《Imaging Systems For Medical Diagnostics》——12. X-ray components and systems (2) X射线组件和系统（2）

《Imaging System 医学影像》@EnzoReventon

《Imaging Systems For Medical Diagnostics》——12.X-ray components and systems——12.2 X-ray generators X射线发生器

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12.2.1 General requirements 一般要求
12.2.2 Technical aspects 技术方面
12.2.3 Control circuits 控制电路
12.2.4 Exposure control in direct radiography直接射线照相中的曝光控制
12.2.5 Exposure control in indirect radiography 间接射线照相中的曝光控制
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12.2.1 General requirements 一般要求

The X-ray generator numbers among an X-ray imaging system’s crucial components because it effects and controls the setting of the exposure parameters. X-ray generator functioning thus has a direct effect on the contrast and detail perceptibility of the X-ray image. We will use in this paragraph the technical terms as are defined for medical equipment in [12.33].
X射线发生器是X射线成像系统的关键部件之一，因为它影响并控制曝光参数的设置。因此，X射线发生器的功能直接影响X射线图像的对比度和细节感知能力。在本段中，我们将使用[12.33]中定义的医疗设备技术术语。

Certain generator parameters, including X-ray tube voltage U (kV), X-ray tube current I (mA) and irradiation time T (s), determine the air kerma K (μGy) or the dose behind the patient that is detected by the image receptor. Dose and selected exposure parameters are empirically related by：
某些发生器参数，包括X射线管电压U（kV）、X射线管电流I（mA）和照射时间T（s），决定图像接收器检测到的空气比释动能K（μGy）或患者背后的剂量。剂量和选定的暴露参数在经验上与下式相关：

The detected dose does not only depend on the irradiated object, but also on the beam quality or X-ray spectrum, which is determined by the tube’s anode material, the filtration of the primary beam and the ripple in the X-ray tube voltage. The value of n is approximately 3 for X-ray tube voltages around 150 kV. The lower the X-ray tube voltage and the thicker the patient, the higher is the value of n, which will increase to values of 5 or more at voltages of around 50 kV [12.34].
检测到的剂量不仅取决于被照射物体，还取决于光束质量或X射线光谱，这取决于管的阳极材料、主光束的过滤和X射线管电压中的纹波。对于150 kV左右的X射线管电压，n值约为3。X射线管电压越低，患者越厚，n值越高，在50 kV左右的电压下，n值将增加到5或更多[12.34]。

The X-ray tube voltage determines the upper limit of the X-radiation’s energy. When accounting for filtration and ripple, it determines the spectral distribution of the X-radiation, and thus image characteristics as well. The task of selecting the appropriate X-ray tube voltage is primarily a matter of answering specific diagnostic questions:
X射线管电压决定X射线能量的上限。当考虑过滤和波纹时，它决定了X射线的光谱分布，从而也决定了图像特征。选择适当的X射线管电压的任务主要是回答特定的诊断问题：

• What object is to be examined? 检查的对象是什么？
• What contrast ratio is important for the diagnosis? A radiograph of thoracic bone structure, for example, requires 66 kV, whereas a chest radiograph requires at least 125 kV (i.e. to permit a diagnosis of the lung tissue behind the ribs). 什么对比度对诊断很重要？例如，胸骨结构的射线照片需要66千伏电压，而胸片至少需要125千伏电压（即允许诊断肋骨后面的肺组织）。

Ripple in the X-ray tube voltage causes an increase in the low energy part of the X-ray spectrum [12.35] (fig. 12.37). Given that this part of the spectrum is largely absorbed by tissue without contributing to image generation, it is essential to minimize ripple, with constant potential representing the ideal case.
X射线管电压波动导致X射线光谱的低能部分增加[12.35]（图12.37）。鉴于这部分光谱大部分被组织吸收，而不会产生图像，因此有必要将波纹最小化，恒定电位代表理想情况。

While focal spot size determines the sharpness of the X-ray image, it also limits the X-ray tube’s maximum electric power $P_{Tube}(t)$. The maximum tube current Imax(t) is derived from the tube voltage U, which is selected on the basis of the image contrast criteria for the object under investigation:
虽然焦点尺寸决定了X射线图像的清晰度，但它也限制了X射线管的最大电功率$P_{Tube}(t)$。最大管电流$I_{max}（t）$来自管电压U，该电压U是根据被调查对象的图像对比度标准选择的：

The last parameter that has an effect on the dose is the irradiation time T. This time should be short enough to ensure sharp images of moving organs. Heart and lung tissue movements can reach velocities of up to 200 mm/s [12.36] and artery vessels pulse at similar velocities. X-ray examinations in children are particularly influenced by fast organ movements, as children exhibit faster heart-beat and breathing rates.
影响剂量的最后一个参数是照射时间T。该时间应足够短，以确保运动器官的清晰图像。心脏和肺组织的运动速度可达200mm/s[12.36]，动脉血管的脉动速度相似。儿童的X光检查尤其受到快速器官运动的影响，因为儿童表现出更快的心跳和呼吸频率。

Given that dose at a given voltage is proportional to tube current and irradiation time, the value of the selected charge Q = I T (mAs) as an exposure parameter should not exceed the tube’s power limit.
假设给定电压下的剂量与管电流和辐照时间成正比，作为曝光参数的选定电荷Q=it（mAs）的值不应超过管的功率限制。

The reproducibility of X-ray generator parameters is essential for obtaining constant image quality. Regular checks of generator parameters are therefore compulsory in many countries [12.37]. Restricting patient radiation exposure to values that are effective for image formation is a matter of basic X-radiation hygiene. The X-ray generator is required to quickly reach the nominal value of the X-ray tube voltage and then switch off immediately after achieving the right dose for an image of an appropriate brightness.
X射线发生器参数的再现性对于获得恒定的图像质量至关重要。因此，在许多国家，发射器参数的定期检查是强制性的[12.37]。将患者辐射暴露限制在对成像有效的范围内是基本X射线卫生问题。要求X射线发生器快速达到X射线管电压的标称值，然后在达到适当亮度图像的正确剂量后立即关闭。

These requirements (i.e. optimal image quality and patient/operator safety) have led to a number of developments in the area of automatic exposure control (AEC) that can be applied to various kinds of X-ray examinations.
这些要求（即最佳图像质量和患者/操作员安全）导致了可应用于各种X射线检查的自动曝光控制（AEC）领域的一些发展。

Operating range 工作范围

The operating range of an X-ray generator is shown in fig. 12.38. The nominal electric power is defined [12.33] as the highest constant electric output in kilowatts that can be delivered for a single X-ray tube load of U = 100 kV at a loading time of 0.1 s:
X射线发生器的工作范围如图12所示。38标称电功率定义为[12.33]，即在0的加载时间下，单个X射线管负载为U=100 kV时可提供的最高恒定电输出，单位为千瓦每1s:

The value of f depends on the voltage waveform. This value is 0.95 for six-peak and 1.00 for twelve-peak and constant potential high-voltage generators. Inverter generators (see below) are comparable to constant potential high-voltage generators.
F 的值取决于电压波形。这个值是0.95六峰和1.00十二峰和恒电位高压发电机。逆变发电机(见下文)是可比的恒定电位高压发电机。

X-ray generators used in the area of dental diagnostics and mammography are outfitted for a maximum electric power of up to 5 kW. Mobile generators (sometimes battery-powered) are outfitted for a maximum power of up to 20 kW and fixed-installation generators used for general medical diagnostic purposes and CT are outfitted for a maximum power of up to 80 kW or more. Generators used for angiography, which involves very short irradiation times and high X-ray tube currents, exhibit a maximum electric power of up to 100 kW (fig. 12.38). Tube current I is usually around 0.1 mA for fluoroscopy and as high as 1,000 mA for radiography.
X 射线发生器用于牙科诊断和乳房 x 光照相领域，配备了最大电力高达5千瓦。移动式发电机(有时以电池供电)配备的最大功率为20千瓦，用于一般医疗诊断的固定安装式发电机和 ct 配备的最大功率为80千瓦或以上。血管造影用发生器，涉及非常短的照射时间和高的 x 射线管电流，显示最大电功率高达100千瓦(图12.38)。管电流 i 通常约0.1毫安的透视和高达1,000毫安放射线。

Exposure time and reproducibility

Fig. 12.39 illustrates the definition of exposure time as specified by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) [12.33]. Standards have also been established for linearity and intermittent-mode constancy (switching tube current time product) as well as for system functions related to automatic exposure control (see section 12.2.4). Due to the discharge of high-voltage capacitors following switch-off, the actual current time product may be slightly larger than the pre-selected value. One exposure point in an exposure table [12.32] for X-ray diagnostics corresponds to a dose change of 25%, an easily discernable change in the density of an X-ray film.
图12.39示出国际电工委员会[12.33]所指定的曝光时间的定义。此外，还为线性和间歇模式恒常性(开关管电流时间积)以及与自动曝光控制有关的系统功能制定了标准(见第12.2.4节)。由于高压电容器在关断后放电，实际电流时间积可能略大于预选值。用于 x 射线诊断的曝光表[12.32]中的一个曝光点相当于25% 的剂量变化，这是一种很容易辨别的 x 射线胶片密度变化。
X 射线照射的负荷和照射时间(帧与帧之间可接受的剂量 k 容许值)

Earlier generator technology based on thyristor inverters remained saddled with the problem of offering no way of influencing a charge amount ΔQ triggered just prior to the switch-off signal. The new high frequency inverter systems based on transistor technology represent a significant improvement in this regard. ΔQ is reduced thanks to the transistor inverter’s higher frequency and the possibility of switching off a transistor at any time.
早期基于晶闸管逆变器的发电机技术仍然存在无法影响关断信号之前触发的充电量 q 的问题。基于晶体管技术的新型高频逆变系统在这方面有了显著的改进。由于晶体管逆变器的更高频率和随时关闭晶体管的可能性，充电量q 值降低了。

12.2.2 Technical aspects 技术方面

In order to achieve constant image quality, the output characteristics of state-of-theart generators, including power, tube voltage and current, should not exceed tolerances of more than 5%. Conventional six- and twelve-peak generators still in use show tolerances between 10% and 20% at best. These types of generators involve line-frequency feeding of a high-voltage transformer. The rectified voltage on the secondary side acts as anode voltage for the X-ray tube. This technology is quickly being replaced by inverter type generators.
为了获得恒定的图像质量，最先进的发电机的输出特性，包括功率，管电压和电流，不应超过5% 的公差。目前仍在使用的传统六峰和十二峰发电机的容差最多在10% 到20% 之间。这些类型的发电机包括高压变压器的线频馈电。二次侧的整流电压作为 x 射线管的阳极电压。这种技术很快就会被逆变式发电机所取代。

Constant potential high-voltage generators use parallel capacitors and a control circuit between the rectified high-voltage and the X-ray tube. This control is based on triodes or tetrodes, and yields voltage tolerances as low as 0.1%. Although they are still in use for special applications (e.g. electron beam tomography, which depends on very constant potentials), constant potential high-voltage generators are also being replaced by inverter type generators owing to their high production cost and volume coverage.
恒压高压发生器使用并联电容器和整流高压与 x 射线管之间的控制电路。这种控制是基于三极管或四极管，产生的电压公差低至0.1% 。虽然它们仍然用于特殊应用(例如电子束层析成像，它依赖于非常恒定的电位) ，但由于它们的高生产成本和体积覆盖率，恒定电位的高压发电机也被变频式发电机所取代。

The inverter type high-voltage generator (or high frequency X-ray generator) preserves the positive aspects of constant potential high-voltage generators with regard to reproducibility and tube voltage constancy and their principle of operation ensures that their output voltage remains largely unaffected by power-source voltage fluctuations and X-ray tube current. Further advantages include their small size and low production costs. All of these advantages have contributed to the establishment of the high frequency or inverter type generator’s status as a standard component in all fields of X-ray diagnostics, including computed tomography, mammography and other areas where variable high-power DC voltage is required (e.g. gradient PSUs for MRI).
逆变式高压发生器(或高频 x 射线发生器)保留了恒电位高压发生器在重复性和管电压稳定性方面的优点，其工作原理保证了其输出电压基本不受电源电压波动和 x 射线管电流的影响。其他的优点包括体积小和生产成本低。所有这些优点都有助于建立高频或逆变式发电机的地位，作为标准组成部分的所有领域的 x 射线诊断，包括 X射线计算机断层成像，乳房 x 光造影和其他领域，可变大功率直流电压的要求(例如梯度 psus 的核磁共振成像)。

Fig. 12.40 shows the high frequency generator’s principle components. The most important properties of these components include:
图12.40显示了高频发生器的主要部件。这些部件最重要的特性包括:

• Controlled or non-controlled intermediate DC voltage UDC with more or less ripple generated by power source rectification. Although the electric output power will naturally differ, the same high-voltage quality can be obtained from a single-phase power source as from a 3-phase power source.由电源整流产生或多或少纹波的受控或非受控中间直流电压。虽然输出功率自然会有所不同，但单相电源和三相电源可以获得相同的高电压质量。
• The DC/AC inverter uses the intermediate DC voltage to produce a high frequency alternating current. This feeds a dedicated high-voltage transformer, which is connected on its secondary side to a high-voltage rectifier and smoothing capacitor. The high frequency inverter normally applies pulse width modulation or acts as a resonant circuit type [12.38], depending on the power switches used. Dc/ac 逆变器利用中间直流电压产生高频交流电。这输入一个专用的高压变压器，这是连接在其二次侧的高压整流器和平滑电容器。高频逆变器通常采用脉冲宽度调制或作为谐振电路类型[12.38] ，这取决于所使用的电源开关。
• Given that it allows for a reduction in the transformer core cross section, the transformation of high frequency AC voltage yields a very small high-voltage transformer volume. 考虑到它可以减少变压器铁心截面，高频交流电压的变换产生非常小的高压变压器体积。
• X-ray tube voltage and current can be controlled independently and are largely unaffected by power source voltage fluctuations. X 射线管电压和电流可以独立控制，并且基本上不受电源电压波动的影响。
• The electronic X-ray tube voltage control exhibits a response time of 0.1 ms or less. 所述电子 x 射线管电压控制器的响应时间为0.1 ms 或更短。

高频 x 射线发生器的原理

12.2.3 Control circuits 控制电路

Inverter system and X-ray tube voltage control circuit

The use of semiconductor power switch thyristors in inverter systems at the beginning of the 1980s led to dramatic changes in X-ray generator technology. This thyristor technology enabled one to design smaller systems with lower range kHz frequencies to achieve enhanced data reproducibility. Subsequent developments, including bipolar transistors and new power devices, such as metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), then introduced the possibility of increasing frequencies above the hearing limit. Today, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which exhibit both the high impedance characteristic of MOSFETs and the low on-state voltage characteristic of bipolar transistors, are the devices of choice for use in inverters. Frequencies have increased up to 100 kHz or more, resulting in enhanced performance and smaller packaging.
上世纪80年代初，半导体功率开关晶闸管在逆变器系统中的应用导致了 x 射线发生器技术的巨大变化。这种晶闸管技术使人们能够设计较小的系统与较低的千赫兹频率，以实现增强的数据重复性。随后的发展，包括双极晶体管和新的功率器件，如金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管(mosfet) ，然后介绍了增加频率的可能性以上的听力限制。**绝缘栅双极晶体管(igbts)**具有 mosfet 的高阻抗特性和双极晶体管的低通态电压特性，是目前逆变器的首选器件。频率已增加到100千赫或更多，导致增强的性能和更小的包装。

Thanks to limitations of power losses of these silicon components, a further increase of the inverter frequency and with it generator performance has reached a limit. New devices with higher reverse voltage, smaller leakage current and reduced capacity are under development. Silicon carbide (SiC) is considered the most promising semiconducting material for this purpose [12.39].
由于这些硅元件的功率损耗的限制，逆变器频率的进一步增加以及随之而来的发电机性能已达到极限。目前正在研制反向电压更高、漏电流更小、容量更小的新型器件。在这方面，碳化硅被认为是最有前途的半导体材料[12.39]。

• The principle behind the high-voltage closed loop control circuit is shown in fig. 12.41. The actual value of the X-ray tube voltage $U_{act}$ is measured and compared to the nominal value $U_{nom}$ selected by the operator at the control console in a comparator circuit. The comparator triggers the power switches in the inverter and these feed the high-voltage transformer with current pulses. The speed of this control system depends mainly on the inverter frequency. Although it is not quite as fast as constant potential high-voltage generators, the inverter easily exceeds the speed of conventional multi-peak rectifiers. The ripple in the resulting voltage on the secondary side of the transformer is influenced mainly by the inverter frequency, the internal smoothing capacity, the capacity of the high-voltage supply cables and the value $U_{DC}$ of the intermediate DC voltage.高压闭环控制电路的原理如图12.41所示。测量 x 射线管电压 $U_{act}$的实际值，并与操作员在比较器电路的控制台上选择的名义值$U_{nom}$ 进行比较。比较器触发电源开关的逆变器和这些饲料与电流脉冲高压变压器。该控制系统的速度主要取决于逆变器的频率。虽然它不如恒电位高压发电机快，但是逆变器很容易超过传统的多峰整流器的速度。变压器二次侧产生的电压纹波主要受逆变器频率、内部平滑容量、高压供电电缆容量和中间直流电压值的影响。
  

Filament circuit and current control

As shown in section 12.1, tube current I is mainly determined by the temperature of the cathode, and therefore strongly depends on the filament current $I_F$. Fig. 12.42 shows the correlation between I and $I_F$ with anode voltage U as a parameter. $I_F$ directly determines the maximum current I at voltage U and is therefore in need of careful control.
如第12.1节所示，管电流 i 主要由阴极温度决定，因此强烈依赖于灯丝电流。图12.42显示了 i 和 $I_F$与阳极电压 u 作为参数的相关性。如果直接确定最大电流 i 在电压 u，因此需要小心控制。

An X-ray generator usually deploys two different modes of operation for filament control:
X 射线发生器通常有两种不同的操作模式来控制灯丝:

1. Preheating: when the system is in stand-by mode, the filament control circuit holds the filament to a temperature that is low enough to prevent the generation of X-radiation and that permits a rapid return to operation temperature. 预热: 当系统处于待机模式时，灯丝控制电路将灯丝保持在足够低的温度，以防止产生 x 辐射，并使其迅速回到工作温度。
2. Heating during X-radiation: the filament current is set and controlled to a value that conforms to the required maximum current for the X-ray tube at the chosen anode voltage. The latter is derived in accordance with the selected application (continuous or pulsed fluoroscopy or radiography) from the tube’s characteristic operating diagram. X 射线辐射加热: 灯丝电流设定并控制在符合 x 射线管在选定的阳极电压下所需的最大电流值。后者是根据所选用的应用(连续或脉冲透视或射线照相)从管的特征操作图推导出来的。

Given the steepness of the curve $I=f(I_F)$, filament current control requires very high precision. A variation of a mere 1% of $I_F$ will cause an unacceptable deviation in the X-ray tube current. The capacity to switch rapidly between fluoroscopy and radiography presupposes high filament current control standards.
考虑到曲线$I=f(I_F)$的陡峭程度，灯丝电流控制需要非常高的精度。只有1% 的$I_F$ 变化就会导致 x 射线管电流产生不可接受的偏差。能够在荧光透视和 x 射线照相之间快速切换预先设定了高灯丝电流控制标准。

灯丝电流、管电流和管电压依赖性

Fig. 12.43 shows a state-of-the-art filament current control circuit applying pulse frequency modulation. This control enables one to avoid low frequency power source ripple that can lead to the appearance of X-ray spectrum fluctuations in conventional filament circuits.图12.43示出了采用脉冲频率调制的最先进的灯丝电流控制电路。这种控制使人们能够避免低频电源纹波，可能导致出现 x 射线谱波动的传统灯丝电路。

Filament current control in conformity with the required tube current permits two types of operation. Either tube current I is kept constant during exposure (constant load) or it is modulated along a given curve (continuously falling load). In the latter case, the tube’s focal spot is allowed to remain at its maximum temperature. This results in a minimization of irradiation time and a reduction in motion-related blurring.
灯丝电流控制符合要求的管电流允许两种类型的操作。管电流 i 在曝光期间保持恒定(恒定负载)或者沿着给定的曲线调制(连续下降负载)。在后一种情况下，管子的焦点可以保持在最高温度，这将导致最小的照射时间和减少运动相关的模糊。

An internal microprocessor system updates the operating diagrams $I=f(I_F,U)$for all connected tubes during the X-ray generator’s set-up phase (service mode operation) and after X-ray tube changes. This is made necessary by cathode production tolerances. Finally, the independent control of tube voltage U, tube current I and irradiation time T by modern X-ray generators guarantees optimal image quality at minimum dose.
内部微处理器系统在 x 射线发生器的设置阶段(服务模式操作)和 x 射线管更换后更新所有连接管的操作图 $I=f(I_F,U)$。这是必要的阴极生产公差。最后，现代 x 射线发生器对管电压 u、管电流 i 和辐照时间 t 的独立控制保证了最小剂量下的最佳成像质量。

Rotating anode control 旋转阳极控制

X-ray tubes outfitted with rotating anodes permit considerably higher tube loads than X-ray tubes outfitted with fixed anodes. Modern anode drives use 3-phase asynchronous motors connected to 3-phase inverter systems to provide application-specific drive frequency. Asynchronous motors require large air gaps on account of the need to isolate the rotor (anode potential) from the stator (ground potential). This reduces the degree of efficiency of these motors compared to ordinary asynchronous motors.
配备旋转阳极的 x 射线管可以比配备固定阳极的 x 射线管承受更大的管负荷。现代阳极驱动器使用三相异步电动机连接到三相逆变器系统，以提供应用特定的驱动频率。由于需要隔离转子(阳极电位)和定子(地电位) ，异步电动机需要大的空气间隙。与普通异步电动机相比，这降低了这些电动机的效率。

Ball bearings used in vacuum X-ray tubes have limited service lives owing to their exposure to high temperatures and a lack of lubricant. For this reason (and also because of acoustic noise) the anode is only rotated during the loading. The anode is accelerated at the beginning of the X-radiation period and is usually decelerated as soon as the period has ended. The anode disk’s weight and torque define the acceleration time. This time can be minimized by continuously changing the drive frequency (the anode drive inverter’s output frequency) that is applied to the stator.
用于真空 x 射线管的滚珠轴承由于暴露于高温和缺乏润滑剂而使用寿命有限。由于这个原因(也是因为声音噪音) ，阳极只是在加载过程中旋转。阳极在 x 辐射周期开始时加速，通常在周期结束时减速。阳极盘的重量和扭矩决定了加速时间。通过连续改变驱动频率(阳极驱动逆变器的输出频率) ，可以最大限度地减少这个时间。

Tubes with liquid bearings permit higher anode loads and generate minimal noise. Thanks to the automatic lubrication of liquid bearings the anode of such a tube type is accelerated once to nominal drive frequency and driven all day long. X-radiation can be generated at any time, with only a slight delay as the filament current switches from its stand-by value to its operating value.
带有液体轴承的管子允许更高的阳极负荷，并产生最小的噪音。由于液体轴承的自动润滑，这种管式阳极一次加速到名义驱动频率，驱动一整天。X 射线可以在任何时间产生，只有一个轻微的延迟，因为灯丝电流开关从其备用值到其工作值。

Control console 控制台

User interfaces at the X-ray generator’s control console provide access to all of the X-ray generator system’s relevant data. The console permits one to set the nominal parameters, including X-ray tube voltage U, X-ray tube current I, irradiation time T and/or tube current time product. Depending on the radiological application involved, various adjustments are available:
X 射线发生器控制台的用户界面提供了对所有 x 射线发生器系统相关数据的访问。控制台允许用户设置标称参数，包括 x 射线管电压 u、 x 射线管电流 i、辐照时间 t 和/或管电流时间乘积。视乎所涉及的放射性应用而定，可作出不同的调整:

• Selection of X-ray tube voltage U (kV) X 射线管电压 u (kv)的选择
• Selection of X-ray tube voltage U (kV) and tube current time product (mAs) X 射线管电压 u (kv)与管电流时间乘积(mas)的选择
• Selection of X-ray tube voltage U (kV), X-ray tube current I (mA) (or tube current time product, mAs) and irradiation time T (ms) X 射线管电压 u (kv)、 x 射线管电流 i (ma)(或管电流时间乘积 mas)和辐照时间 t (ms)的选择

Several other parameters (e.g. maximum power, focal spot, automatic exposure control (AEC), measuring electrodes, X-ray film speed, film density corrections) are also set at the control console. Fig. 12.44 offers an illustration of a modern control design. In special cases, however, the user interface for the X-ray generator data is also integrated into the examination unit’s monitor, for instance, in CT systems or systems that apply digital image processing (e.g. DSA).
控制台还设置了其他一些参数(如最大功率、焦点、自动曝光控制、测量电极、 x 射线胶片速度、胶片密度校正)。图12.44给出了现代控制设计的示意图。然而，在特殊情况下，x 射线发生器数据的用户界面也集成到检查单元的监视器中，例如，ct 系统或应用数字图像处理的系统(例如 dsa)。

In order to optimize workflow and secure reproducible image quality, all of an X-ray investigation’s important radiographic parameters may be set via a single program button. This is usually assigned to anatomic regions.
为了优化工作流程，保证图像质量，x 射线检查的所有重要射线参数都可以通过一个程序按钮来设置。这通常是指定的解剖区域。

Actual data, including X-ray tube voltage and current and elapsed fluoroscopy time, are displayed in a dedicated area of the control console. If a special metering system is connected, the area exposure product $P_F(Gy\cdot m^2)$ will also be displayed.
实际数据，包括 x 射线管电压、电流和透视时间，显示在控制台的专用区域。如果连接一个特殊的测光系统，也会显示面积曝光积 $P_F(Gy\cdot m^2)$ 。

Optic and acoustic information is issued during the X-radiation period signal to the operator and support staff when the X-rays are applied. The status of the X-ray thermal tube load also represents important information for the operator. The generator system’s internal microprocessor calculates this value on the basis of the loading and cooling times and displays it as a percentage of the maximum load or as a unit of waiting time for a subsequent exposure. In this case, power might be reduced automatically.
当 x 射线被应用时，在 x 射线辐射期间向操作员和支持人员发出光学和声学信息。X 射线热管载荷的状态对操作者来说也是重要的信息。发电机系统的内部微处理器根据加载和冷却时间计算这个值，并以最大负荷的百分比或以后续曝光的等待时间单位显示。在这种情况下，电力可能会自动减少。

Finally, if use is not made of a foot switch or the release button on the examination unit, the operator has the option of releasing X-radiation by pressing a button on the console.
最后，如果使用的不是检测单元上的脚踏开关或释放按钮，操作者可以通过按控制台上的按钮来释放 x 射线。

12.2.4 Exposure control in direct radiography 直接 x 线摄影曝光控制

Fast control circuits for tube voltage and filament or tube current permit continuous dose adaptation during the exposure. Even rapid changes (e.g. pulsed fluoroscopy or cine operation, cf. section 12.2.5) can be applied during X-radiation. Several options are available for achieving correct exposure.
管电压和灯丝或管电流的快速控制电路允许在照射过程中连续适应剂量。甚至快速的改变(例如脉冲荧光检查或电影手术，参考12.2.5节)也可以在 x 射线照射中使用。有几种方法可以达到正确的曝光。

Primary timer 主定时器

The manual selection of all three parameters (i.e. tube voltage U, current I and irradiation time T) when deploying the three-point technique has become an exception and is now used only for blurring effects (e.g. in planigraphy) or breathing technique exposures. These latter involve intentionally moving a part of the body during X-ray exposure so that it is blurred and does not superimpose the image of the stationary part under investigation. The time setting is made according to the mechanical movement of the radiographic table or of the body part that is to be blurred. The exposure is terminated at the moment the time has elapsed. Since electric charge ${\int }_0^{1}I(t)dt$ determines image brightness and not tube current, modern X-ray generators are geared for the selection of the product of the tube current and irradiation time (mAs). The fast and accurate filament control system calculates and controls the X-ray tube current so as to ensure that the selected time is reached within small tolerances.
在使用三点技术时，全部三个参数(即电子管电压 u、电流 i 和辐照时间 t)的人工选择已成为例外，现时只用于模糊效果(例如平面摄影)或呼吸技术照射。后者涉及在 x 光照射时故意移动身体的一部分，使其模糊不清，不会叠加被调查的静止部分的图像。时间设定是根据射线照相台或将要模糊的身体部位的机械运动而定。时间一过，曝光就会终止。由于电荷 ${\int }_0^{1}I(t)dt$决定图像亮度而不是管电流，现代 x 射线发生器主要用于选择管电流和辐照时间的乘积。快速准确的灯丝控制系统对 x 射线管电流进行计算和控制，确保选择时间在小公差范围内。

Tube current time product timer (“mAs timer”) 管电流时间积计时器(“ mas 计时器”)

If a long irradiation time is not explicitly required, the operator need only select the tube voltage and current time product for the organ or region of the patient to be imaged (two-point technique). The generator’s control system automatically adjusts the tube current to tube and generator performance, integrates the current and then switches off so as to keep irradiation time to a minimum.
如果没有明确要求长时间照射，操作者只需选择要成像的器官或区域的管电压和电流时间乘积(两点技术)。发电机的控制系统自动调节管路电流至管路和发电机性能，整合电流后关断，使照射时间最小。

Automatic exposure control (AEC) 自动曝光控制

Users whose systems include automatic exposure control need only to set the tube voltage to the corresponding region of investigation (one-point technique). The dose at the image receptor is measured and the AEC terminates the exposure as soon as the correct image brightness has been reached. The image region of greatest interest is often referred to as the dominant. Automatic exposure control can be incorporated into all systems whose X-ray equipment allows for the alignment of the AEC sensor with the dominant and whose collimated X-ray fields are not smaller than the AEC sensor area. AEC is currently widely used for direct radiography (i.e. film-cassette, photostimulable phosphor imaging plate and flat-panel digital X-ray detector) and indirect radiography, including digital fluorescence radiography (DFR) and digital subtraction angiography (DSA).
使用自动曝光控制系统的用户只需将管电压设置到相应的调查区域即可(单点技术)。一旦达到正确的图像亮度，就测量图像受体处的剂量，并且 aec 终止曝光。最感兴趣的图像区域通常被称为主导区域。。自动曝光控制可以纳入所有的系统，其 x 射线设备允许原子能委员会的传感器与主要的调整，其准直的 x 射线场不小于原子能委员会的传感器面积。Aec 目前广泛用于直接射线照相(即胶片盒、光刺激荧光显像板和平板数字 x 射线探测器)和间接射线照相，包括数字荧光照相(dfr)和数字减影血管造影(dsa)。

Automatic exposure control operates on the basis of dose rate measurements (fig. 12.45). A signal is yielded (via integration) that is proportional to the actual accumulated dose $K_{nom}$. X-radiation is terminated as soon as $K_{nom}$ coincides with a predefined nominal value $K_{nom}$. The latter is defined during system set-up.
自动曝光控制是在剂量率测量的基础上进行的(图12.45)。产生的信号(通过集成)与实际累积剂量$K_{act}$成比例。一旦$K_{act}$与预定的标称值$K_{nom}$重合，x射线辐射就终止。后者是在系统设置期间定义的。

剂量率测量原理和AEC。控制电路可以连接到物体前面的电离室，也可以连接到物体后面的半导体传感器。

Two types of AEC sensors are used in direct radiography:两种类型的AEC传感器用于直接射线照相:

• An ionization chamber is placed directly behind the anti-scatter grid in front of the image receptor. Current in the pA range proportional to the dose rate K is generated by the X-radiation in an air filled capacitor charged to 300-1,000 $V_{DC}$. Various sensor fields permit adaptation to the dominant. The ionization chamber is required to attenuate the imaging radiation as little as possible and to create no artifacts in the image.
  电离室直接放置在图像受体前面的反散射栅格的后面。在pA范围内的电流与剂量率K成正比，是由x辐射在一个充满空气的电容充电到300- 1000 $V_{DC}$。各种传感器领域允许适应主导。电离室需要衰减成像辐射尽可能少，并在图像中创建无伪影。

• Semiconductor sensors have to be placed behind the image receptor because they are much more opaque to X-radiation than ionization chambers. This enables one to reduce image receptor dose, a requirement that applies especially to mammography and pediatrics. However, given that X-radiation quality is changed by the image receptor, the AEC signal from the semiconductor sensor will not necessarily correspond to the image receptor dose. This fact, as well as the energy dependent X-ray absorption for all of the image receptor system’s components, must be taken into account in the context of exposure control.
  半导体传感器必须放置在图像接收器的后面，因为它们比电离室对x射线更不透明。这使患者能够减少图像受体的剂量，这一要求尤其适用于乳房x线照相术和儿科。但是，由于x射线的质量是由图像接收器改变的，因此半导体传感器发出的AEC信号不一定与图像接收器的剂量相对应。这一事实，以及所有图像受体系统组件的能量依赖x射线吸收，必须在曝光控制的背景下加以考虑。

The use of anti-scatter grids does not completely suppress X-radiation scattering. Thick objects cause more scattering than thin objects. The predefined dose for X-radiation termination is reached earlier in the case of thick objects, thus resulting in insufficient contrast. The operator can compensate for this by using the density correction switch on the control console to change the exposure by percentage points (plus or minus) [12.32] of the stored value.
反散射网格的使用并不能完全抑制x射线散射。厚的物体比薄的物体产生更多的散射。对于较厚的物体，x射线终止的预定剂量会提前达到，从而导致对比度不足。操作人员可以通过使用控制台上的密度校正开关，以存储值的百分数(正负)[12.32]来改变曝光。

Double-detector transparency correction in AEC mode AEC模式下的双探测器透明度校正

Given that X-ray absorption is energy dependent, the signal of an AEC sensor depends not only on the air kerma rate at the sensor position, but also on beam quality. This influence, referred to as voltage-response, can be corrected automatically with the use of a double detector. Such correction is of special importance in mammography, where the object dose has to be kept as low as possible and where beam quality depends on the thickness of the object (tube voltages used are 25 to 40 kV).
考虑到x射线吸收与能量有关，AEC传感器的信号不仅与传感器位置的空气可玛率有关，还与光束质量有关。这种影响称为电压响应，可以使用双检测器自动校正。这种校正在乳房x线照相术中特别重要，因为在乳房x线照相术中，物体剂量必须尽可能地保持在较低水平，而光束质量取决于物体的厚度(使用的管电压为25至40千伏)。

Beam quality can be estimated by measuring the dose behind the image receptor with two sensors placed in front of and behind a defined X-ray filter (fig. 12.46). Beam hardening can be estimated on the basis of the ratio of the two detector signals (i.e. the larger the ratio the higher the X-ray energy). Modern microprocessor-based automatic exposure control systems for mammography enable one to use the known energy dependence of the mammography image receptor to set the image dose automatically and precisely and thereby achieve optimal contrast.
光束质量可以通过在定义的x射线滤波器前后放置两个传感器来测量图像接收器后面的剂量来估计(图12.46)。光束硬化可以根据两个探测器信号的比值来估计(即比值越大，x射线能量越高)。现代基于微处理器的乳房x线照相术自动曝光控制系统可以利用乳房x线照相术图像受体已知的能量依赖性自动精确地设定图像剂量，从而实现最佳对比度。

12.2.5 Exposure control in indirect radiography 间接射线照相中的曝光控制

While automatic exposure control in the case of direct X-ray images (on a film-cassette or digital image receptor) presupposes the use of extra sensors, the exposure control signal in the case of indirect techniques is derived directly from the image sensor (image intensifier or flat-panel digital X-ray detector).
在直接x射线图像(在胶片盒或数字图像接收器上)的情况下，自动曝光控制需要使用额外的传感器，而在间接技术的情况下，曝光控制信号直接来自图像传感器(图像增强器或平板数字x射线探测器)。

Automatic fluoroscopy control 透视自动控制

Fluoroscopy is used to observe and diagnose dynamic events. Such examinations make use of long-term X-radiation at low dose. X-radiation is started and stopped via a foot switch. It is necessary to adjust the X-ray tube voltage and current according to the required contrast at the least possible dose for patient and operator. Automatic dose rate control systems unburden the operator by taking over the task of manual adjustment.
透视是用来观察和诊断动态事件。这种检查使用长期低剂量x射线。x射线通过脚踏开关启动和停止。必须根据患者和操作人员所需要的对比量，以最小的剂量调整x射线管电压和电流。自动剂量率控制系统取代了手动调整的任务，减轻了操作人员的负担。

Fig. 12.47 illustrates the principle of automatic fluoroscopy using an image intensifier TV chain. The image is picked up by a CCD camera and displayed on a monitor. Average image brightness at the image intensifier is measured by a photodiode (formerly photo multiplier) whose signal is used in the dose rate control loop. When photodiode arrays are used, the measurement region can be selected according to the dominant.
图12.47说明了使用图像增强电视链的自动荧光检查原理。图像由CCD相机采集并显示在监视器上。图像增强器处的平均图像亮度由一个光电二极管(以前的光电倍增器)测量，其信号用于剂量率控制回路。当采用光电二极管阵列时，测量区域可根据主导域选择。

自动荧光控制原理。图像增强器前面的传感器只用于单次曝光。

In fluoroscopy, tube voltages between 50 to 110 kV are meaningful. Larger values lead to poor contrast and lower values entail increased patient dose. Automatic dose rate control varies tube voltage and current along different characteristic curves (fig. 12.48), depending on the application involved, i.e. anatomic region and type of examination (e.g. deglutition, heart examination with catheter).
在荧光检查中，管电压在50到110千伏之间是有意义的。数值越大，对比度越差;数值越低，患者剂量越大。自动剂量率控制沿不同的特征曲线改变管电压和电流(图12.48)，这取决于所涉及的应用，即解剖区域和检查类型(例如，吞咽、导管心脏检查)。

荧光检查的特性操作曲线

The linear characteristic (curve 1 in fig. 12.48) can be easily implemented and represents a good compromise between contrast and dose requirements for all fluoroscopic examinations. In pediatrics, however, minimum patient dose is of overriding importance and should be maintained even at the cost of contrast. Here, a characteristic corresponding to curve 2 is selected. This sets tube voltage to a constant high value over a wide range and controls only the tube current.
线性特性（图12.48中的曲线1）可以很容易地实现，并且代表了所有透视检查的对比度和剂量要求之间的良好折衷。然而，在儿科，患者的最小剂量至关重要，即使以对比剂为代价，也应保持最小剂量。这里，选择对应于曲线2的特性。这将在很宽的范围内将管电压设置为恒定的高值，并仅控制管电流。

Thin catheters are made visible in interventional radiography by using adequate contrast. This task requires low tube voltages and high currents (curve 3). When the maximum tube load curve is reached in cases of very corpulent patients, the dose rate control will follow this curve.
通过使用足够的对比度，薄导管在介入放射照相术中可见。此任务需要低管电压和高电流（曲线3）。当非常肥胖的患者达到最大管负荷曲线时，剂量率控制将遵循该曲线。

Determination of single exposure data during fluoroscopy 荧光透视期间单次曝光数据的确定

It is often necessary during a fluoroscopic examination to obtain a single radiographic image of improved image quality. X-ray systems with image intensifier TV chains are therefore usually also equipped with static image receptors (film cassette, photostimulable phosphor imaging plate, flat-panel digital X-ray detector). While tube voltage and current are not the same for a radiographic exposure as they are in fluoro mode, an automatic exposure adjustment will make use of the values used during dose rate controlled fluoroscopy (zero-point technique).
在透视检查期间，通常需要获得图像质量得到改善的单个射线照相图像。因此，带有图像增强器电视链的X射线系统通常也配备静态图像接收器（胶片盒、光刺激荧光成像板、平板数字X射线探测器）。当射线照相曝光的管电压和电流与荧光模式不同时，自动曝光调整将利用剂量率控制荧光透视（零点技术）期间使用的值。

When setting up a fluoroscopy system, dose rate at the entrance of the image intensifier is set (using a calibrated test setup) to a fixed value (e.g. 0.16 μGy/s). During fluoroscopic examination, X-ray absorption by the object (transparency, ratio of quanta leaving the object over quanta entering it) can then be calculated on the basis of the tube voltage and current applied, the distance between the source and image receptor and the anti-scatter grid used. Object transparency corresponds to a water equivalence value (WEV). Optimal exposure parameters with respect to organ-specific takeover curves (fig. 12.49) are automatically adjusted on the basis of the water equivalence value obtained.当设置荧光透视系统时，影像增强器入口处的剂量率（使用校准测试设置）设置为固定值（例如0.16μGy/s）。在荧光透视检查期间，可根据施加的管电压和电流、光源和图像接收器之间的距离以及使用的防散射网格，计算物体对X射线的吸收（透明度、离开物体的量子与进入物体的量子之比）。对象透明度对应于水当量值（WEV）。关于器官特异性接管曲线（图12.49）的最佳暴露参数根据获得的水当量值自动调整。

The dose for the patient and operator can be further reduced by using pulsed instead of continuous fluoroscopy. Digital video systems store image data in a buffer. The data are then read out from the buffer at a constant frame rate for display that is independent of the image acquisition rate. Intermittent X-radiation can be applied without losing important information on the monitor, especially in the case of slow-moving or stationary objects. Pulse frequencies of 15, 7.5 and 3 frames/s result in dose reductions of up to 50%, 75% and 90%. Each single fluoro pulse is terminated by the AEC as soon as the nominal dose value has been reached.
通过使用脉冲透视代替连续透视，可进一步降低患者和操作员的剂量。数字视频系统将图像数据存储在缓冲区中。然后，以恒定的帧速率从缓冲器中读出数据以进行显示，该帧速率与图像采集速率无关。间歇性X射线可在不丢失监视器上重要信息的情况下使用，尤其是在缓慢移动或静止物体的情况下。脉冲频率为15,7.5帧/秒和3帧/秒可使剂量降低高达50%、75%和90%。一旦达到标称剂量值，AEC就会终止每个荧光脉冲。

Digital fluoro radiography (DFR) 数字荧光照相术（DFR）

DFR applies the same electronic image receptor (image intensifier, flat-panel digital X-ray detector) for single and series (up to 8 f/s) exposures. With respect to automatic exposure control, there is no technical difference between DFR and automatic fluoroscopy. All of the dose control modes already described (dose rate control, water equivalence value calculation, organ programs) are applicable and additional modes are possible.
DFR采用相同的电子图像接收器（图像增强器、平板数字X射线探测器）进行单次和系列（高达8 f/s）曝光。关于自动曝光控制，DFR和自动荧光透视之间没有技术区别。所有已描述的剂量控制模式（剂量率控制、水当量值计算、器官程序）均适用，并且可以使用其他模式。

In both single and series exposure, the exposure data, including X-ray tube voltage and tube current, are defined for the first frame by deriving the water equivalence value from the fluoroscopy. Each X-ray pulse is terminated at the defined nominal dose according to the characteristic of the organ program used. Subsequent frames may vary in terms of X-ray tube voltage, tube current and pulse width.
在单次和系列曝光中，通过从荧光透视中导出水当量值，为第一帧定义曝光数据，包括X射线管电压和管电流。根据所用器官程序的特点，在规定的标称剂量下终止每个X射线脉冲。后续帧可能根据X射线管电压、管电流和脉冲宽度而变化。

Any lack of geometrical sharpness can be reduced by deploying a control mechanism that automatically selects the smallest possible tube focal spot at tube voltages below the limit set for reasons of contrast. If the necessary image brightness requires exceeding this limit, the automatic exposure control switches to the next largest focal spot. This permits higher tube currents at lower voltages, and thus results in improved contrast.
任何缺乏几何锐度的情况都可以通过部署一个控制机制来减少，该机制可以在管电压低于为对比度设置的限制时自动选择最小的管焦点。如果必要的图像亮度需要超过此限制，自动曝光控制将切换到下一个最大的焦点。这允许在较低电压下有较高的管电流，从而改善对比度。

The AEC function can be interrupted during examinations that include the use of contrast agents. The AEC adjusts the image brightness to a medium value before the contrast agent flow is initiated and then switches off automatically. Subsequent contrast agent flow is then clearly visible against a constant background.
AEC功能可在包括使用造影剂的检查期间中断。AEC在启动对比剂流之前将图像亮度调整为中等值，然后自动关闭。随后的造影剂流在恒定背景下清晰可见。

In the case of single exposures, a fixed X-ray tube voltage is set according to the organ program. Tube current is reduced the longer the irradiation time is (continuously falling load) and the exposure is terminated at nominal dose. If subsequent images are taken (serialography), X-radiation is started at maximum tube current with shortest possible irradiation time according to the serialography table of the focal spot used, depending on frame rate, duration of the single exposure (pulse width) and the duration of the serialography.
在单次曝光的情况下，根据器官程序设置固定的X射线管电压。辐照时间越长（持续下降负载），管电流越小，并且在标称剂量下终止暴露。如果拍摄后续图像（连续成像），则根据所用焦点的连续成像表，在最大管电流下以最短的辐照时间开始X射线辐射，具体取决于帧速率、单次曝光的持续时间（脉冲宽度）和连续成像的持续时间。

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) 数字减影血管造影（DSA）

Vessels are made visible in X-ray images by filling them with contrast agents. The quantity of a given contrast agent can be substantially reduced by applying digital subtraction angiography (DSA). According to the DSA technique, an image of the native vessels (the mask) is subtracted from an image of the vessels that have been filled with a contrast agent and obtained at the same dose. It results in the display of the vessels only (i.e. free of superimposition of other parts of the body such as bones).
在X射线图像中，血管通过填充造影剂而可见。通过应用数字减影血管造影（DSA），可以显著减少给定造影剂的数量。根据DSA技术，从填充了造影剂并以相同剂量获得的血管图像中减去天然血管（面罩）的图像。它只显示血管（即不重叠身体其他部位，如骨骼）。

While AEC is deployed in DSA in roughly the same manner as it is in DFR, it has to be adapted for the display of iodine contrast agents. Iodine has an absorption edge of 33.2 keV and is best imaged at an X-ray tube voltage of 63 to 66 kV. The tube voltage and tube current time product (mAs) of the mask image are used for all subsequent images of a series to receive constant background brightness for the images showing vessels during filling with contrast agent.
虽然 AEC在 DSA 中的部署方式与 DFR大致相同，但它必须适用于碘对比剂的显示。碘的吸收边为33.2 kev，最好在 x 射线管电压为63-66千伏时成像。所述掩模图像的管电压和管电流时间乘积(mas)用于一系列后续图像，以便在填充造影剂时显示血管的图像获得恒定的背景亮度。