形式语言与自动机 03 Finite Automata

Finite Automata

What is a Finite Automata?

• A formal system
• Remembers only a finite amount of information
• Information represented by its state
• State changes in response to inputs
• Rules that tell how the state changes in response to inputs are called transitions

Tennis

Acceptance of Inputs

• Given a sequence of inputs, start in the start state and follow the transition from each symbol in turn
• Input is accepted if you wind up in a final state after all inputs have been read

Language of an Automaton

• The set of strings accepted by an automaton A is the language of A.
• Denoted L(A).
• Different sets of final states -> different languages.
• Example: As designed, L(Tennis) = strings that determine the winner.

Deterministic Finite Automata

• Alphabets, Strings, and Languages
• Transition Graphs and Tables
• Some Proof Techniques

Alphabets

• An alphabet is any finite set of symbols

Strings

• A string over an alphabet $\sum $ is a list, each element of which is a member of $\sum $
• $\sum ^* = $ set of all strings over alphabet $\sum$
• The length of a string is its number of positions
• $ϵ$ stands for the empty string (string of length 0).

Languages

• A language is a subset of $\sum ^* $ for some alphabet $\sum$

Deterministic Finite Automata

• A formalism for defining languages, consisting of :
  1. A finite set of states ($Q,typically$)
  2. An input alphabet ($\sum ,typically$)
  3. A transition function ($\delta ,typically$)
  4. A start state ($q_0,inQ,typically$)
  5. A set of final states ($F\subseteq Q,typically$)

The Transition Function

• Takes two arguments: a state and an input symbol
• $\delta (q,a)=$ the state that the DFA goes to when it is in state $q$ and input $a$ ,is received.
• Note: $\delta$ is a total function: always a next state - add a dead state if no transition (Example on next slide).

Graph Representation of DFA’ s

• Nodes = states
• Arc represents transition function
  • Arc from state p to state q labeled by all those input symbols that have transitions from p to q
• Arrow labeled “Start” to the start state.
• Final states indicated by double circles.

Example: Recognizing Strings Ending in “ing”

Alternative Representation: Transition Table

Convention: Strings and Symbols

• … w,x,y,z are strings.
• a,b,c,… are single input symbols

Extended Transition Function

• We describe the effect of a string of inputs on a DFA by extending $\delta$ to a state and a string.
• Intuition: Extended $\delta$ is computed for state q and inputs $a_1{a}_2...a_n$ by following a path in the transition graph, starting at q and selecting the arcs with labels $a_1,a_2,...,a_n$ in turn.

Inductive Definition of Extended $ \delta $

• Induction on length of string.
• Basis: $\delta (q,ϵ)=q$
• Induction: $\delta (q,wa)=\delta (\delta (q,w),a)$
  • Remember: w is a string; a is an input symbol, by convention.

Delta-hat

• We don’t distinguish between the given delta and the extended delta or delta-hat.
• The reason:
• $\delta (q,a)=\delta (\delta (q,ϵ),a)=\delta (q,a)$

Language of a DFA

• Automata of all kinds define languages.
• If A is an automaton, L(A) is its language.
• For a DFA A, L(A) is the set of strings labeling paths from the start state to a final state.
• Formally: L(A) = the set of strings w such that $\delta (q_0,w)$ is in F.

Proofs of Set Equivalence

• Often, we need to prove that two descriptions of sets are in fact the same set.

• Here, one set is “the language of this DFA,” and the other is “the set of strings of 0’ s and 1’ s with no consecutive 1’ s.”

• In general, to prove S = T, we need to prove two parts: $S\subseteq T$ and $T\subseteq S$. That is:

  1. If w is in S, then w is in T.
  2. If w is in T, then w is in S.

• Here, S = the language of our running DFA, and T = “no consecutive 1’ s.”

Part 1: $S\subseteq T$

• To prove: if w is accepted by then w has no consecutive 1’ s.
• Proof is an induction on length of w.
• Important trick: Expand the inductive hypothesis to be more detailed than the statement you are trying to prove.

The Inductive Hypothesis

• If $\delta (A,w)=A$, then w has no consecutive 1’ s and does not end in 1.
• If $\delta (A,w)=B$, then w has no consecutive 1’ s and ends in a single 1.
• Basis: |w| = 0; i. e. , w = $ϵ$.
  1. holds since ε has no 1’ s at all.
  2. holds vacuously, since δ(A, ε) is not B. //if 不成立，then 自然为真

Inductive Step

• Assume (1) and (2) are true for strings shorter than w, where |w| is at least 1

• Because w is not empty, we can write w = xa, where a is the last symbol of w, and x is the string that precedes

• IH is true for x

• Need to prove (1) and (2) for w = xa

• （1） for w is: If $\delta (A,w)=A$，then w has no consecutive 1’ s and does not end in 1

• Since $\delta (A,w)=A$， $\delta (A,w)$ must be A or B, and a must be 0

• By the IH, x has no 11 's

• Thus, w has no 11’ s and does not end in 1

• Now, prove (2) for w xa: If $\delta (A,w)=B$, then w has no 11’ s and ends in 1

• Since $\delta (A,w)=B$, $\delta (A,x)$ must be A, and a must be 1

• By the IH, x has no 11’ s and does not end in 1

• Thus, w has no 11’ s and ends in 1

Part 2: $T\subseteq S$

• Now, we must prove: if w has no 11’ s, then w is accepted by that example
• Contrapositive: If w is not accepted by that, then w has 11

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Using the Contrapositive

The only way w is not accepted is if it gets to C

• The only way to get to C is if w = x 1 y, x gets to B and y is the tail of w
• If $\delta (A,x)=B$,then surely x = z 1 for some z
• Thus, w = z 11 y and has 11

Regular Languages

• Language L is regular is it is the language accepted by some DFA
  • Note: the DFA must accept only the strings in L, no others
• Some languages are not regular
  • Intuitively, regular languages “cannot count” to arbitrarily high integers

Example: A Nonregular Language

L 1 = { 0 n 1 n ∣ n ≥ 1 } L_1 = \{0^n 1^n | n \ge 1\} L1​={0n1n∣n≥1}

• Note: $a^i$ is conventional for i a’ s

• Rea: “The set of strings consisting of n 0’ s followed by n 1’ s, such that n is at least 1”

• Thus, L 1 = { 01 , 0011 , 000111 , . . . } L_1 = \{ 01,0011,000111,...\} L1​={01,0011,000111,...}

• Proof ?

• Suppose there is a DFA with m states

• $S_0 0^m 1^m \rightarrow … \rightarrow S_1 0^{m-1} 1^m \rightarrow … \rightarrow S_{2m-1} \rightarrow S_2m $

• For the first m moves, there are m+1 states

• PHP ! At least one state happen more than once

• Suppose the state is q

• $S_i=S_j=q$

• $S_0{0}^m{1}^m\to q{0}^{m-i}{1}^m\to ...\to q{0}^{m-j}{1}^m\to ...\to S_{2m}$

• How about $S_0{0}^{m-j+i}{1}^m$

Example: A Regular Language

L 3 = { w ∣ w i n { 0 , 1 } ∗ a n d    w , v i e w e d   a s   a   b i n a r y   i n t e g e r   i s   d i v i s i b l e   b y   23 } L_3 = \{ w | w in \{0,1 \}^* and\; w, viewed \, as \, a\, binary \, integer \, is \, divisible \, by \, 23\} L3​={w∣win{0,1}∗andw,viewedasabinaryintegerisdivisibleby23}

• The DFA:
  • 23 states, named 0, 1,…, 22
  • Correspond to the 23 remainders of an integer divided by 23
  • Start and only final state is 0

Transitions of the DFA for $L_3$

• If string w represents integer i, then assume $\delta (0,w)=i\%23$
• Then w0 represents integer 2i, so we want $\delta (i\%23,0)=(2i)\%23$
• Similarly: w1 represents 2i+1, so we want $\delta (i\%23,1)=(2i+1)\%23$
• Example: $\delta (15,0)=30\%23=7;\delta (11,1)=23\%23=0$

Another Example

L 4 = { w ∣ w    i n { 0 , 1 } } L_4 = \{ w | w \; in \{ 0,1\}\} L4​={w∣win{0,1}} and w, viewed as the reverse of a binary integer is divisible by 23

• Example: 01110100 is in $L_4$ , because 46/23 == 2
• Hard to construct the DFA
• But there is a theorem that says the reverse of regular is also regular

Nondeterministic Finite Automata

非确定性有穷自动机

Nondeterminism

• A nondeterministic finite automaton has the ability to be in several at once

• Transitions from a state on an input symbol can be to any set of states

• Start in one start state

• Accept if any sequence of choices leads to a final state

• Intuitively: the NFA always “guesses right”

Example: Moves on a Chessboard

• States = squares
• Inputs = r(move to an adjacent red square) and b (move to an adjacent black square)
• Start state, final state are in opposite corners

Formal NFA

• A finite set of states, typically Q
• An input alphabet, typically $\Sigma$
• A transition function, typically $\delta$
• A start state in Q, typically $q_0$
• A set of final states $F\subseteq Q$

Transition Function of NFA

• $\delta(q,a) $ is a set of states
• Extend to strings as follows
• Basis: δ ( q , ϵ ) = { q } \delta(q,\epsilon) = \{ q\} δ(q,ϵ)={q}
• Induction: $\delta(q,wa) $ = the union over all states p in $\delta (q,w)of\delta (p,a)$

Language of an NFA

• A string w is accepted by an NFA if $\delta (q_0,w)$ contains at least one final state
• The language of the NFA is the set of strings it accepts

Example: Language of an NFA

• For our chessboard NFA we saw rbb is accepted
• If the input consists of only b’ s, the set of accessible states alternates between {5} and {1,3,7,9}, so only even-length, nonempty strings of b’ s are accepted
• What about strings with at least one r?

Equivalence of DFA’ s, NFA’ s

Part 1

• A DFA can be turned into an DFA that accepts the same language
• If ${\delta }_D(q,a)$ = p, let the NFA have ${\delta }_N(q,a)$ = {p}
• Then the NFA is always in a set containing exactly one state - the state the DFA is in after reading the same input

Part 2

• Surprisingly, for any NFA there is a DFA that accepts the same language
• Proof is the subset construction
• The number of states of the DFA can be exponential in the number of states of the NFA
• Thus, NFA’ s accept exactly the regular languages

Subset Construction

• Given an NFA with states Q, inputs $\Sigma$ , transition function ${\delta }_N$, start state $q_0$, and final states F, construct equivalent DFA with:
  • States $2^Q$ (Set of subsets of Q)
  • Inputs $\Sigma$
  • Start state { q 0 } \{ q_0 \} {q0​}
  • Final states = all those with a member of F

Critical Point

• The DFA states have names that are sets of NFA states

• But as a DFA state, an expression like { p , q } \{ p,q\} {p,q} must be understood to be a single symbol, not as a set

• Analogy: a class of object whose values are sets of objects of another class

• The transition function $\delta _D $ is defined by:

  δ D ( { q 1 , . . . , q k } , a ) \delta_D (\{ q_1, ...,q_k\} , a) δD​({q1​,...,qk​},a) is the union over all $i=1,...,k$ of ${\delta }_D(q_i,a)$

Example

Proof of Equivalence

Basic

• The proof is almost a pun
• Show by induction on |w| that δ D ( q 0 , w ) = δ D ( { q 0 } , w ) \delta_D (q_0, w) = \delta_D(\{q_0\},w) δD​(q0​,w)=δD​({q0​},w)
• Basic: w = $ϵ:{\delta }_N(q_0,ϵ)$ = δ D ( { q 0 } , ϵ ) = { q 0 } \delta_D (\{q_0\},\epsilon) = \{ q_0\} δD​({q0​},ϵ)={q0​}

Induction

• Assume IH for strings shorter than w
• Let w = xa; IH holds for x
• Let δ N ( q 0 , x ) = δ ( { q 0 } , x ) \delta _N (q_0,x) = \delta(\{q_0\},x) δN​(q0​,x)=δ({q0​},x) = S
• Let T = the union over all states p in S of ${\delta }_N(p,a)$
• Then δ N ( q 0 , w ) = δ D ( { q 0 } , w ) \delta_N(q_0,w) = \delta_D(\{q_0\},w) δN​(q0​,w)=δD​({q0​},w) = T

But

Sub-Construction may lead to Bad case (指数增长)

NFA’ s With $ \epsilon $ - Transitions

• We can allow state-to-state transitions on $ϵ$ input
• These transitions are done spontaneously, without looking at the input string
• A convenience at times, but still only regular languages are accepted

$ \epsilon $ - NFA

Closure of States

• CL(q) = set states you can reach from state q following only arcs labeled $ \epsilon $

• CL(A) = {A}

• CL(E) = {B,C,D,E}

• Closure of a set of states = union of the closure of each state

Extended Delta

• Intuition: $\hat{\delta }(q,w)$ is the set of states you can reach from q following a path labled w
• Basic: $\hat{\delta }(q,ϵ)=CL(q)$
• Induction: $\hat{\delta }(q,xa)$ is computed by:
  • Start with $\hat\delta(q,x) $ = S
  • Take the union of CL($\delta (p,a)$) for all p in S

Equivalence of NFA, $ \epsilon $ - NFA

• Every NFA is an $ϵ$ - NFA

  • It just has no transitions on $ϵ$

• Converse requires us to take an $ϵ$ - NFA and construct an NFA that accepts the same language

• We do so by combining $ϵ$ - transitions with the next transition on a real input

• Start with an $ϵ$ - NFA with states Q, inputs $\Sigma$ , start state $q_0$ , final states F, and transition function ${\delta }_E$

• Construct an “ordinary” NFA with sates Q, inputs $\Sigma$, start state $q_0$, final states F’ , and transition function ${\delta }_N$

• Compute $\delta_N(q,a) $ as follows:

  1. Let S =CL(q)
  2. ${\delta }_N(q,a)$ is the union over all p in S of ${\delta }_E(p,a)$

• F’ = the set of states q such that CL(q) contains a state of F

• Prove by induction on |w| that CL(${\delta }_N(q_0,w)$) = $\widehat{{\delta }_E}(q_0,w)$

• Thus, the $ϵ$ - NFA accepts w if and only if the “ordinary” NFA does