《Imaging Systems For Medical Diagnostics》——12. X-ray components and systems (1) X射线组件和系统（1）

《Imaging System 医学影像》@EnzoReventon

《Imaging Systems For Medical Diagnostics》——12.X-ray components and systems——12.1 The X-ray tube X光射线管

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12.1 The X-ray tube X射线管
12.2 X-ray generators X射线发生器
12.3 X-ray image detectors X射线图像探测器
12.4 X-ray systems X射线系统
12.5 Cone-beam CT with C-arm systems 带C臂系统的5锥束CT
12.6 Mammography 乳房X线照相术

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12.1 The X-ray tube X射线管

The X-ray tube constitutes the source of radiation in an X-ray system and plays a decisive role in determining the degree of image quality produced by the system. The following factors are of primary importance:
X射线管是X射线系统中的辐射源，在确定系统产生的图像质量方面起着决定性的作用。以下因素至关重要：

• Variable radiation hardness (i.e. penetration capacity): the capacity to vary radiation hardness over a wide range by means of the magnitude of the voltage applied to the tube permits optimal adaptation to the object of examination and the method of examination.
  可变辐射硬度（即穿透能力）：通过施加在管子上的电压大小在大范围内改变辐射硬度的能力，允许对检查对象和检查方法进行最佳调整。
  PS.x射线的强度和硬度:中管电流表示强度，管电压表示硬度。
• Variable radiation intensity (dose rate): the capacity to control radiation intensity over a wide range via the tube current offers the same adaptive advantages.可变辐射强度（剂量率）：通过管电流控制宽范围辐射强度的能力提供了相同的自适应优势。
• Focal spot size and energy distribution in the focal spot: these play a role in determining the radiation source’s modulation transfer function (MTF) and thus contribute to contrast and resolving power. 焦斑尺寸和焦斑中的能量分布：它们在确定辐射源的调制传递函数（MTF）中起作用，从而提高对比度和分辨率。

Tungsten emitter:钨发射体
Ceramic bushing:陶瓷衬套
Source for heating current:加热电流的来源
Cathode assembly:阴极组件
HV_generate:高压发生器
Electron beam:电子束
Tungsten target:钨靶
Envelope /at least partially HV_insulating:外壳/至少部分高压绝缘
X_ray window:X射线窗口
X_rays:X光

An evacuated envelope contains devices for high voltage insulation and the cathode assembly, including the emitter and the anode situated opposite one another. The electrons that are released by the emitter at low speed are focused by the shape of the cathode assembly and accelerated to 30 to 65% of the speed of light by the applied high voltage, as can be expressed by:
真空外壳包含用于高压绝缘的装置和阴极组件，包括彼此相对的发射极和阳极。发射极以低速释放的电子通过阴极组件的形状聚焦，并通过施加的高电压加速至光速的30%至65%，如下所示：

e：电子电荷，U：阴极和阳极之间的电压m0：电子质量，c：光速，v：电子速度

The accelerated electrons abruptly decelerate as they strike the anode surface. As described in section 6.1, no more than 1% of the overall electron energy is converted into X-rays. A preponderance of the total energy is converted into unwanted heat, which needs to be dissipated by the anode.加速电子撞击阳极表面时突然减速。如第6.1节所述,不超过总电子能量的1%被转换成X射线。总能量的绝大部分被转化为不需要的热量，需要通过阳极进行散热。

In the following sections, we describe the function of the emitter, the formation of the electron beam and the resulting focal spot, the different types of anodes (including specific types of bearings used in X-ray tubes outfitted with rotating anodes), the calculation of maximum anode loads and their dependency on anode design, the function and the design of tube envelopes and the function and design of tube housings.在以下章节中，我们将介绍发射器的功能、电子束的形成和产生的焦点、不同类型的阳极（包括配备旋转阳极的X射线管中使用的特定类型的轴承）、最大阳极负载的计算及其对阳极设计的依赖性，管壳的功能和设计以及管壳的功能和设计。

12.1.1 Emitters 发射器

The vast majority of X-ray tubes used today are equipped with a cathode assembly consisting of two parts: the electron source (emitter) and the auxiliary electrode surrounding it (Wehnelt electrode). While emitters generally consist of a helically wound tungsten wire with a diameter of 0.2 to 0.3 mm, flat emitters made of tungsten sheet are also used. Both kinds of emitters are heated directly by electrical current. In what follows, we offer a few basic principles of thermionic emission. Readers may wish to refer to the relevant textbooks for a more comprehensive discussion [12.1-12.3].
目前使用的绝大多数X射线管都配备有阴极组件，阴极组件由两部分组成：电子源（发射极）和其周围的辅助电极（韦内尔电极）。而发射器通常由直径为0.2-0.3mm的螺旋缠绕钨丝组成。也使用由钨片制成的3 mm扁平发射器。这两种发射器都由电流直接加热。在接下来的内容中，我们将介绍一些热电子发射的基本原理。读者可以参考相关教科书进行更全面的讨论[12.1-12.3]。

Thermionic emission 热离子发射

Electrons in metal are bound by a 3D potential constituted by their positively charged atomic cores (fig. 12.2). An electron has the capacity to leave the crystal as soon as it acquires sufficient energy (e.g. by means of heating or by the absorption of a photon). The height of the barrier is referred to as the work function W. Typical work function values for metals range from 2 to 5 eV and depend on the degree of crystallographic order, surface orientation and (critically) the purity of the surface (i.e. with regard to adsorbed species or coatings). An electric field E at the surface of the metal can lower the escape barrier by an amount ΔW. The quantum mechanical probability that an electron with an energy level of < (${\epsilon }_{V}ac$ – ΔW) will tunnel through the wall (Schottky effect) increases as E increases. This process is referred to as field emission. Electric field strengths for field emission currents sufficient for technical purposes are obtained in the vicinity of kinks or tip-shaped metal surfaces.金属中的电子被带正电的原子核构成的三维势束缚（图12.2）。一个电子一旦获得足够的能量（例如通过加热或吸收光子），就有能力离开晶体。势垒的高度称为功函数W。金属的典型功函数值范围为2至5 eV（电子伏），取决于结晶顺序、表面取向和（关键的）表面纯度（即吸附物种或涂层）。金属表面的电场E可以将逃逸势垒降低ΔW。能级<（${\epsilon }_{V}ac$ – ΔW）的电子穿过壁的量子力学概率（肖特基效应）随着E的增加而增加。此过程称为场发射。在扭结或尖端形状的金属表面附近获得足以用于技术目的的场发射电流的电场强度。

金属固体中电子的能量图。${\epsilon }_F$：费米能级（${\epsilon }_{V}ac$：真空能级，电子通过固体表面逃逸到真空中所需的最小能量）。固体表面的电势随外部电场E1、2、3的强度而变化。

Assuming that all of the electrons that leave the surface of the solid are removed by outer fields, the actual rate at which they leave the solid will equal the maximum achievable emission current density, i.e. the saturation current density. This density is given by the Richardson-Dushman equation (readers may wish to refer to the texts cited under [12.4, 12.5] for a more thorough discussion):
假设所有离开固体表面的电子都被外场移除，它们离开固体的实际速率将等于可达到的最大发射电流密度，即。E饱和电流密度。该密度由理查森-杜什曼方程给出（读者可能希望参考[12.4,12.5]中引用的文本进行更深入的讨论）：

$j_s$：表面电流密度，h：普朗克常数，W：功函数，k：玻尔兹曼常数，T：固体温度

其中：

E: 外部电场强度,${\epsilon }_0$: 介电真空常数

The derivation of this equation relies on the assumption that every electron with an appropriate energy level and direction may pass the surface. Quantum-mechanical considerations indicate that this is not entirely accurate. When one takes the transmission and reflection probabilities of the metal electrons into account, the saturation current density is reduced to：
这个方程的推导依赖于一个假设，即每一个具有适当能级和方向的电子都可以通过表面。量子力学的考虑表明这并不完全准确。当考虑金属电子的透射和反射概率时，饱和电流密度减小到:

${\epsilon }_F$：费米能量

These equations offer detailed descriptions of the influence that the experimental parameters have on the saturation emission current. Indeed, the above outlined correlations have been used to experimentally determine the work functions of pure metal surfaces. However, it is important to bear in mind that these equations do not permit straightforward quantitative assessments of emitter emission currents in X-ray tubes. The reasons for this are outlined in our discussion of technical emitters below.
这些方程详细描述了实验参数对饱和发射电流的影响。事实上，上述关联式已用于实验确定纯金属表面的功函数。然而，重要的是要记住，这些方程不允许对X射线管中的发射极发射电流进行直接的定量评估。下面我们对技术发射器的讨论概述了产生这种情况的原因。

The direct proportionality of the tube current (i.e. the total electron current between cathode and anode) to the emitter’s saturation current density holds as long as all emitted electrons are taken up by the electric field and accelerated towards the anode. However, a space charge region will form in the vicinity of the emitter surface as the number of emitted electrons increases (e.g. via an increase in the emitter temperature). This space charge modifies the electric field at the emitter surface and leads to a situation in which the tube current is no longer governed by the number of electrons escaping the cathode, but by the total voltage applied between cathode and anode (Langmuir-Child relation):
只要所有发射的电子被电场吸收并向阳极加速，管电流（即阴极和阳极之间的总电子电流）与发射极饱和电流密度的直接比例就保持不变。然而，随着发射电子数量的增加（例如通过发射极温度的增加），发射极表面附近将形成一个空间电荷区。这种空间电荷改变了发射极表面的电场，并导致管电流不再由逃离阴极的电子数决定，而是由施加在阴极和阳极之间的总电压决定（Langmuir-Child关系）：

U：阳极和阴极之间的电位差
d：阳极和阴极之间的距离

饱和电流密度j_RDS和空间电荷电流密度j_LC，绘制为发射极温度的函数。显示了三种不同管电压U1、U2和U3的曲线图。

饱和电流密度j_RDS和空间电荷电流j_LC，绘制为管电压U的函数。显示了三种不同发射极温度T1、T2和T3的曲线图。

管阳极电流IA，针对三种不同管电压U1、U2和U3的加热电流IH绘制.

管阳极电流IA，针对多个灯丝加热电流IH（范围为4-5.8A）的管电压UA图。

Space-charge and pure saturation current represent ideal conditions. Detailed investigations have shown that under common operating conditions some emitter areas operate in the saturation current regime while space-charge limit conditions apply to neighboring areas. Nevertheless, the characteristics of real X-ray tubes also reflect the dependencies described by the above equations, as can be seen in figs. 12.3-12.6.空间电荷和纯饱和电流代表理想条件。详细的研究表明，在常见的工作条件下，一些发射极区域在饱和电流状态下工作，而空间电荷限制条件适用于相邻区域。然而，真实X射线管的特性也反映了上述方程描述的相关性，如图所示 12.3-12.6.\

Technical emitters in medical X-ray tubes 医用X射线管中的发射器

While many geometric configurations have been deployed to help bring about the emission of electrons from a heated solid, the most widely used emitter in medical X-ray applications is the helix-shaped tungsten filament (as depicted in fig. 12.7).虽然已经部署了许多几何结构来帮助实现加热固体的电子发射，但医用X射线应用中最广泛使用的发射器还是螺旋形钨丝（如图12.7所示）。

钨丝螺旋加热丝

A second type of emitter, the flat emitter (cf. fig. 12.8), has recently gained acclaim in connection with its application in mammography X-ray tubes and, even more recently, in connection with its application in high-end, rotating envelope X-ray tubes [12.6].第二种类型的发射器，扁平发射器（见图12.8），最近因其在乳腺X射线摄影管中的应用，以及最近在高端旋转包络X射线管中的应用而受到好评[12.6]。

平面发射器，采用激光切割技术由钨片制成

The following parameters are crucial for the maximum achievable tube current:以下参数对于可实现的最大管电流至关重要:

• Emitter area contributing to the emission 有助于排放的发射器面积
• Maximum applicable emitter temperature compatible with a sufficiently long tube service life 与足够长的使用寿命兼容的最大适用发射器温度
• Work function W 功函数W
• Field gradient at the emitter surface 发射极表面的场梯度

While the influence of the emitter area is straightforward, a point-like electron source (or at least a source with a homogeneous spatial distribution of emission) is required, especially for high resolution imaging. The concept of a flat emitter is suited to the task of increasing the emitting area. However, care must be taken to ensure uniform temperature distribution. Temperature distribution is not only crucial for emission homogeneity, but also for achieving a sufficient emitter configuration service life. The helix-shaped emitter exhibits a rather complex temperature distribution and does not allow for even a rough calculation of the emission current via the above formulas.
虽然发射极面积的影响是直接的，但需要点状电子源（或至少是发射具有均匀空间分布的源），特别是对于高分辨率成像。平面发射器的概念适用于增加发射面积的任务。但是，必须注意确保温度分布均匀。温度分布不仅对发射均匀性至关重要，而且对实现足够的发射极配置使用寿命也至关重要。螺旋形发射器显示出相当复杂的温度分布，并且不允许通过上述公式对发射电流进行粗略计算。

While X-ray tube currents may range up to 1.5 to 2.0 A, the electron emission surface area should not exceed around 20 mm2 so as to ensure proper focusing across the whole current and voltage operation range. Given that this requires emitter temperatures as high as 3,000 K, tungsten is almost the only feasible material for use in the construction of emitters [12.7].而X射线管电流的范围可能高达1.5-2.0A时，电子发射表面积不应超过20 $m{m}^2$左右，以确保在整个电流和电压工作范围内正确聚焦。考虑到这需要高达3000 K的发射器温度，钨几乎是建造发射器的唯一可行材料[12.7]。

An emitter’s work function W is mainly determined by the chosen material – pure tungsten shows 4.5 eV. However, the work function can be modified by the surface adsorption of other materials. The application of special coatings on the emitter (e.g. LaB6) enables one to lower the effective work function and achieve a higher electron emission rate. Unfortunately, coating service life is often limited, which leads to a considerable decrease in emission performance as the emitter’s service life increases. This problem has prevented broader use of coated emitters in medical applications。发射器的功函数W主要由所选材料决定-纯钨显示4.5电子伏。然而，功函数可以通过其他材料的表面吸附来修改。在发射极上涂覆特殊涂层（如$La{B}_6$）可以降低有效功函数并获得更高的电子发射率。不幸的是，涂层的使用寿命通常是有限的，这导致随着发射器使用寿命的增加，发射性能大大降低。这个问题阻碍了涂层发射器在医疗应用中的广泛应用。

The gradient of an external electrostatic potential at the emitter surface has a significant influence on the emission current. On the one hand, high field gradients amplify the saturation emission current due to the lowering of the potential barrier. On the other hand, they also lead to a depletion of the space-charge region and bring the emitter operation mode into the saturation current’s current-limited regime. The steepness of the electrical field at the emitter surface is mainly governed by the design of the cathode cup, i.e. the elements surrounding the emitter that enable the focusing of the electron beam to the anode.
发射极表面的外部静电电势梯度对发射电流有显著影响。一方面，由于势垒的降低，高场梯度放大了饱和发射电流。另一方面，它们也会导致空间电荷区耗尽，并使发射极工作模式进入饱和电流的限流区。发射极表面电场的陡度主要取决于阴极杯的设计。E发射极周围的元件，使电子束能够聚焦到阳极上。

The helix-shaped tungsten wire filament represents a good compromise in that it accounts for the various – partly contradictory – emitter requirements. This filament combines, for instance, easy manufacturability, simple handling, long service life, reliable operation and the capacity to achieve high emission currents. Helix-shaped tungsten filaments provide good mechanical stability throughout the manufacturing process. The wires are usually treated with potassium to inhibit high temperature creep in the wire. The filaments are heated by an electric current flowing through the wire. Therefore, the emission temperature can be easily controlled via the applied heating current.螺旋形钨丝代表了一个很好的折衷方案，因为它考虑了各种发射极要求（部分相互矛盾）。例如，这种灯丝具有易于制造、操作简单、使用寿命长、运行可靠和实现高发射电流的能力。螺旋形钨丝在整个制造过程中提供良好的机械稳定性。电线通常用钾处理，以抑制电线的高温蠕变。灯丝由流过导线的电流加热。因此，可通过施加的加热电流轻松控制发射温度。

Slow emission-current response time represents a disadvantage associated with the helix-shaped tungsten emitter. For instance, in angiographic applications it is required to vary the emission current between “on” (100 mA) and “off” (0 mA) states in the ms time regime. Moreover, modern CT applications have led to a demand for fast tube current variations. While the latter can be achieved via fast heating current variations, this approach is no longer sufficient for requirements in angiography.
慢发射电流响应时间代表了与螺旋形钨发射极相关的缺点。例如，在血管造影应用中，需要在ms时间范围内的“开”（100 mA）和“关”（0 mA）状态之间改变发射电流。此外，现代CT应用已导致对快速管电流变化的需求。虽然后者可以通过快速加热电流变化实现，但这种方法已不足以满足血管造影的要求。

Emitter heating circuits are usually fed by medium-frequency power sources. This proves sufficient given the fact that the time dynamics are mainly governed by the wire’s thermal inertia. The use of thinner filament wires in order to avoid the comparably high heat capacity is not feasible owing to mechanical instability and a shortening of operation time. While quick heating can be ensured by pushing the filament, the cooling process, inevitably determined by heat dissipation factors (mostly radiation), represents the speed delimiting factor. This is why all filament-operated X-ray tubes rely on fast tube current modulation, usually realized either via primary pulsing (i.e. modulation of the tube voltage) or electrode control (i.e. the cathode cup is set to a negative potential relative to the filament potential). In both cases, the filament is continuously heated during operation to the temperature required for maximum tube current.
发射极加热电路通常由中频电源供电。鉴于时间动力学主要由导线的热惯性控制，这证明了这一点。由于机械不稳定和操作时间缩短，使用较薄的灯丝以避免相对较高的热容是不可行的。虽然通过推动灯丝可以确保快速加热，但冷却过程不可避免地由散热系数（主要是辐射）决定，代表了速度定界系数。这就是为什么所有灯丝操作的X射线管都依赖于快速管电流调制，通常通过**初级脉冲（即管电压调制）或电极控制（即阴极杯设置为相对于灯丝电位的负电位）**实现。在这两种情况下，灯丝在运行期间持续加热至最大管电流所需的温度。

However, given clear filament service life constraints, it would not be feasible to maintain a permanent maximum heating current. Fig. 12.9 offers an example of the relationship between filament service life and applied filament current. The limited filament service life can be explained in terms of wire evaporation, which – like the electron emission rate – depends exponentially on wire temperature.然而，鉴于灯丝使用寿命的明确限制，维持永久最大加热电流是不可行的。图12.9提供了灯丝使用寿命和应用灯丝电流之间关系的示例。有限的灯丝使用寿命可以用金属丝蒸发来解释，金属丝蒸发与电子发射率一样，与金属丝温度呈指数关系。

Wire temperature surges cause tungsten to evaporate at an increased rate. The tungsten wire begins to thin at the highest temperature level. This thinning leads to increased electrical resistance at the same level, which, in turn, leads to a further increase in temperature – a self-accelerating process that quickly leads to the destruction of the filament. In order to ensure a sufficiently long filament service life, it is necessary to limit the application of high heating currents to short periods (e.g. whenever, as in the case of acquisition mode, high emission current is needed) and to reduce the heating current as soon as possible. This task requires active control: preventing the filament from exceeding the emission threshold when in standby mode and refraining from pushing to the desired operating temperature until immediately before the start of image acquisition.
金属丝温度波动导致钨以更快的速度蒸发。钨丝在最高温度下开始变薄。这种变薄会导致相同水平的电阻增加，进而导致温度进一步升高——这是一个自加速过程，会迅速导致灯丝损坏。为了确保足够长的灯丝使用寿命，有必要将高加热电流的应用限制在短时间内（例如，在采集模式下，每当需要高发射电流时），并尽快降低加热电流。此任务需要主动控制：防止灯丝在待机模式下超过发射阈值，并在图像采集开始前避免推至所需的工作温度。

12.1.2 Specifications for focal spot size and electron beam shape 焦点尺寸和电子束形状规范

When the accelerated electrons hit the anode surface, their energy is mainly transformed into heat. The amount and spatial density of power deposited onto the anode surface limits the anode’s service life. Excessively high heat densities can exert a degree of thermomechanical stress that destroys (or even melts) the anode’s structure. However, a small focus size with high power density is required for sharp images. To overcome these conflicting demands, Götze introduced the line focus already in 1918 [12.8]. This concept is still in use in almost every medical X-ray tube manufactured today. Fig. 12.10 offers a sketch of the principles behind the line focus.
当加速电子撞击阳极表面时，它们的能量主要转化为热量。沉积在阳极表面的功率量和空间密度限制了阳极的使用寿命。过高的热密度会产生一定程度的热机械应力，破坏（甚至熔化）阳极的结构。然而，对于清晰的图像，需要具有高功率密度的小焦距。为了克服这些相互冲突的需求，格茨在1918年就引入了线聚焦[12.8]。这一概念至今仍在几乎所有制造的医用X射线管中使用。图12.10提供了线焦点背后的原理草图。

A line focus enables the visible focal spot size to vary across the image and thus to influence image sharpness (fig. 12.11). A tube’s effective focal spot size [12.9] is usually measured using pinhole or slit cameras perpendicular to the tube housing assembly’s axis at the height of the focal spot.
线焦点使可见焦点的大小在整个图像上发生变化，从而影响图像的清晰度（图12.11）。管的有效焦点尺寸[12.9]通常使用针孔或狭缝相机测量，该相机垂直于管壳组件的轴，位于焦点高度处。

光学长度l和宽度w的线聚焦背后的原理。当选定的阳极角度α小于45°时，探测器可见的光学焦点长度l对应于阳极表面上电聚焦的更大长度l。这种几何效应用于进一步提高光学X射线功率密度，使其超过给定的技术限制，从而达到最大阳极功率密度。

In addition to focal spot size, image quality is also influenced by the distribution of X-ray intensity across the entire focal spot and by the extra focal radiation that arises as electrons that have been scattered back from the anode surface in the direction of the cathode then fall back again onto the anode far from the desired focal spot area.
除了焦斑尺寸外，图像质量还受到整个焦斑上X射线强度分布的影响，以及由于电子从阳极表面沿阴极方向散射回来，然后再次落到远离所需焦斑区域的阳极上而产生的额外焦辐射的影响。

The relationship between the spatial X-ray intensity profile and achievable image quality is given by the modulation transfer function (MTF), as described in chapter 9.
空间X射线强度分布和可实现图像质量之间的关系由 调制传递函数（MTF） 给出，如第9章所述。

观察者从不同方向观察旋转阳极X射线管的同一焦斑时可见的焦斑几何形状。

除了焦点的绝对尺寸外，其强度分布的形状对可实现的图像质量也有重要影响。在相同的焦斑宽度下，高斯光强分布焦斑的调制传递函数优于矩形光强分布焦斑。

Fig. 12.12 offers an example of a typical intensity profile and its corresponding MTF. Given the same focal spot width, the modulation transfer function of a focal spot exhibiting a Gaussian intensity profile is superior to a focal spot exhibiting a rectangular intensity profile because the MTF of the Gaussian intensity profile offers a certain advantage at higher spatial frequencies. Moreover, the additional maxima at higher spatial frequencies may cause additional image quality problems due to aliasing. Fig. 12.13 shows the relationship between the focal spot width and the MTF.
图12.12提供了典型强度分布及其相应MTF的示例。给定相同的焦斑宽度，显示高斯强度分布的焦斑的调制传递函数优于显示矩形强度分布的焦斑，因为高斯强度分布的MTF在较高的空间频率下提供一定的优势。此外，较高空间频率下的附加最大值可能由于混叠而导致附加图像质量问题。图12.13显示了焦斑宽度和MTF之间的关系。

Focal spot size and focal spot intensity distribution are crucial factors when it comes to image quality and anode service life. A given emitter design enables one to influence both spot size and intensity distribution via the electric and magnetic fields that form the electron beam.
焦点尺寸和焦点强度分布是影响图像质量和阳极使用寿命的关键因素。给定的发射极设计可以通过形成电子束的电场和磁场影响光斑大小和强度分布。

为不同宽度的焦点计算调制传递函数。尽管焦斑宽度的差异很小，但对MTF的影响是显而易见的。

Forming the electron beam 形成电子束

The movement of an electron in an electric and magnetic field is described by the Lorentz equation:电子在电场和磁场中的运动由洛伦兹方程描述：

The Poisson equation describes the relationship between the gradient of an electrical potential φ and a charge density:
泊松方程描述了电势梯度φ和电荷密度之间的关系：

Computer algorithms that have finite element methods and that apply these equations have been developed to iteratively calculate the electron paths of simplified cathode geometries. Unfortunately, a precise understanding of all of the boundary conditions has not yet been established, (e.g. the exact temperature at each point on the emitter surface, or the exact charge of insulating parts in the vicinity of the cathode). This and the required geometrical simplifications reduce the reliability of simulation results. Therefore, any computer calculation will require validation by experimental results and subsequent computer model adaptations until the results generated by both approaches converge (at least for a fixed set of parameters in a realistic scenario). Fig. 12.14 shows a computer simulation of a bifocal cathode with intertwining focal spots.
采用有限元方法并应用这些方程的计算机算法已被开发出来，用于迭代计算简化阴极几何结构的电子路径。不幸的是，对所有边界条件的精确理解尚未建立（例如，发射极表面上每个点的精确温度，或阴极附近绝缘部件的精确电荷）。这和所需的几何简化降低了模拟结果的可靠性。因此，任何计算机计算都需要通过实验结果和随后的计算机模型调整进行验证，直到两种方法产生的结果收敛为止（至少在现实场景中对于一组固定的参数）。图12.14显示了具有交织焦点的双焦点阴极的计算机模拟。

双焦点阴极组件电场中电子轨迹的计算机模拟。上部电子束被优化为最小焦点宽度。较低的电子束以更大的焦斑宽度为代价使管功率最大化。

Fig. 12.15a-d shows the equipotential lines and electron trajectories for different cathode configurations. While the figures shown are based on the geometry of a helically wound tungsten filament, the following explanations are also valid for other types of emitters (e.g. flat emitters made of tungsten sheet).
图12.15a-d显示了不同阴极配置的等电位线和电子轨迹。虽然所示图基于螺旋缠绕钨丝的几何形状，但以下解释也适用于其他类型的发射器（例如，钨片制成的扁平发射器）。

Given that the electrons emerge from the emitter at different angles with thermal velocity distribution, a very wide electron beam would reach the anode (fig. 12.15a). Small focal spots are achieved by using an additional electrode that has the same potential as the emitter (Wehnelt electrode) and that surrounds the emitter. The Wehnelt electrode changes the equipotential lines and presses the electron trajectories together (fig. 12.15b). This leads to a crossover of the outer trajectories, and thereby focuses the electron beam. Electrons from the back of the emitter are avoided by placing the emitter into a narrow slot. The shape of the whole assembly resembles that of a cup. Focusing is influenced by the position of the emitter in relation to the inner surface of the focal cup, the width of the slot and the elevation of the cup. The focusing parameters are selected in a way that ensures that the crossover is near the surface of the anode.
假设电子从发射极以不同的角度以热速度分布出现，一个非常宽的电子束将到达阳极（图12.15a）。小焦点是通过使用一个附加电极来实现的，该电极具有与发射器相同的电势（Wehnelt电极）并包围发射器。韦内尔电极改变等电位线，并将电子轨迹压在一起（图12.15b）。这导致外部轨迹交叉，从而聚焦电子束。通过将发射器放入窄缝中，可以避免来自发射器背面的电子。整个组件的形状类似于杯子。聚焦受发射器相对于焦杯内表面的位置、狭缝宽度和焦杯高度的影响。聚焦参数的选择应确保交叉点5靠近阳极表面。

a) Cylindrical cathode filament opposite a plane anode (basic configuration).
a） 与平面阳极相对的圆柱形阴极灯丝（基本配置）。

b) Basic configuration as in fig. 12.15a with an additional Wehnelt electrode focusing the electron beam (Wehnelt configuration). Wehnelt electrode at the same potential as the cathode filament.
b） 基本配置如图12.15a所示,带有聚焦电子束的附加Wehnelt电极（Wehnelt配置）。在与阴极灯丝相同的电位下使用Wehnelt电极。

One distinct disadvantage associated with the Wehnelt electrode is the reduction in the anode potential (fig. 12.15b). The equipotential lines move away from the emitter as the depth of the focal cup increases and as its width decreases.
与Wehnelt电极相关的一个明显缺点是阳极电位降低（图12.15b）。等电位线随着焦杯深度的增加和焦杯宽度的减小而远离发射器。

Additional focusing capacity can be achieved by applying a grid potential that is slightly more negative than the emitter’s potential (fig. 12.15c). This effect can be used to create very small focal spots, which are necessary in some angiographic applications.
额外的聚焦能力可以通过施加一个比发射器的电势略负的栅极电势来实现（图12.15c）。这种效果可用于创建非常小的焦点，这在某些血管造影应用中是必要的。

c) Wehnelt configuration as in Fig. 12.15b. This time the Wehnelt electrode is charged negatively compared to the cathode potential. This leads to a stronger focusing of the electron beam compared that shown in Fig. 12.15b.
c） Wehnelt配置如图12.15b所示。这一次，与阴极电位相比，韦内尔电极带负电荷。与图12.15b所示相比，这导致电子束的聚焦更强.

If the difference in potential between emitter and focal cup is increased (fig. 12.15d), the electric field near the emitter changes its sign and the tube current comes to a stop. This effect can be used to switch the tube current on and off quickly (i.e. by quickly changing the gating voltage) without having to heat or cool the filament. This technology was widely used before recent developments in high voltage generation enabled primary pulsing, i.e. the direct modulation of tube voltage.
如果发射器和焦杯之间的电位差增大（图12.15d），发射器附近的电场改变其符号，管电流停止。这种效应可用于快速开关管电流（即通过快速改变选通电压），而无需加热或冷却灯丝。这项技术在最近的高压发电一次脉冲技术发展之前得到了广泛应用。E管电压的直接调制.

d) Wehnelt configuration as in fig. 12.15c. If the negative potential applied to the Wehnelt electrode reaches a critical level, the electron beam loses its focus and is entirely blocked. This effect can be used to switch an X-ray tube almost instantaneously.
d） Wehnelt配置如图12.15c所示。如果施加在韦内尔电极上的负电位达到临界水平，电子束就会失去焦点，完全被阻挡。这种效应几乎可以在瞬间切换X射线管。

The use of an additional focusing lens is necessary in some applications to achieve the desired focal spot geometry. When a focal cup is positioned near an insulating ceramic part, it may also be necessary to use an additional potential sheet to avoid interference from ceramic charging effects. If the anode is positioned at a large distance to the cathode, an additional focal lens of anode or ground potential is placed between anode and cathode to ensure that a sufficiently strong electrical field reaches the surface of the emitter.
在某些应用中，需要使用额外的聚焦透镜，以获得所需的焦点几何形状。当焦点杯位于绝缘陶瓷部件附近时，可能还需要使用额外的电位片，以避免陶瓷充电效应的干扰。如果阳极与阴极的距离较大，则在阳极和阴极之间放置阳极或地电位的附加聚焦透镜，以确保足够强的电场到达发射器表面。

In such a configuration, the electrons move in a potential free area after passing the focal lens. An expansion of the electron beam vertical to the trajectory is observed due to electrostatic repulsion. This effect increases as the tube current increases and the tube voltage decreases. Before passing the focal lens near the cathode, the same electrostatic rejection that is exhibited by the electrons influences the focusing effect of the focal lens and moves the position of the focal crossover point. This effect also has an impact on the dimensions of the focal spot at the anode. The selection of an appropriate focusing configuration can lead to a balancing out of both effects for a wide range of tube currents. Fig. 12.16 shows the variation of focal spot width in relation to tube current and tube voltage for a typical CT tube. A noticeable increase in the focal spot width is observed only at high tube currents and small tube voltages (80 kV).
在这种配置中，电子通过聚焦透镜后在无电势区域中移动。由于静电斥力，观察到电子束垂直于轨道的扩展。这种效应随着管电流的增加和管电压的降低而增加。在通过靠近阴极的聚焦透镜之前，电子所表现出的相同静电抑制影响聚焦透镜的聚焦效果并移动聚焦交叉点的位置。这种效应也会影响阳极上焦点的尺寸。选择合适的聚焦配置可以在广泛的管电流范围内平衡这两种效应。图12.16显示了典型CT管的焦点宽度相对于管电流和管电压的变化。只有在高管电流和小管电压（80 kV）下，才能观察到焦点宽度的显著增加。

Focal spot width plotted against tube current $I_A$ for different tube voltages. The focal spot’s minimum width increases along with the tube current $I_A$.
针对不同管电压的管电流$I_A$绘制的焦点宽度。焦点的最小宽度随着管电流$I_A$的增加而增加。

Versatile electron beam deflection 多功能电子束偏转

It became necessary to increase the distance between anode and cathode in certain X-ray tubes in order to enable the introduction of additional components designed to actively control the focal spot on the target. Controlled deflection of the electron beam can be achieved by deploying a horseshoe electromagnet or a capacitor plate between the tube’s anode and cathode.
在某些X射线管中，有必要增加阳极和阴极之间的距离，以便能够引入设计用于主动控制目标焦点的附加组件。电子束的可控偏转可以通过在电子管的阳极和阴极之间布置一个马蹄形电磁铁或一个电容板来实现。

Such flying focal spot tubes enable one to quickly switch the electron beam between two different points on the same anode radius in circumferential direction. The CTsystem detector thus gathers information from two different focal spots at nearly the same time, an increase in information that enables improved image quality. Fig. 12.17 shows the technical assembly of a high-end CT tube with magnetic flying focal spot technology.
这种飞行的焦点管使人们能够在圆周方向上相同阳极半径上的两个不同点之间快速切换电子束。因此，CTsystem探测器几乎同时从两个不同的焦点收集信息，信息量的增加可以提高图像质量。图12.17 显示了采用磁飞焦点技术的高端CT管的技术组装。

The electromagnetic forming and deflection of the electron beam in the latest generation of X-ray tubes is a prerequisite for the whole principle of tube operation: the rotating envelope X-ray tube has a cylindrical design that is invariant to rotation and built around a single emitter in the rotation center (fig. 12.18). The anode is an integral part of the tube envelope and is directly exposed to the surrounding cooling oil [12.10, 12.11]. The whole tube rotates around its symmetry axis, while the electron beam is continuously deflected to a fixed spot in space on the anode plate by means of an external magnetic deflection unit that is positioned around the constriction in the tube envelope (fig. 12.19) [12.12, 12.13].
最新一代X射线管中电子束的电磁形成和偏转是整个射线管工作原理的先决条件：旋转包络X射线管具有圆柱形设计，旋转不变，并围绕旋转中心的单个发射器构建（图12.18）。阳极是管道外壳的一个组成部分，直接暴露在周围的冷却油中[12.10,12.11]。整个电子管围绕其对称轴旋转，同时电子束通过外部磁偏转装置连续偏转到阳极板上的一个固定点，该装置位于电子管外壳的收缩部分周围（图12.19）[12.12，12.13]。

现代旋转阳极X射线管配置的横截面（西门子阿克伦）。用于控制电子束偏转的线圈集成在阴极和阳极之间。一个飞行的焦点可以通过交变磁场产生。该技术用于进一步提高图像质量。

Two R-coils in the magnetic deflection unit are responsible for radial deflection. This enables adjustments in the focal spot path. Two additional Phi-coils (mounted vertically to the R-coils) enable deflection in the phi-direction. This is required in order to position the focal spot relative to the X-ray window of the housing and to create a flying focal spot [12.14]. Finally, the four Q-coils are quadruple coils used to influence the focal spot geometry. Their field is used to change the originally round focal spot geometry to an oval shape. This changes the important ratio of focal spot width to length. An additional electrical increase in focal spot length can be achieved by fast-wobbling deflection in the R-direction [12.15]. In this case, the wobble frequency needs to be sufficiently faster than the image sampling frequency in order to avoid image distortion.
磁偏转装置中的两个R线圈负责径向偏转。这样可以调整焦点路径。另外两个Phi线圈（垂直安装在R线圈上）可实现Phi方向的偏转。这是为了相对于外壳的X射线窗口定位焦点和创建飞行焦点[12.14]所必需的。最后，四个Q线圈是用于影响焦斑几何形状的四个线圈。它们的场用于将原来的圆形焦点几何体更改为椭圆形。这会改变焦点宽度与长度的重要比率。通过R方向上的快速摆动偏转，可以实现焦距的额外电增加[12.15]。在这种情况下，抖动频率需要足够快于图像采样频率，以避免图像失真。

旋转包络X射线管（西门子Straton 120）。
a） 原理：左边阴极产生的电子通过一个被磁偏转系统（见图12.19）包围的窄通道加速到右边的阳极板上。
b） 技术实现：信封已被切开进行演示。

The entire magnetic deflection system is driven by a microprocessor-controlled electronic deflection unit.
整个磁偏转系统由微处理器控制的电子偏转装置驱动。

由Straton 120旋转包络X射线管部署的磁偏转系统。电子束通过R-、Phi-和Q-线圈成形和偏转。 R线圈负责径向偏转,另外两个Phi线圈（垂直安装在R线圈上）可实现Phi方向的偏转.

12.1.3 The anode assembly 阳极组件

As has been mentioned in various contexts, more than 99% of the power applied to an X-ray tube is converted into heat (3.1). Efficient heat dissipation represents one of the greatest challenges faced in the development of high power X-ray tubes. Given its importance with respect to the functioning and service life of an X-ray tube as a whole, the anode is usually the prime subject of tube design [12.16, 12.17]. Medical X-ray tubes can be divided into three categories:
正如在各种情况下所提到的，X射线管99%以上的功率被转换成热量（3.1）。高效散热是高功率X射线管发展中面临的最大挑战之一。考虑到阳极对整个X射线管的功能和使用寿命的重要性，阳极通常是射线管设计的首要主题[12.16,12.17]。医用X射线管可分为三类：

• Tubes with stationary anodes 固定阳极管
• Tubes with rotating anodes 旋转阳极管
• Rotating envelope tubes 旋转包络管

In the remaining sections of this chapter, we discuss these three tube types with respect to their specific anode designs, offer an overview of various bearing systems applied in rotating anode tubes, describe motor configurations for the driving of rotating anodes and present various schemes and methods for calculating design-specific anode load capacities.
在本章剩余部分中，我们将讨论这三种管类型的具体阳极设计，概述旋转阳极管中应用的各种轴承系统，描述用于驱动旋转阳极的电机配置，并给出计算设计特定阳极负载能力的各种方案和方法。

Tubes with stationary anodes 固定阳极管

Fig. 12.20 offers an illustration of a stationary anode. A tungsten rhenium target is embedded in a copper block. The electrons are focused onto a focal spot on the target surface. The deposited thermal energy is carried away from the heated focal spot via thermal conduction through the copper block towards its stem and hence to the outside of the tube. The copper block is connected (vacuum-tight) to the tube envelope.
图12.20 提供了固定阳极的图示。钨铼靶嵌入铜块中。电子聚焦在目标表面的焦点上。沉积的热能通过热传导从加热焦点带走，通过铜块朝向其杆，从而到达管的外部。铜块连接（真空密封）到管外壳。

固定阳极（a：钨铼靶；b：焦点；c：铜块；d：铜块插座。在某些应用中，在插座中钻有冷却剂循环通道；e：管外壳和铜块之间的真空紧密连接）。

One way of increasing the admissible tube power (although hardly ever used for diagnostic X-ray tubes) is to improve anode stem cooling by creating additional convection between the copper stem and the surrounding cooling medium by means of cooling boreholes in the anode block [12.18]. Water or oil is then pumped through these boreholes to improve cooling.
增加容许管功率的一种方法（尽管几乎从未用于诊断X射线管）是通过在铜杆和周围冷却介质之间通过冷却阳极块中的钻孔创造额外的对流来改善阳极杆冷却[12.18]。然后通过这些钻孔泵送水或油，以改善冷却效果。

The anode is often outfitted with an electron capture hood with a beryllium window (fig. 12.21). While X-rays can pass the beryllium window without sustaining a substantial decrease in intensity, electrons reflected at the anode surface are prevented from reaching the glass envelope and are thus prevented from reducing the disruptive strength of the tube envelope. Due to the cup-shaped geometry of the capture hood, a field-free space is created in close proximity to the target surface. This design is thus also effective at stopping reflected electrons from falling back to the target surface and thereby helping to reduce undesired extra-focal radiation.
阳极通常配有带铍窗的电子俘获罩（图12.21）。虽然X射线可以通过铍窗口而不会持续强度的大幅降低**，但阳极表面反射的电子无法到达玻璃外壳**，因此无法降低管外壳的破坏强度。由于捕获罩的杯形几何结构，在目标表面附近创建了一个无场空间。因此，这种设计也能有效阻止反射电子落回目标表面，从而有助于减少不需要的额外聚焦辐射。

带固定阳极的管（1：电子捕获罩；2：铍窗；3：铜冷却块）

Due to their simple and robust design, stationary anode X-ray tubes distinguish themselves in terms of their high reliability and long service lives. However, their low power makes them unsuitable for many applications. In radiographic applications, the upper power limit is mainly determined by the maximum admissible temperature at the boundary between the tungsten target and the copper block. Temperature surges that exceed the melting point of copper will destroy the anode.
由于其简单而坚固的设计，固定阳极X射线管以其高可靠性和长使用寿命而脱颖而出。然而，它们的低功耗使得它们不适合于许多应用。在射线照相应用中，功率上限主要由钨靶和铜块之间边界处的最高容许温度决定。超过铜熔点的温度波动会破坏阳极。

Tubes with rotating anodes 旋转阳极管

The first tubes with rotating anodes were built in 1933 [12.19]. Compared to stationary anodes, they offer the advantage of enabling one to distribute the thermal energy that is deposited onto the focal spot across the larger surface of a focal ring. This permits an increase in power for short operation times (fig. 12.22). However, as the anode is now rotating in a vacuum, the transfer of thermal energy to the outside of the tube envelope depends largely on radiation, which is not as effective as the liquid cooling used in stationary anodes. Rotating anodes are thus designed for high heat storage capacity and for good radiation exchange between anode and tube envelope. Another difficulty associated with rotating anodes is the operation of a bearing system under vacuum and the protection of this system against the destructive force of the anode’s high temperatures. Appropriate designs for minimized heat flux into the bearing system are required.
第一批带有旋转阳极的管子建于1933年[12.19]。与固定阳极相比，它们的优点是能够将沉积在焦环较大表面上的热能分布到焦斑上。这允许在短时间内增加功率（图12.22）。然而，由于阳极现在在真空中旋转，热能传递到管壳外部在很大程度上取决于辐射，辐射不如固定阳极中使用的液体冷却有效。因此，旋转阳极设计用于高蓄热能力以及阳极和管外壳之间的良好辐射交换。与旋转阳极相关的另一个困难是轴承系统在真空下的操作，以及保护该系统免受阳极高温破坏力的影响。需要进行适当的设计，使进入轴承系统的热通量最小化。

In the early days of rotating anode X-ray tubes, the heat storage capacity of the anode was the main hindrance to high tube performance [12.20-12.22]. This has changed with the introduction of the following new technologies:
在旋转阳极X射线管的早期，阳极的蓄热能力是管高性能的主要障碍[12.20-12.22]。随着以下新技术的引入，情况发生了变化：

• Graphite blocks brazed to the anode dramatically increase heat storage capacity and heat dissipation.钎焊在阳极上的石墨块极大地提高了储热能力和散热能力。
• Liquid anode bearing systems (sliding bearings) provide heat conductivity to the surrounding cooling oil. 液体阳极轴承系统（滑动轴承）为周围的冷却油提供导热性。
• Rotating envelope tubes allow direct liquid cooling for the backside of the rotating anode. 旋转包壳管允许对旋转阳极的背面进行直接液体冷却。

Materials for rotating anodes 旋转阳极材料

Tungsten has been deployed as a target material in nearly all X-ray tube anodes designed for medical applications since 1909 (6.1.4). The anode plates of rotating anode tubes usually include a 1 to 2 mm thin layer of tungsten-rhenium alloy deposited onto a plate of molybdenum [12.23]. The rhenium increases the ductility of the tungsten, reduces thermomechanical stress and increases anode service life thanks to a slower roughening of the anode surface (always accompanied by a dose reduction) [12.24]. The ideal commercial and technological alloy has been determined to be composed of 5 to 10% rhenium and 90 to 95% tungsten (fig. 12.23).
自1909年（6.1.4）以来，几乎所有用于医疗应用的X射线管阳极都使用钨作为靶材料。旋转阳极管的阳极板通常包括沉积在钼板上的一层1至2 mm厚的钨铼合金[12.23]。铼增加了钨的延展性，降低了热机械应力，并提高了阳极的使用寿命，这得益于阳极表面的缓慢粗糙化（总是伴随着剂量降低）[12.24]。理想的商业和技术合金已确定由5%至10%的铼和90%至95%的钨组成（图12.23）。

X射线管阳极剂量效率与管负载数量的关系图。图中显示了钨层中铼含量在0%至15%之间的不同阳极表面成分。随着铼含量的增加，耐磨损性增加。

As mentioned, the introduction of graphite blocks brazed to the backside of the molybdenum plate represents an advance in rotating anode technology. The graphite block in this design significantly increases the heat storage capacity of the anode, while requiring only a slight increase in overall anode weight. Furthermore, heat dissipation is accelerated by the larger anode surface and the superior emission coefficient of graphite compared to molybdenum [12.25]. Fig. 12.24a-c shows various anode designs offering different heat storage capacities.
如上所述，在钼板背面钎焊石墨块的引入代表了旋转阳极技术的进步。这种设计中的石墨块显著增加了阳极的蓄热能力，同时只需要稍微增加阳极的总重量。此外，与钼相比，更大的阳极表面和更高的石墨发射系数加速了散热[12.25]。图12.24a-c显示了提供不同蓄热能力的各种阳极设计。

各种阳极类型。
a） ，b）带有石墨环的阳极，石墨环钎焊在阳极背面。
c） 带冷却迷宫的阳极（瓦里安专用）
molybdenum:钼
graphite:石墨

Molybdenum and graphite are brazed together with zirconium or, for higher operating temperatures, with titanium or other specially designed brazing alloys.
钼和石墨与锆钎焊在一起，或者在更高的工作温度下，与钛或其他特殊设计的钎焊合金钎焊在一起。

Ball bearing systems 滚珠轴承系统

Ball bearing systems deployed in rotating anode X-ray tubes must be designed for operation under extreme conditions:
部署在旋转阳极X射线管中的滚珠轴承系统必须设计为在极端条件下运行：

• They form a connection between the very hot anode plate and the cold environment. 它们在极热的阳极板和寒冷的环境之间形成连接。
• They need to operate under vacuum. 它们需要在真空下工作。
• They need to withstand high turning speeds of 100 to 150 Hz and substantial weight loads (e.g. a 10 kg anode plate in a typical CT machine equals a 100 kg effective load due to the centrifugal acceleration). 它们需要承受100至150赫兹的高转速和大量的重量负载（例如，由于离心加速度，典型CT机器中的10千克阳极板相当于100千克的有效负载）。

The lubricants need to fulfill certain specifications. For instance, they need to be constructed of soft deformable materials, resist alloy formation with the carrier material, remain stable at high temperatures and exhibit low vapor pressure under vacuum. These criteria limit the selection of lubricants to thin layers of lead or silver.
润滑剂需要满足某些规格。例如，它们需要由软变形材料制成，抗与载体材料形成合金，在高温下保持稳定，在真空下表现出低蒸汽压。这些标准将润滑剂的选择限制在铅或银的薄层上。

A sufficient reduction in the transfer of heat into the bearing system can be achieved by increasing the distance between the anode plate and the bearing and including materials of low heat conductivity. The bearing temperature must be kept below 400°C to achieve good results.
通过增加阳极板和轴承之间的距离，包括低导热性的材料，可以充分减少进入轴承系统的热量传递。轴承温度必须保持在400°C以下，以获得良好的结果。

In order to compensate for the wide operational temperature range and the high temperature gradients between the rotating and stationary parts of the bearing system, the bearings are designed with high degrees of axial and radial clearance, with special temperature compensation mechanisms and with a spring for preloading the system. Furthermore, only very small tolerances are accepted in the case of the individual bearing parts.
为了补偿轴承系统旋转部件和固定部件之间的宽工作温度范围和高温度梯度，轴承设计有高度的轴向和径向间隙，带有特殊的温度补偿机构和弹簧，用于预加载系统。此外，对于单个轴承零件，仅接受非常小的公差。

Liquid (sliding) bearings 液体（滑动）轴承

The recent introduction of liquid metal bearings represents an innovation in rotating anode X-ray technology. These bearings use the aquaplaning effect of liquid metals and offer the following advantages:
最近引进的液态金属轴承代表了旋转阳极X射线技术的一项创新。这些轴承利用液态金属的滑水效应，具有以下优点：

• The bearing system is free of wear and tear. 轴承系统无磨损。
• The generation of running noise is minimal. 运行噪音的产生最小。
• Additional anode cooling can be achieved by fast heat flux through the liquid metal in the bearing system. 通过轴承系统中液态金属的快速热流，可以实现额外的阳极冷却。

The diagram in fig. 12.25 illustrates the principle. Two bodies are in motion relative to one another. The liquid between the bodies accumulates and forms a bow wave. This effect leads to a pressure buildup in the wedge between the two bodies. If the pressure exceeds a certain level, the liquid will enter the gap between the bodies until a film of liquid separates the bodies along their entire contact surface.
如图12.25 所示。说明了这一原则。两个物体相对运动。两个物体之间的液体聚集形成一个弓形波。这种效应会导致两个阀体之间的楔块内压力积聚。如果压力超过某一水平，液体将进入两个物体之间的间隙，直到一层液体沿着整个接触面将两个物体分开。

配备液体轴承的X射线管的典型组件。由于液体轴承的旋转部件和固定部件之间有较大的接触面，因此沉积在阳极中的热量可以快速传导到冷却油中。
Liquid bearing:液体轴承
Radial bearing:径向轴承
Axial bearing:轴向轴承
Rotating part:旋转部件
Rotor:转子
Anode disk:阳极盘
Envelope:封套
Stationary part:固定部件

Fig. 12.26 offers an illustration of a liquid bearing used in X-ray technology. The bearing’s stationary shaft is designed as a hollow body. This permits the active cooling of the bearing and thus also of the anode via the injection of a cooling agent. The thin ~20 μm gap between the stationary shaft and the rotating bearing body is filled with liquid metal. An eutectic of gallium, indium and tin with a melting temperature of between –10°C and –11°C is often used. In addition to the main radial bearing (i.e. formed by the stationary shaft and the rotating bearing body) an axial bearing is formed between the disk (with a larger diameter in the middle of the shaft) and the corresponding hollow ring in the bearing body (fig. 12.26). This construction enables one to achieve both radial and axial guidance and stabilization.
图12.26提供了X射线技术中使用的液体轴承的图示。轴承的固定轴设计为空心体。这允许通过注入冷却剂对轴承和阳极进行主动冷却。固定轴和旋转轴承体之间约20μm的薄间隙充满液态金属。通常使用熔点在-10°C至-11°C之间的镓、铟和锡共晶。除了主径向轴承（即由固定轴和旋转轴承体形成）外，在轴承（在轴的中部具有较大直径）和轴承体中的相应空心环之间形成轴向轴承（图12. 26）。这种结构可以实现径向和轴向导向和稳定。

The load capacity of a liquid bearing depends essentially on the diameter and length of the design, on the rotation speed, on the viscosity of the liquid and on the size of the gap filled with liquid. It is necessary to ensure that the liquid metal does not escape from the bearing under any operating conditions and that the liquid metal does not form an alloy with other bearing parts. This can be achieved by selecting appropriate materials, using a surface coating and deploying accurate bearing parts. The anodes in commercially available X-ray tubes equipped with liquid bearings are typically run at a rotation speed of 150 Hz. The maximum heat transfer from the anode through the bearing into the cooling system is about 1 to 2 kW.
液体轴承的承载能力主要取决于设计的直径和长度、转速、液体粘度和充满液体的间隙大小。必须确保液态金属不会在任何操作条件下从轴承中逸出，并且液态金属不会与其他轴承零件形成合金。这可以通过选择合适的材料、使用表面涂层和部署精确的轴承零件来实现。配有液体轴承的商用X射线管中的阳极通常以150 Hz的转速运行。从阳极通过轴承进入冷却系统的最大热传递约为1至2 kW。

Tubes with rotating envelopes 旋转包壳管

A rotating envelope tube combines the advantages of stationary and rotating anodes:
旋转包络管结合了固定阳极和旋转阳极的优点：

• The backside of the anode is directly exposed to the cooling agent, as can be inferred from the stationary anode configuration. The anode thus cools down in a matter of seconds (fig. 12.27) and no additional heat storage capacity at the anode (e.g. graphite) is required.阳极的背面直接暴露于冷却剂中，这可以从固定阳极配置推断出来。因此，阳极在几秒钟内冷却（图12.27），并且阳极（例如石墨）不需要额外的蓄热能力。
• Given that the anode (together with the tube envelope) rotates in the manner of a conventional rotating anode, the thermal energy deposited at the focal spot is distributed across a focal ring (as with conventional rotating anode assemblies). The same performance thus results for brief high power X-ray generation, as is achievable with a (cold) rotating anode of the same diameter. 假设阳极（连同管外壳）以常规旋转阳极的方式旋转，则沉积在焦点处的热能分布在焦环上（与常规旋转阳极组件一样）。因此，与相同直径的（冷）旋转阳极一样，短时间高功率X射线产生也具有相同的性能。

A number of mechanisms deployed in the development of rotating envelope tubes are protected by patents. One specific mechanism has recently been deployed in the development of a product currently sold under the brand name Straton. The most challenging task in the operation of this tube is the generation and stabilization of the focal spot relative to the non-rotating environment.
在旋转包络管的开发中部署的许多机制受到专利保护。最近，在开发目前以Straton品牌销售的产品时，部署了一种特定的机制。该管运行中最具挑战性的任务是相对于非旋转环境的焦点的产生和稳定。

不同类型X射线管的冷却曲线。通过部署在旋转包络管（Straton 120）中的直接冷却原理可实现的冷却速度比传统X射线管快几个数量级。

12.1.4 Anode load capacity 阳极负载能力

The impact of the electrons heats the anode. In order to avoid damage related to thermal stress and to prevent the evaporation of material, it is important to have access to information on the temperature of the anode base, the focal ring and the focal spot.
电子的冲击使阳极发热。为了避免与热应力相关的损坏并防止材料蒸发，获取阳极基座、焦环和焦点的温度信息非常重要。

Anode disk temperature 阳极盘温度

The disk temperature is derived from the equilibrium of the power supplied by the electrons P and dissipated by radiation $P_{Rad}$ and thermal conduction $P_{Cond}$.
磁盘温度由电子P提供的能量平衡导出，并由辐射$P_{Rad}$和热传导$P_{Cond}$耗散.

$c_i$ $m_i$：单阳极组件的热容（取决于温度）

The subscript i in the formula is used to account for the various materials in anodes composed of several components (e.g. metallic disks, graphite rings and other materials).
公式中的下标i用于说明阳极中由多种成分组成的各种材料（例如金属盘、石墨环和其他材料）。

The anode disk dissipates its heat power largely via thermal radiation, as described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
正如Stefan-Boltzmann定律所述，阳极盘主要通过热辐射耗散其热功率：

$A_i（T）$：组分i的阳极吸收（取决于温度）$S_i$：阳极组分i的表面积

不同情况下阳极板温度与时间的关系图：在2℃下运行期间加热。5千瓦、5千瓦和25千瓦；空载冷却

In the case of anodes with liquid metal bearings, a noticeable part of the anode heat is also dissipated by the liquid metal via thermal conduction. The efficiency of the dissipation depends on thermal conductivity κ, bearing surface $S_B$ and the temperature difference between the anode and the cooling oil.
对于带有液态金属轴承的阳极，液态金属通过热传导也会散发阳极热量的显著部分。散热效率取决于导热系数κ、支承面$S_B$以及阳极和冷却油之间的温差。

κ：管道的典型导热系数，$S_B$：轴承表面

Fig. 12.28 shows anode disk heating and cooling curves for different loads P (fig. 12.28).
图12.28显示了不同负载P下阳极盘的加热和冷却曲线（图12.28）。

Focal spot and focal ring temperature rise 焦斑和焦环温升

The temperature of the focal spot is significantly higher than the temperature of the anode disk. Fundamental work has been done on this subject by Bouwers [12.26] and Osterkamp [12.27] for stationary anodes. The rise in temperature ϑ for short load times (< 0.05 s for standard focal spot dimensions) can be approximated by:
焦点的温度明显高于阳极盘的温度。Bouwers[12.26]和Osterkamp[12.27]在固定阳极方面已经完成了这方面的基础工作。短负载时间内（标准焦点尺寸小于0.05 s）的温升可近似为:

P：功率输入，$A_F$=2δl焦斑面积，t：负载周期, λ：热导率，c：比热，ρ：质量密度

and the rise for long loading times can be approximated by:
长加载时间的上升可近似为:

δ：焦斑半宽

The maximum permissible focal spot temperature in the case of stationary anodes is limited by the tolerable temperature at the boundary between the anode tungsten and copper and (during very long loading times) by the anode’s thermal capacity and the heat dissipation to the surrounding oil.
在固定阳极的情况下，最大允许焦点温度受阳极钨和铜之间边界的容许温度以及（在很长的加载时间内）阳极的热容量和对周围油的散热的限制。

While in the case of stationary anodes the time t in eq. (12.11) corresponds to the period during which the load is applied, it is necessary to replace this factor in the case of rotating anodes by an interval Δt in order to describe the duration the focal spot is hit by the electron beam at one revolution:
在固定阳极的情况下，等式（12.11）中的时间t对应于施加负载的时间，在旋转阳极的情况下，有必要用间隔Δt替换该系数，以描述焦点在一圈内被电子束击中的持续时间：

δ：焦斑半宽，R：焦轨半径，f：阳极旋转频率

The temperature rise at the focal spot for a rotating anode is thus approximated by:
因此，旋转阳极焦点处的温升近似为:

The focal track on the target is formed by the multitude of all surface elements heated by the electron beam. The track is visible on used targets as a highly roughened circle (fig. 12.29). Focal track temperature ${\vartheta }_{Track}$ increases as the number of revolutions n increases (fig. 12.30):

靶材上的焦点轨迹是由电子束加热的大量表面元素形成的。 轨迹在使用过的目标上是一个高度粗糙的圆（图12.29）。焦点轨迹温度 ${\vartheta }_{Track}$随着转数n的增加而增加（图12.30）：

k：阳极厚度、热辐射、径向热扩散的系数n=t f：时间t内的转数

The focal ring temperature of an anode rotating at 100 Hz or 150 Hz increases during a 1-second load by a factor of 10 or 12, respectively. The reduction in the focal spot temperature that results from the increased rotation frequency is partially compensated for by the fact that the focal ring temperature increases as the frequency increases.
在1秒负载期间，以100Hz或150Hz旋转的阳极的焦环温度分别增加10或12倍。由于旋转频率的增加而导致的焦斑温度的降低被焦环温度随频率的增加而增加的事实部分补偿。

典型旋转阳极X射线管的阳极板几何形状

旋转阳极的焦点、焦点轨迹和目标基座的温度与X射线产生期间的转数或经过的时间t成反比

By combining eqs. (12.14 and 12.15) one obtains the anode power necessary to achieve the total focal spot temperature rise:
通过结合等式。（12.14和12.15）获得实现焦点总温升所需的阳极功率：

l：焦点长度

Temperature balance and time-related temperature changes 温度平衡和与时间相关的温度变化

The absolute temperature in the focal spot $T_{Focus}$ follows as：
焦点$T_{Focus}$ 中的绝对温度如下所示:

The temperature rise in the focal spot takes place within milliseconds, the temperature equalization between disk and focal track takes some seconds. Each of the three quoted temperatures (focal spot, focal track and anode disk base temperature) is subject to specific limitations relating to the materials and processes used.
焦斑的温升在毫秒内发生，磁盘和焦轨之间的温度均衡需要几秒钟。三个引用温度（焦点、焦点轨迹和阳极盘基座温度）中的每一个都受到与所用材料和工艺相关的特定限制。

An upper temperature limit is reached when an arc discharge occurs between the anode and cathode or envelope as a consequence of the ionization of the evaporating metal. A second limitation in the maximum focal spot temperature is created by focal track wear and tear caused by thermomechanical stress and resulting in dose reduction. The maximum permissible focal spot temperature is set well below these limitations so as to safeguard the tube and secure an acceptable service life.
由于蒸发金属的电离作用，阳极和阴极或外壳之间发生电弧放电时，温度达到上限。最大焦点温度的第二个限制是由热机械应力引起的焦点轨迹磨损造成的，并导致剂量降低。最大允许焦点温度设置远低于这些限制，以保护管并确保可接受的使用寿命。

Anode temperature simulation 阳极温度模拟

Calculating anode temperatures on the basis of the above described formulas is not sufficient to determine the dynamic spatial and temporal temperature distributions in complex tube designs. In such cases, the object can be physically and geometrically modeled via FEM (finite element-method) with the help of a dedicated computer simulation program. Here, the temperature is calculated for each small element, taking into account contributions from all neighboring areas. This enables one to obtain the spatial temperatures and the thermal mechanical stress for the whole object in relation to the applicable input power and time (fig. 12.31). Furthermore, it also yields parameters such as temperature rise, temperature gradients in the focus, temperature in the focal track, temperature in the brazing layer and stress in the target surface.
根据上述公式计算阳极温度不足以确定复杂管道设计中的动态时空温度分布。在这种情况下，可借助专用计算机模拟程序，通过FEM（有限元法）对对象进行物理和几何建模。这里，考虑到所有相邻区域的贡献，计算每个小元素的温度。这使得我们能够获得整个物体相对于适用输入功率和时间的空间温度和热机械应力（图12.31）。此外，它还产生诸如温升、焦点中的温度梯度、焦点轨迹中的温度、钎焊层中的温度和目标表面中的应力等参数。

12.1.5 X-ray tube vacuum envelopes X射线管真空封套

Vacuum enclosure 真空外壳

Correct X-ray tube functioning depends on the capacity of the electrons to avoid collisions with gas particles as they move from the cathode to the anode. This requirement makes the establishment of mean free paths in the order of several meters necessary (corresponding to gas pressures smaller than 10-4 mbar). The key role of all tube envelopes is to make such a vacuum possible and to maintain it for the entire service life of the tube.
正确的X射线管功能取决于电子在从阴极移动到阳极时避免与气体粒子碰撞的能力。这一要求使得需要建立几米量级的平均自由路径（对应于小于10-4 mbar的气体压力）。所有管道外壳的关键作用是使真空成为可能，并在管道的整个使用寿命内保持真空。

旋转阳极板内热分布的理论计算；使用有限元方法进行计算。

The manufacturing process usually includes the deployment of turbomolecular pumps to evacuate the X-ray tube to an internal pressure of less than $10^{-6}$ mbar. The enclosure’s maximum permissible effective leakage rate may not exceed $10^{-15}$ mbar l/s [12.28]. Operation at high power levels increases the initial internal pressure owing to the desorption of bound gasses caused by the increased temperature in the tube components. This process, however, is normally reversible. Furthermore, the rise in pressure can be counterbalanced by application of so-called getter materials (e.g. porous zirconium sinter bodies) in the tube [12.29].
制造过程通常包括部署涡轮分子泵，将X射线管排空至小于$10^{-6}$mbar的内部压力。外壳的最大允许有效泄漏率不得超过$10^{-15}$毫巴升/秒[12.28]。由于管组件中温度升高导致束缚气体解吸，因此在高功率水平下运行会增加初始内部压力。然而，这个过程通常是可逆的。此外，压力上升可以通过在管道中使用所谓的吸气剂材料（例如多孔锆烧结体）来抵消[12.29]。

In what follows, we discuss the design and the choice of materials.接下来，我们将讨论设计和材料的选择。

X - ray tube envelopes used to be made exclusively of special glass materials (fig. 12.32a). As the technology developed, these were then replaced by so-called metal center-part tubes (fig. 12.32b) whose configurations were characterized by the use of glass only at the anode and cathode sites and the use of metals such as stainless steel, copper and Cu-Ni alloys for the center part of the tube. In the case of bipolar tubes, the center part is usually grounded in order to divert the high number of reflected electrons that originate from the anode focal spot and strike the tube envelope. Up to 15-20% of the original input power can be carried by these electrons to the tube envelope. The percentage of reflected energy is even higher (up to 30-35%) in the case of an anode-grounded tube design. Modern tube envelopes are made almost entirely of metal (fig. 12.32c). Ceramic inserts of highly purified aluminum oxide are used at the anode and cathode sites (metal ceramic tubes) for purposes of insulation.
X射线管的外壳过去只由特殊的玻璃材料制成（图12.32a）。随着技术的发展，这些管被所谓的金属中心部分管（图12.32b）所取代，其结构特点是仅在阳极和阴极位置使用玻璃，并且在管的中心部分使用不锈钢、铜和铜镍合金等金属。在双极管的情况下，中心部分通常接地，以转移来自阳极焦点的大量反射电子并撞击管外壳。高达15-20%的原始输入功率可由这些电子传送到管壳。在阳极接地管设计的情况下，反射能量的百分比甚至更高（高达30-35%）。现代的管子外壳几乎全部由金属制成（图12.32c）。在阳极和阴极位置（金属陶瓷管）使用高纯度氧化铝陶瓷嵌件进行绝缘。

不同类型的管封套。a） 玻璃外壳，b）金属玻璃外壳，c）带陶瓷绝缘体的金属外壳

Mechanical and thermal stability 机械和热稳定性

In addition to providing a vacuum enclosure, the tube envelope also serves as a backbone for the mechanical fixing of the individual X-ray tube components. Particularly high demands are placed on the mechanical stability of the envelope in order to maintain the stability of the focusing position on the anode. The highest forces acting on the tube enclosure are caused by the centrifugal acceleration of more than 20 g (g= earth acceleration) in modern CT scanners:
除了提供真空外壳外，该管外壳还用作单个X射线管组件机械固定的主干。为了保持阳极上聚焦位置的稳定性，对外壳的机械稳定性提出了特别高的要求。作用在管外壳上的最大力是由现代CT扫描仪中超过20 g（g=地球加速度）的离心加速度引起的：

a：离心加速度，r：机架半径f：CT机架的旋转频率

Typical values for the parameters are r = 0.6 m and f = 1 to 3 Hz.
参数的典型值为r=0.6米，f=1至3赫兹。

The tube cover is also required to withstand the difference between the tube vacuum pressure and the pressure within the tube housing. This pressure difference may be higher than 3 bar in specific designs.
管盖还需要承受管真空压力和管壳内压力之间的差异。在特定设计中，该压差可能高于3bar。

Metal enclosures also represent a safety feature in that they protect the patient from anode system bursting at high rotational speeds.
金属外壳也代表了一种安全特性，因为它们可以保护患者免受阳极系统在高转速下爆裂的影响。

Finally, tube envelopes are also required to exhibit sufficient mechanical resistance to strong local stresses that arise in connection with temperature changes during tube operation. High temperature gradients in the envelope material are especially possibile in the vicinity of the focal spot, where the above-mentioned reflected electrons hit the tube envelope.
最后，还要求管道外壳具有足够的机械阻力，以抵抗管道运行期间因温度变化而产生的强局部应力。包络材料中的高温梯度尤其可能出现在焦点附近，上述反射电子撞击管包络。

Electrical insulation 电绝缘

In addition to proper vacuum enclosure and mechanical stability, the tube envelope is also required to provide electrical insulation for the applied tube voltages relative to one another and to the system ground. Special glass or ceramic feed-through elements are used to connect the cathode and anode to the high voltage power supply. The high voltage potentials at the anode and cathode must remain reliably insulated throughout the tube’s service life. The glass bulbs used in the past proved deficient in this regard on account of the formation of vaporized metal films on their inner surfaces. While production is currently dominated by metal ceramic tube envelopes, the introduction of this technology was also marked by certain drawbacks. For instance, the high specific resistance of the ceramic materials led to unwanted local charging effects and associated electrical breakdowns. This problem was finally resolved by the introduction of special shielding electrodes [12.30].
除了适当的真空外壳和机械稳定性外，还需要管外壳为施加的管电压相互之间和系统接地提供电气绝缘。特殊的玻璃或陶瓷馈电元件用于将阴极和阳极连接到高压电源。阳极和阴极的高压电位必须在管子的整个使用寿命内保持可靠绝缘。过去使用的玻璃灯泡在这方面存在缺陷，因为在其内表面上会形成蒸发的金属膜。虽然目前生产主要是金属陶瓷管封套，但这种技术的引入也存在一些缺陷。例如，陶瓷材料的高比电阻导致不必要的局部充电效应和相关的电气故障。通过引入特殊的屏蔽电极[12.30]，这个问题最终得以解决。

Heat dissipation 散热

Nearly all dissipated heat is required to leave the tube during operation via the tube envelope so that it can be absorbed by the cooling medium circulating around the tube envelope in the tube housing. High performance X-ray tubes rely on the capacity of all tube envelope materials to deliver high heat conductivity and a high absorption coefficient for thermal radiation (at the vacuum side).
在运行过程中，几乎所有的散热都需要通过管壳离开管，以便被管壳中围绕管壳循环的冷却介质吸收。高性能X射线管依赖于所有管壳材料的能力，以提供高导热性和高热辐射吸收系数（在真空侧）。

Maximum spectral intensity distribution for tubes designed for radiation cooling lies within a wavelength band of around 2 μm at a temperature of 1,500 K [12.31]. Optimal radiation transfer to the envelope depends on an optimization of the absorption coefficient for the inner surface of the tube enclosure, especially with respect to the regions of the main heat exchange in the vicinity of the anode. This can be achieved by mechanical roughening (A Ý 0.5) or the use of a coating (A Ý 0.9).
设计用于辐射冷却的管的最大光谱强度分布位于1500 K温度下约2μm的波长范围内[12.31]。到外壳的最佳辐射传递取决于管外壳内表面吸收系数的优化，尤其是阳极附近的主热交换区域。这可以通过机械粗化（AÝ0.5）或使用涂层（AÝ0.9）来实现。

Heat dissipation in the case of directly cooled tubes (e.g. rotating envelope tubes) is dominated by heat conduction through the solid envelope material. The thermal conduction coefficients of the applied materials thus play a dominant role.
直接冷却管（如旋转外壳管）的散热主要是通过固体外壳材料进行的热传导。因此，应用材料的热传导系数起主导作用。

Magnetic properties 磁性

In order to increase image quality in CT applications, an external electromagnetic deflection system consisting of magnetic coils is sometimes used as a means of electronically controlling the focal spot position. In this case, the tube enclosure is required to be non-magnetic, at least in the relevant regions. Furthermore, the specific electrical resistance has to be large enough in order to avoid excessive eddy current losses. While glass offers ideal properties in light of the requirements, metals such as austenitic steel and Cu-Ni alloys can also be used [12.7].
为了提高CT应用中的图像质量，有时使用由磁线圈组成的外部电磁偏转系统作为电子控制焦点位置的手段。在这种情况下，要求管外壳至少在相关区域为非磁性。此外，比电阻必须足够大，以避免涡流损耗过大。 虽然玻璃根据要求提供了理想的性能，但也可以使用奥氏体钢和铜镍合金等金属[12.7]。

X-ray absorption properties X射线吸收特性

Only a small fraction of the X-rays emerging isotropically from the focal spot contributes to imaging. All other X-rays need to be blocked to protect the operator and the patients. For this reason, envelope materials that offer high X-ray absorption rates are desirable, especially for the half space above the anode plate. Assuming that appropriate envelope materials are selected, a good proportion of the unwanted radiation will be absorbed close to its origin. This permits a reduction in the amount of shielding material that is incorporated in the tube housing to meet requirements relating to radiation leakage.
只有一小部分的X射线从焦点各向同性地射出，有助于成像。所有其他X射线都需要屏蔽，以保护操作员和患者。因此，需要提供高X射线吸收率的外壳材料，尤其是阳极板上方的半空间。假设选择了合适的包层材料，在靠近其原点的位置将吸收相当大比例的不必要辐射。这允许减少管壳中包含的屏蔽材料量，以满足与辐射泄漏相关的要求。

In contrast, the used X-ray beam should ideally remain uninfluenced when passing the tube envelope, unless a degree of modulation is desired (e.g. to harden the radiation). This contradiction is solved by incorporating X-ray windows into the tube envelope:
相比之下，所使用的X射线束在通过管壳时应理想地保持不受影响，除非需要一定程度的调制（例如，使辐射硬化）。通过将X射线窗口合并到管封套中，解决了这一矛盾：

• In glass tubes, the thickness of the tube envelope is diminished in the region where the applied X-ray beam leaves the tube. 在玻璃管中，在应用的X射线束离开管的区域内，管外壳的厚度减小。
• In metal tubes, specially designed metal windows consisting of beryllium or titanium (also for radiation hardening) are used. 在金属管中，使用由铍或钛（也用于辐射硬化）组成的特殊设计的金属窗。

12.1.6 Casing design 套管设计

The first X-ray tubes developed by Roentgen at the end of the 19th century had no additional casing besides the tube envelope. Today, the housing of an X-ray tube is an integral part of the system. It combines various functions necessary for the safe operation of the X-ray tube:
19世纪末，伦琴发明的第一批X射线管除了管壳外没有额外的外壳。如今，X射线管的外壳是该系统不可分割的一部分。它结合了X射线管安全运行所需的各种功能：

• X-ray shielding to protect the patient and operator 保护患者和操作员的X射线屏蔽
• High voltage tube connection and insulation 高压管连接和绝缘
• Mechanical interface between tube and system environment 管道与系统环境之间的机械接口

典型旋转阳极管周围的外壳和外围部件

西门子阿克伦管位于其外壳内。X射线窗口在顶部清晰可见。

Potential materials for shielding include heavy metals such as lead, molybdenum and tantalum. Lead is often used because it is cheap and easily available in sufficient quantities. Lead sheets are typically glued to the inner wall of the tube housing. Given that raw lead would have a negative impact on the quality of the cooling and insulation oil, all lead surfaces are usually coated.
潜在的屏蔽材料包括铅、钼和钽等重金属。铅之所以经常被使用，是因为它便宜且容易获得足够的数量。铅板通常粘在管壳内壁上。考虑到未加工的铅会对冷却油和绝缘油的质量产生负面影响，所有铅表面通常都有涂层。

High-voltage connection and insulation 高压连接和绝缘

The design of the tube housing assembly is required to guarantee a sufficient distance between the high voltage parts and the casing. Edges should be rounded off in order to avoid high electrical field strength. The risk of arcing can be reduced by spatially concentrating parts possessing high electrical potential towards the center of the tube housing and by introducing long insulation (creeping) distances (e.g. along roughened polymer or ceramic insulators). Furthermore, filling the space between the X-ray tube and the tube envelope with oil will provide both electrical insulation and cooling.
管壳组件的设计需要保证高压部件和外壳之间有足够的距离。边缘应磨圆，以避免高电场强度。通过将具有高电势的零件空间集中在管壳中心，并引入长距离绝缘（爬电）距离（例如沿粗糙的聚合物或陶瓷绝缘子），可以降低电弧风险。此外，用油填充X射线管和管外壳之间的空间将提供电气绝缘和冷却。

Most medical X-ray tube systems today are filled with mineral oil for purposes of cooling and insulation. However, air-cooled tube systems are also available. If oil is used for the sake of cooling, it is necessary to make sure that a sufficiently strong stream of oil is directed to the hot spots in the tube envelope.
如今，大多数医用X射线管系统都充满了矿物油，用于冷却和隔热。但是，也可以使用风冷管系统。如果为了冷却而使用机油，则必须确保将足够强的机油流引导至管壳中的热点。

A large portion of the heat that is generated during the operation of classical rotary anode tubes is stored in the anode plate and then slowly transferred to the tube envelope (and to the surrounding cooling oil) during the necessary cool-down phase following tube operation. The overall cooling system is required to provide continuous cooling of the average tube power (e.g. via the deployment of a heat exchanger connected to the primary oil circuit).
传统旋转阳极管运行期间产生的大部分热量储存在阳极板中，然后在管运行后的必要冷却阶段缓慢转移到管壳（以及周围的冷却油）。整个冷却系统需要提供平均管功率的连续冷却（例如，通过部署连接到主油路的热交换器）。

In the case of rotating envelope tubes, the generated heat is transferred almost instantaneously from the anode to the surrounding cooling oil during operation. This design relies on turbulent and significantly faster cooling oil streams and dramatically increased oil volumes per time period to fully support tube performance. A high performance cooling system with sufficiently high peak power is required. The introduction of an oil reservoir in the oil circuit represents an alternative. Here, the reservoir acts as a heat reservoir (~10 l oil have the same heat storage capacity as 1,000 cm3 of the typical anode materials used in conventional rotating anode tubes). The use of latency heat reservoirs (as commonly used in automobiles) would also represent an option.
在旋转外壳管的情况下，产生的热量在运行期间几乎瞬间从阳极转移到周围的冷却油。这种设计依赖于湍流和显著更快的冷却油流，以及每一时间段显著增加的油量，以充分支持管道性能。需要具有足够高峰值功率的高性能冷却系统。在油路中引入储油器是一种替代方案。在这里，蓄热器充当蓄热器（~10升油的蓄热能力与传统旋转阳极管中使用的1000 cm3典型阳极材料相同）。使用蓄热器（通常用于汽车）也是一种选择。

The only rotating envelope tube system that is commercially available today (Siemens Straton) uses an oil reservoir for the interim storage of thermal energy.
目前市场上唯一的旋转包络管系统（西门子Straton）使用储油器临时储存热能。

The cooling capacity of today’s tube cooling systems ranges (depending on the throughput of cooling air) from around 7 to 10 kW. This amounts to a cooling capacity equal to the task of dissipating the heat emission from an open fire.
今天的管式冷却系统的冷却能力范围（取决于冷却空气的流量）约为7到10千瓦。这相当于一个冷却能力，相当于从明火中散发热量的任务。

Mechanical interface 机械接口

The housing is the mechanical interface between the tube and the X-ray system (e.g. a CT scanner or an angiography system). The rotation of the CT gantry in CT applications (fig. 12.36) generates centrifugal forces that act on the housing and the tube (up to 30 g). Both the tube envelope (as mentioned above) and the entire tube housing assembly with its weight of about 50 kg are required to resist these forces and the additional mechanical stress caused by temperature gradients.
外壳是管子和X射线系统（例如CT扫描仪或血管造影系统）之间的机械接口。CT应用中CT机架的旋转（图12.36）产生离心力，作用在外壳和管道上（高达30g）。管外壳（如上所述）和整个管壳组件（重量约为50 kg）都需要抵抗这些力和温度梯度引起的附加机械应力。

In addition to the tube envelope, the tube housing is also required to guarantee the stability and the accuracy of the focal spot position when exposed to high centrifugal forces and thermal stress. Sophisticated design methods such as 3D-CAD systems and FEM (finite element method) simulations represent essential tools of modern tube housing design when it comes to fulfilling these complex requirements.
除了管外壳外，还需要管外壳，以确保在暴露于高离心力和热应力时焦点位置的稳定性和准确性。复杂的设计方法，如3D-CAD系统和FEM（有限元法）模拟，在满足这些复杂要求时，代表了现代管壳设计的基本工具。

CT扫描仪的开放式机架（卸下盖子）视图（显示旋转和离心力）