离散数学 Discrete Mathematics

Chapter 2 Logic of Compound statements

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Statement ：

Definition: A statement (or proposition) is a sentence that is true or false but not both.

Propositional logic deals with statements and their truth value

Logic：

Definition ：The study of formal reasoning based upon statements (or propositions)

Logic ：

◼ Defines a formal language for representing knowledge and for making logical inferences

◼ Helps us to understand how to construct a valid argument

Argument：

Definition ：A sequence of statements aimed at demonstrating the truth of an assertion

◼ An argument consists of a sequence of statements called premises and a conclusion

◼ An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the premises are all true

Compound Statements：

Compound statements are constructed from logical connectives and other propositions

Negation

Definition :

◼ If p is a statement variable, the negation of p is “not p” or “It is not the case that p” and is denoted ∼p

◼ It has opposite truth value from p

if p is true, ∼p is false; if p is false, ∼p is true

Truth table:

P	~P
T	F
F	T

Conjunction :

Definition :If p and q are statement variables, the conjunction of p and q is “p and q,” denoted p ∧ q

Truth table:

p	q	p ∧ q
T	T	T
T	F	F
F	T	F
F	F	F

Disjunction :

Definition: If p and q are statement variables, the disjunction of p and q is “p or q,” denoted p ∨ q

Truth table:

p	q	p ∨ q
T	T	T
T	F	T
F	T	T
F	F	F

Exclusive Or:

Definition: If p and q are statement variables, "p exclusive or q" denoted by p ⊕ q is true when exactly one of p and q is true and it is false otherwise

Truth table :

p	q	p ⊕ q
T	T	F
T	F	T
F	T	T
F	F	F

English words of p ⊕ q :

◼ p or q but not both

◼ p or q and not both p and q

Truth table:

p	q	p ∨ q	p ∧ q	~(p ∧ q)	(p ∨ q)∧~(p ∧ q)
T	T	T	T	F	F
T	F	T	F	T	T
F	T	T	F	T	T
F	F	F	F	T	F

Logical Equivalence :

Definition :

◼ Two statement forms are called logically equivalent if, and only if, they have identical truth values

◼ The logical equivalence of statement forms P and Q is denoted by writing P ≡ Q

De Morgan’s Law:

Definition :

◼ The negation of and statement is logically equivalent to or statement in which each component is negated

◼ The negation of or statement is logically equivalent to and statement in which each component is negated

Truth table:

p	q	~p	~q	p ∧ q	~(p ∧ q)	~p∨~q
T	T	F	F	T	F	F
T	F	F	T	F	T	T
F	T	T	F	F	T	T
F	F	T	T	F	T	T

Tautologies and Contradictions :

Definition :

◼ A tautology is statement form that is always true regardless of the truth values of individual statements

◼ A contradiction is statement form that is always false regardless of the truth values of the individual

statements

If t is a tautology and c is a contradiction, then p ∧ t ≡ p and p ∧ c ≡ c

Logical Equivalence：

Commutative laws	p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p	p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
Associative laws	(p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)	(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r )
Distributive laws	p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )	p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
Identity laws	p ∧ t ≡ p	p ∨ c ≡ p
Negation laws	p ∨ ∼p ≡ t	p ∧ ∼p ≡ c
Double negative law	∼(∼p) ≡ p	∼(∼p) ≡ p
Idempotent laws	p ∧ p ≡ p	p ∧ p ≡ p
Universal bound laws	p ∨ t ≡ t	p ∧ c ≡ c
De Morgan’s laws	∼(p ∧ q) ≡ ∼p ∨ ∼q	∼(p ∨ q) ≡ ∼p ∧ ∼q
Absorption laws	p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p	p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
Negations of t and c	∼t ≡ c	∼c ≡ t

Conditional (Implication) ：

Definition：

◼ If p and q are statement variables, the conditional of q by p is “If p then q” or “p implies q” and is denoted p →q

◼ It is false when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true We call p the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) of the conditional and q the conclusion (or consequence)

Truth table：

p	q	p → q
T	T	T
T	F	F
F	T	T
F	F	T

A conditional statement that is true by virtue of the fact that its hypothesis is false is often called vacuously true or true by default

Expression of p → q :

Logical equivalence:

(p ∨ q) → r ≡ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)

Conditional Statement	(p ∨ q) → r ≡ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)
If-Then As Or	p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q
Negation of If-then	~(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ~q

Converse and Inverse:

Definition:

◼ The converse of p →q is q → p

◼ The inverse of p →q is ~p → ~q

Contrapositive ：

Definition :

• The contrapositive of a conditional statement "If p then q"is lf ~q then ~p

• Symbolically the contrapositive of p →q is ~q →~p

A condition statement is logically equivalent to its contrapositive

Only If and If-Then :

Meaning of “only if” :

◼ “p only if q” means “if not q then not p”

◼ Equivalently “if p then q”

Biconditional :

Definitation :

◼ Biconditional of p and q is “p if and only if q” and is denoted p ↔ q

◼ It is true if both p and q have the same truth values and is false if p and q have opposite truth values

◼ if and only if are abbreviated iff

Meaning :

◼ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)

◼ q → p can be written “p if q” and p → q can be written “p only if q”

◼ p ↔ q means “p if q and p only if q”

◼ Often written “p if and only if q”

Truth table:

p	p	p ↔ q
T	T	T
T	F	F
F	T	F
F	F	T

Sufficient and Necessary conditions :

Definition :

◼ r is a sufficient condition for s means “if r then s”

◼ r is a necessary condition for s means “if not r then not s” also “if s then r”

◼ r is a necessary and sufficient condition for s means “r if and only if s''

Argument :

Definition :

◼ An argument is a sequence of statements

◼ An argument form is a sequence of statement forms

Valid Argument Form :

Definition:

◼ An argument form consisting of two premises and a conclusion is called a syllogism

Proof by Contradiction :

反证法

Fallacies ：

A fallacy is an error in reasoning that results in an invalid argument

Three common fallacies：

• Vague or ambiguous premises

• Circular reasoning

• Jumping to conclusions

Converse Error：

◼ Form: p → q

q

∴ p

Inverse Error：

◼ Form: p → q

~p

∴ ~q

Definitation：

◼ An argument is called sound if and only if, it is valid and all its premises are true

◼ An argument that is not sound is called unsound

Valid Argument Forms ：

Boolean Expression for Circuit ：

Recognizer is a circuit that outputs a 1 for exactly one particular combination of input signals and outputs 0’s for all other combinations