光电子学期末复习笔记

复习提纲

概念题

• 麦克斯韦方程组(Maxwell’s Equations)

  $\nabla \times H=J+\frac{\partial D}{\partial t}$

  $\nabla \times E=-\frac{\partial B}{\partial t}$

  $\nabla \cdot B=0$

  $\nabla \cdot D=\rho$

• 波矢：wave vector

  波前：wave front

  光强：light intensity

  折射率：refractive index

• 群速度(group velocity)

  $v_g=\frac{c}{N_g}$，其中$N_g=1-\lambda \frac{dn}{d\lambda }$

• 消逝波(evanescent wave)

  ${\alpha }_2=\frac{2\pi n_2}{\lambda }[(\frac{n_1}{n_2}{)}^2{\sin }^2{\theta }_i-1{]}^{1/2}$

  $\delta =\frac{1}{{\alpha }_2}$(penetration depth)

• 全反射(total internal refraction)

  ${\theta }_c=\arcsin \frac{n_2}{n_1}$

• 斯涅尔定律(snell’s law)

  $n_1\sin {\theta }_1=n_2\sin {\theta }_2$

• 菲涅尔方程(Fresnel’s Equations)

  $r_s=\frac{\cos {\theta }_i-[n^2-{\sin }^2{\theta }_i{]}^{1/2}}{\cos {\theta }_i+[n^2-{\sin }^2{\theta }_i{]}^{1/2}}$

  $t_s=\frac{2\cos {\theta }_i}{\cos {\theta }_i+[n^2-{\sin }^2{\theta }_i{]}^{1/2}}$

  $r_p=\frac{[n^2-{\sin }^2{\theta }_i{]}^{1/2}-n^2\cos {\theta }_i}{[n^2-{\sin }^2{\theta }_i{]}^{1/2}+n^2\cos {\theta }_i}$

  $t_p=\frac{2n\cos {\theta }_i}{[n^2-{\sin }^2{\theta }_i{]}^{1/2}+n^2\cos {\theta }_i}$

  当${\theta }_i=0$时：

  $r_s=r_p=\frac{n_1-n_2}{n_1+n_2}$

  $t_s=t_p=\frac{2n_1}{n_1+n_2}$

  $R=R_s=R_p=(\frac{n_1-n_2}{n_1+n_2}{)}^2$

  $T=T_s=T_p=\frac{4n_1{n}_2}{(n_1+n_2{)}^2}$

• Brewster’s angle

  ${\theta }_p=\arctan \frac{n_2}{n_1}$

• 减反膜原理

  $\frac{2\pi n_2}{\lambda }\cdot 2d=m\pi$，所以$d=m\cdot \frac{\lambda }{4n_2}$

  $R_{min}=(\frac{n_2^2-n_1{n}_3}{n_2^2+n_1{n}_3}{)}^2$，当$n_2=\sqrt{n_1{n}_3}$时，$R_{min}=0$

• 杨氏双缝

  极大值位置：$x=m\cdot D\frac{\lambda }{d}$

  极小值位置：$x=(m+\frac{1}{2})\cdot D\frac{\lambda }{d}$

  $\Delta x=D\cdot \frac{\lambda }{d}$

• 耗尽区：depletion region

  载流子：carrier

  内建电场：built-in electric field

  同质结：homojunction

  异质结：heterojunction

• 质量作用定律(mass action law)

  $np=n_i^2=N_c{N}_v\exp (-\frac{E_g}{k_{B}T})$

  $N_c=\frac{2(2\pi m_e^{\ast }{k}_{B}T{)}^{3/2}}{h^3}$

  $N_v=\frac{2(2\pi m_h^{\ast }{k}_{B}T{)}^{3/2}}{h^3}$

• 费米能(Fermi Energy)

  $E_{F_i}=E_v+\frac{1}{2}{E}_g-\frac{1}{2}{k}_{B}T\ln (\frac{N_c}{N_v})=E_v+\frac{1}{2}{E}_g-\frac{3}{4}{k}_{B}T\ln (\frac{m_e^{\ast }}{m_h^{\ast }})$

• LED发光原理：自发辐射

  • 同质节LED：ｎ区重掺杂，电子到ｐ区复合；缺点：光子被吸收

    $h{\nu }_0=E_g+\frac{1}{2}{k}_{B}T$

  • 异质结LED：限制载流子，减少吸收

  • QWLED：

  • LED效率：

    ${\eta }_{IQE}=\frac{{\tau }_r^{-1}}{{\tau }_r^{-1}+{\tau }_{nr}^{-1}}$

    ${\eta }_{EE}=\frac{P_{o(int)}}{P_o}$

    ${\eta }_{EQE}=\frac{P_o/h\nu }{I/e}$

    ${\eta }_{PCE}=\frac{P_o}{IV}$

    ${\eta }_{LE}=\frac{{\Phi }_{\nu }}{IV}$

    ${\Phi }_{\nu }=P_o\times (633lm{W}^{-1})\times V(\lambda )$

  • LED types

    SLED:surface emitting

    ELED:edge emitting

  • 白光：

    光致发光（光照发光）：蓝光照射黄光LED

• 形成激光的必要条件

  • 受激辐射(stimulated emission)
  • 粒子数反转(population inversion)
  • 谐振腔(resonant cavity)

• 激光的几个特征

  • 同相位(phase)
  • 同传播方向(direction of propagation)
  • 同频率(frequency)
  • 同极化方向(direction of polarization)

• 红宝石激光器发光原理

  红宝石激光器由红宝石棒、脉冲氙灯、聚光器和谐振腔组成

  可看作是一个三能级系统

• 量子阱

  材料构成:窄带隙半导体材料和宽带隙半导体材料

  结构：宽带隙势垒层夹着一个窄带隙超薄层

  能级结构：$E_n=E_c+\frac{h^2{n}^2}{8m_e^{\ast }{d}^2}$

• 光探测器的输入输出

计算题

课本例题

• 1.1.1(P26)

  Consider a He-Ne laser beam at 633 nm with a spot size of 1 mm. Assuming a Gaussian beam, what is the divergence of the beam? What are the Rayleigh range and the beam width at 25 m?

  Solution:

  divergence: $2\theta =\frac{4\lambda }{\pi (2w_o)}$

  Rayleigh range: $z_0=\frac{\pi w_0^2}{\lambda }$

  beam width:$2w=2w_0[1+(\frac{z\lambda }{\pi w_0^2}{)}^2{]}^{1/2}$

• 1.4.2(P37)

  Consider a 5 mW He-Ne laser that is operating at 633 nm, and has a spot size of 1 mm. Find the maximum irradiance of the beam and the axial(maximum) irradiance at 25 m from the laser.

  Solution:

  maximum irradiance of the beam: $I_0=\frac{2P_0}{\pi w_0^2}$

  axial irradiance: $I_{axis}=I_0(\frac{z_0}{z}{)}^2=I_0(\frac{\pi w_0^2}{\lambda z}{)}^2$

• 1.11.1(P73)

  Consider a Farbry-Perot optical cavity made of a semiconductor material with mirrors at its ends. The length of the semiconductor , and hense the cavity, is 250 $\mu$m and mirrors at the ends have a reflectance of 0.90. Calculate the cavity mode nearest to the free-space wavelength of 1310 nm. Calculate the separation of the modes, finesse, spectral width of each mode in width of each mode in frequency and wavelength, and the Q-factor.

  Solution:

  nearest mode: $m=\frac{2nL}{\lambda }=1374.05$

  ​ ${\lambda }_m=\frac{2nL}{m}$

  separation: $\Delta {\nu }_m={\nu }_f=\frac{c}{2nL}$

  finesse:$F=\frac{\pi \sqrt{R}}{1-R}$

  width: $\delta {\nu }_m=\frac{{\nu }_f}{F},\delta {\lambda }_m=\delta (\frac{c}{{\nu }_m})=\left|-\frac{c}{{\nu }_m^2}\right|\delta {\nu }_m$

  Q-factor: $Q=mF$

• 3.3.1(P209)Fermi levels in semiconductors

  An n-type Si wafer has been doped uniformly with $10^{16}$ phosphorus atoms $c{m}^{-3}$. Calculate the position of the Fermi energy with respect to the Fermi energy $E_{F_i}$ in intrisic Si. The above n-type Si sample is further doped with $2\times 10^{17}$ boron atoms $c{m}^{-3}$. Calculate the position of the Fermi energy with respect to the Fermi energy $E_{F_i}$ in intrisic Si at the room temperature(300K), and hence with respect to the Fermi energy in the n-type case above.

  Solution:

  $n=N_c\exp [-\frac{E_c-E_{F_n}}{k_{B}T}]$

  $n_i=N_c\exp [-\frac{E_c-E_{F_i}}{k_{B}T}]$

  $\frac{n}{n_i}=\exp [\frac{E_{F_n}-E_{F_i}}{k_{B}T}]$

  $\therefore E_{F_n}-E_{F_i}=k_{B}T\ln (n/n_i)$

  similarly:$\therefore E_{F_p}-E_{F_i}=-k_{B}T\ln (p/n_i)$

  $\therefore E_{F_n}-E_{F_p}=k_{B}T\ln (n/p)$

• 3.9.1(P237)The built-in voltage from the band diagram

  $e{V}_o={\Phi }_p-{\Phi }_n=E_{F_n}-E_{F_p}(beforecontact)$

  $n=N_c\exp (-\frac{E_c-E_{F_n}}{k_{B}T})$

  $p=N_v\exp (-\frac{E_{F_p}-E_v}{k_{B}T})$

  $\therefore np=N_a{N}_d=N_c{N}_v\exp (-\frac{E_c-E_v+E_{F_p}-E_{F_n}}{k_{B}T})=n_i^2\exp (\frac{F_n-E_{F_p}}{k_{B}T})$

  $e{V}_o=k_{B}T\ln [(N_a{N}_d)/n_i^2]$

• 4.10.1(P336)Modes in a semiconductor laser and the optical cavity length

  Consider an AlGaAs-based heterostructure laser diode that has an optial cavity of length 200$\mu m$. The peak radiation is at 870 nm and the refractive index of GaAs is about 3.6. What is the mode integer m of the peak radiation and the separation between the modes of cavity? If the optial gain vs. wavelength characteristics has a FWHM wavelength width of about 6 nm, how many modes are there within this bandwidth?How many modes are there if the cavity length is 20$\mu m$?

  Solution:

  $m=\frac{2nL}{\lambda }$

  $\Delta {\lambda }_m=\frac{2nL}{m}-\frac{2nL}{m+1}=\frac{2nL}{m^2}=\frac{{\lambda }^2}{2nL}$

  number of modes: $\frac{\Delta {\lambda }_{1/2}}{\Delta {\lambda }_m}$

• 4.11.1(P339)A GaAs quantum well

  Consider a very thin GaAs quantum well sandwiched between two wider bandgap semiconductor layers of AlGaAs. The QW depth from $E_c$ and $E_v$ are approximately 0.28 eV and 0.16 eV, respectively. Effective mass $m_e^{\ast }$ of a conduction electron in GaAs is approximately 0.07$m_e$, where $m_e$ is the electron mass in vacuum. Calculate the first two electron energy levels for a quantum well of thickness 10 nm. What is the hole energy in the QW above $E_v$ of GaAs if the hole effective mass $m_h^{\ast }\approx 0.50m_e$? What is the change oin the emission wavelength with respect to bulk GaAs, for which $E_g=1.42eV$? Assume infinite QW depths for the calculations.

  Solution:

  ${\epsilon }_n=E_n-E_c=\frac{h^2{n}^2}{8m_e^{\ast }{d}^2}$

  ${\epsilon }_{n\prime }=E_v-E_n=\frac{h^{2}n{\prime }^2}{8m_h^{\ast }{d}^2}$

  ${\lambda }_g=\frac{hc}{E_g}$

  ${\lambda }_{QW}=\frac{hc}{E_g+{\epsilon }_1+{\epsilon }_1^{\prime }}$

• 4.12.1(P346)Laser output wavelength wariation with temperature

  The refractive index n of GaAs is approximately 3.6 and it has a temperature dependence $dn/dT\approx 2.0\times 10^{-4}{K}^{-1}$. Estimate the change in th emitted wavelength at around 870 nm per degree change in the temperature for a given mode.

  Solution:

  $\frac{d{\lambda }_m}{dT}=\frac{d}{dT}[\frac{2}{m}nL]=\frac{2L}{m}\frac{dn}{dT}=\frac{{\lambda }_m}{n}\frac{dn}{dT}$

课后习题

• 1.1Maxwell’s wave equation and plane waves

  $\frac{{\partial }^{2}E}{\partial x^2}+\frac{{\partial }^{2}E}{\partial y^2}+\frac{{\partial }^{2}E}{\partial z^2}-{\epsilon }_0{\epsilon }_r{\mu }_0\frac{{\partial }^{2}E}{\partial t^2}=0$

• 3.6Electrons in GaAs

  Given that the electron effective mass $m_e^{\ast }$ for the GaAs is 0.067$m_e$, calculate the thermal velocity of electrons in the CB of a nondegenately doped GaAs at room temperture. If ${\mu }_e$ is the drift mobility of the electrons and ${\tau }_e$ the mean free time between electron scaterring everents and if ${\mu }_e=e{\tau }_e/m_e^{\ast }$, calculate ${\tau }_e$, given ${\mu }_e=8500c{m}^2{V}^{-1}{s}^{-1}$. Calculate the drift velocity $v_d={\mu }_{e}E$ of the CB electrons in an applied field E of $10^{5}V{m}^{-1}$.

  Solution:

  $\frac{1}{2}{m}_e^{\ast }{v}_{th}^2=\frac{3}{2}{k}_{B}T$

  ${\tau }_e=\frac{m_e^{\ast }{\mu }_e}{e}$

  $v_d={\mu }_{e}E$

• 3.9Compensation doping in n-type Si

  An n-type Si sample has been doped with $10^{16}$ phosphorus atoms $c{m}^{-3}$. ( a )What are the electron and hole concentrations?( b )Calculate the room temperature conductivety of the sample. ( c )Where is the Fermi level with respect to $E_{F_i}$? ( d )If we now dope the crystal with $10^{17}$ boron acceptors, what will be the electron and hole concentrations? ( e )Where is the Fermi level with respect to $E_{F_i}$.

  Solution:

  ( a ) $n=N_d,p=n_i^2/n$

  ( b )$\sigma =en{\mu }_e+ep{\mu }_h$

  ( c )$n=N_c\exp (-\frac{E_{-}{E}_{F_n}}{k_{B}T})$

  $n_i=N_c\exp (-\frac{E_c-E_{F_i}}{k_{B}T})$

  $n/n_i=\exp (\frac{E_{F_n}-E_{F_i}}{k_{B}T})$

  $E_{F_n}-E_{F_i}=k_{B}T\ln (N_d/n_i)$

  ( d )$p=N_a-N_d,n=n_i^2/p$

  ( e )$E_{F_p}-E_{F_i}=k_{B}T\ln (n_i/p)$

• 3.29LED efficients

  A partiaclar 890 nm IR LED for use instrumentation has an AlGaAs chip. The cative region has been doped p-type with $4\times 10^{17}c{m}^{-3}$ of acceptors and the nonradiative lifetime is about 60 ns. At a forward current of 50 mA, the voltage across it is 1.4 V, and the emitted optical power is 10 mW. Calculate the PCE, IQE, EQE, and estimate the light eatration ratio. For AlGaAs, $B\approx 1\times 10^{16}{m}^3{s}^{-1}$.

  Solution:

  ${\tau }_r=\frac{1}{B{N}_a}$

  ${\eta }_{IQE}=\frac{{\tau }_r^{-1}}{{\tau }_r^{-1}+{\tau }_{nr}^{-1}}$

  ${\eta }_{PCE}=\frac{P_o}{IV}$

  ${\eta }_{EQE}=\frac{P_o/h\nu }{I/E}$

  ${\eta }_{EE}={\eta }_{IWQ}/{\eta }_{EWQ}$

• 4.13 Photon concentration in a gas laser

  The Ar ion laser has a strong lasing emission at 488 nm. The laser tube is 1 m in length, and the bore diameter is 3 mm. The output power is 1 W. Assume that most of the out put power is in the 488 nm emission. Assume that the tube end has a transittance T of 0.1. Calcultate the photon output flow, photon flux, and estimate the order of magnitude of the steady state photon concentration in the tube.

  Solution:

  $PhotonFlow=\frac{P_o}{h\nu }$

  ${\Gamma }_{ph}=\frac{P_o}{Ah\nu }$

  $\frac{P_o}{h\nu }=T\frac{n_{ph}AL}{\Delta t}$

  $\Delta t=2L/c$

  $n_{ph}=\frac{P_o}{TAch\nu }$

• constant

  $k_B=1.38\times 10^{-23}J/K$

  $h=6.626\times 10^{-34}J\cdot s$

  $m_e=9.10956\times 10^{-31}kg$

  $e=1.602\times 10^{-19}C$