为拐点。$

驻点

一阶导数为零。

渐近线

• 铅锤渐近线
  $\underset{x\to {x_0}^{+}}{\lim }f(x)=\infty 或\underset{x\to {x_0}^{-}}{\lim }f(x)=\infty ，则x=x_0为一条铅锤渐近线$
• 水平渐近线
  $$\begin{gathered} 若\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }f(x)=y_1，则y=y_1为一条水平渐近线； \\ 若\underset{x\to -\infty }{\lim }f(x)=y_2，则y=y_2为一条水平渐近线 \end{gathered}$$
• 斜渐近线
  $$\begin{gathered} 若\underset{x\to -\infty }{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x}=k_1,\underset{x\to -\infty }{\lim }[f(x)-k_{1}x]=b_1,则y=k_{1}x+b_1是y=f(x)的一条斜渐近线； \\ 若\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x}=k_2,\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }[f(x)-k_{2}x]=b_2,则y=k_{2}x+b_2是y=f(x)的一条斜渐近线； \end{gathered}$$

已知：$\underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }[f(x)-(kx+b)]=0$
$\underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }\frac{f(x)-(kx+b)}{x}=0$
得：$\underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x}=k$
$\underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }[f(x)-kx]=b$

最值或取值范围

1. 闭区间连续函数，必有最大值最小值。
2. $求f^{\prime }(x)不存在，f^{\prime }(x)=0的点，端点,比较大小$

曲率与与曲率半径

• $曲率k=\frac{|y^{\prime \prime }|}{[1+(y^{\prime }{)}^2{]}^{\frac{3}{2}}}$
• $曲率半径R=\frac{1}{k}$

曲率泰勒综合题

$求曲线y=\ln x上曲率最大的点，并在该点处用抛物线y=a{x}^2+bx+c近似代替y=\ln x,求a,b,c$

$y^{\prime }=\frac{1}{x}{y}^{\prime \prime }=-\frac{1}{x^2}$
$\begin{array}{rl}k=& \frac{y^{\prime \prime }}{[1+(y^{\prime }{)}^2{]}^{\frac{3}{2}}}\\ =& \frac{x}{(x^2+1{)}^{\frac{2}{3}}}\end{array}$
$$\begin{gathered} 令f(x)=\frac{x}{(x^2+1{)}^{\frac{2}{3}}} \\ {f}^{\prime }(x)=\frac{1-2x^2}{(x^2+1{)}^{\frac{5}{2}}} \\ 令f^{\prime }(x)=0，则x=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2},x>0 \\ y=\ln x在x=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}处的泰勒展开式为: \\ y=\ln \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}+\sqrt{2}(x-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2})-2(x-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}{)}^2+o(x^2) \\ \because 抛物线y=a{x}^2+bx+c \\ \therefore a=-1,b=2\sqrt{2},c=-\frac{1}{2}\ln 2-\frac{3}{2} \end{gathered}$$

相关变化率

题知 $\frac{dA}{dC}，\frac{dC}{dB}，求\frac{dA}{dB}=\frac{dA}{dC}\ast \frac{dC}{dB}$

$半径为\frac{1}{2}的圆在抛物线x=\sqrt{y}凹的一侧上滚动。$

1. $求圆心(\xi ,\eta )的轨迹方程。$
2. $当圆心以速率V_0匀速上升时，求圆心的横坐标\xi 的增长率。$

$$\begin{gathered} 解: \\ (1)y^{\prime }=2x,法线斜率k=-\frac{1}{2x} \\ 令P(x,x^2)为圆与抛物线相交的点,得切线l: \\ Y-x^2=-\frac{1}{2x}(X-x) \\ (\xi ,\eta )带入得:\eta -x^2=-\frac{1}{2x}(\xi -x)\dots \dots ① \\ \because (\xi ,\eta )到P的距离为\frac{1}{2} \end{gathered}$$

$$\begin{gathered} \therefore (x-\xi {)}^2+(x^2-\eta {)}^2=\frac{1}{4}\dots \dots ② \\ 由①②得: \\ \xi =x-\frac{x}{\sqrt{1+4x^2}}\eta =\frac{1}{2\sqrt{1+4x^2}}+x^2 \\ (2)\frac{d\xi }{dt}=\frac{d\xi }{d\eta }\ast \frac{d\eta }{dt}=\frac{V_0}{2x} \end{gathered}$$

弧微分

$\frac{ds}{d\theta }=\frac{\sqrt{d{x}^2+d{y}^2}}{d\theta }$