系统级程序设计- chapter3

Background: Fractional binary numbers （二进制小数）

Representation 表示

• Bits to right of “binary point” represent fractional powers of 2
• Represents rational number

IEEE floating point standard: Definition

Floating Point Representation

Numerical Form

(-1)^s2M2^E

• Sign bit s determines whether number is negative or positive 符号位决定正数还是负数
• Significand M normally a fractional value in range [1.0,2.0). 有效位M处于1.0到2.0
• Exponent E weights value by power of two

Encoding

• MSB sis sign bit s
• expfield encodes E(but is not equal to E)
• fracfield encodes M (but is not equal to M)
  

Precision options

“Normalized” Values 规格化的值

• When: exp ≠ 000…0 and exp ≠ 111…1
• Exponent coded asa biasedvalue: E = Exp–Bias
  – Exp: unsigned value of expfield
  – Bias= 2^k-1 -1, where kis number of exponent bits

1. Single precision: 127 (Exp: 1…254, E: -126…127)
2. Double precision: 1023 (Exp: 1…2046, E: -1022…1023)

• Significandcoded with implied leading 1: M = 1.xxx…x₂
  – xxx…x: bits of fracfield
  – Minimum whenfrac=000…0(M= 1.0)
  – Maximum whenfrac=111…1(M= 2.0 –ε)
  – Get extra leading bit for “free”

Example

解释：
由于是正数，所有s位为0，然后exp加上bias后为140，表示成2进制为10001100₂，然后考虑frac部分，由于只考虑小数位，忽略掉.前的数字1

Denormalized Values 非规范化值

• Condition：exp = 0000…0
• Exponentvalue:E=1–Bias(instead of E=0–Bias)
• Significand coded with implied leading 0: M = 0.xxx…x₂
• xxx…x: bits of frac
• Cases
  – exp = 000…0, frac = 000…0
  — Represents zero value
  — Note distinct values: +0 and –0
  – exp = 000…0, frac ≠ 000…0
  — Numbers closest to 0.0
  — Equispaced 平均间隔
  1)提供了一种表示值0的方法
  2)表示那些非常接近于0.0的数，对“逐渐溢出”属性的支持

Special Values

• Condition： exp = 1111…1
• Case:exp=111…1,frac=000…0
  – Represents value ∞ (infinity)
  – Operation that overflows
  – Both positive and negative
  – E.g., 1.0/0.0 = −1.0/−0.0 = +∞, 1.0/−0.0 = −∞
• Case:exp=111…1,frac≠000…0
  – Not-a-Number (NaN)
  – Represents case when no numeric value can be determined
  – E.g., sqrt(–1), ∞ − ∞, ∞ × 0# Example and properties

Example and properties

Dynamic Range(Positive Only)

Distruibution of Values

Rounding, addition, multiplication

Rounding

Rounding Modes

Example

• 如果刚好是1/2的情况，就让尾位为0，因为是Round to nearest 1/4
• “Even” when last significant bit is 0
• “Half way” when bits to right of rounding position = 100…₂
  

FP Multiplication

• (–1)^s1 M1 2^E1 x (–1)^s2 M2 2^E2
• Exact Result: (–1)^s M 2^E
  – Sign s: s1^s2
  – SignificandM: M1x M2
  – Exponent E: E1+E2
• Fixing
  – If M≥ 2, shift Mright, increment E
  – If E out of range, overflow
  – Round M to fit frac precision
• Implementation
  – Biggest chore is multiplying significands

Floating point in C

• C Guarantees Two Levels
  – float single precision
  – double double precision
• Conversions/Casting
  –Casting between int, float, and doublechanges bit representation
  – double/float→ int
  – int→ double
  – int→ float

Summary

IEEE 的浮点数有明确的数学意义
表达形式为 M X 2^E