管理思想的演变

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The History of Management

The concept of management has been around for thousands of years. According to Pindur, Rogers, and Kim (1995), elemental approaches to managementgo back at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, a time in whichrecords of business dealings were first recorded by Middle Easternpriests. Socrates, around 400 BC, stated that management was acompetency distinctly separate from possessing technical skills andknowledge (Higgins, 1991). The Romans, famous for their legions ofwarriors led by Centurions, provided accountability through thehierarchy of authority. The Roman Catholic Church was organized alongthe lines of specific territories, a chain of command, and jobdescriptions. During the Middle Ages, a 1,000 year period roughly from476 AD through 1450 AD, guilds, a collection of artisans and merchantsprovided goods, made by hand, ranging from bread to armor and swords for the Crusades. A hierarchy of control and power, similar to that of theCatholic Church, existed in which authority rested with the masters andtrickled down to the journeymen and apprentices. These craftsmen were,in essence, small businesses producing products with varying degrees ofquality, low rates of productivity, and little need for managerialcontrol beyond that of the owner or master artisan.
管理的概念已经存在了数千年。根据Pindur，Rogers和Kim（1995）的说法，基本的管理方法至少可以追溯到基督诞生前3000年，当时中东牧师首次记录了商业交易记录。公元前 400 年左右的苏格拉底指出，管理是一种与拥有技术技能和知识截然不同的能力（希金斯，1991年）。罗马人以百夫长领导的战士军团而闻名，他们通过权威等级制度提供问责制。罗马天主教会是按照特定领土、指挥链和职位描述组织的。在中世纪，大约从公元 476 年到公元 1450 年的 1,000年间，行会、工匠和商人的集合提供了手工制作的商品，从面包到盔甲和十字军东征的剑。存在着一种类似于天主教会的控制和权力等级制度，其中权力掌握在主人手中，并逐渐渗透到工匠和学徒手中。从本质上讲，这些工匠是小企业，生产的产品质量参差不齐，生产率低下，除了所有者或工匠大师之外，几乎不需要管理控制。

The Industrial Revolution, a time from the late 1700s through the 1800s,was a period of great upheaval and massive change in the way peoplelived and worked. Before this time, most people made their livingfarming or working and resided in rural communities. With the inventionof the steam engine, numerous innovations occurred, including theautomated movement of coal from underground mines, powering factoriesthat now mass-produced goods previously made by hand, and railroadlocomotives that could move products and materials across nations in atimely and efficient manner. Factories needed workers who, in turn,required direction and organization. As these facilities became moresubstantial and productive, the need for managing and coordinationbecame an essential factor. Think of Henry Ford, the man who developed a moving assembly line to produce his automobiles. In the early 1900s,cars were put together by craftsmen who would modify components to fittheir product. With the advent of standardized parts in 1908, followedby Ford’s revolutionary assembly line introduced in 1913, the timerequired to build a Model T fell from days to just a few hours (Klaess,2020). From a managerial standpoint, skilled craftsmen were no longernecessary to build automobiles. The use of lower-cost labor and theincreased production yielded by moving production lines called for theneed to guide and manage these massive operations (Wilson, 2015). Totake advantage of new technologies, a different approach toorganizational structure and management was required.
工业革命，从 1700 年代后期到 1800年代，是一个发生巨大动荡和人们生活和工作方式发生巨大变化的时期。在此之前，大多数人以务农或工作为生，并居住在农村社区。随着蒸汽机的发明，发生了许多创新，包括从地下矿井自动运输煤炭，为现在大规模生产以前手工制造的产品的工厂提供动力，以及可以及时有效地在国家之间运输产品和材料的铁路机车。工厂需要工人，而工人又需要方向和组织。随着这些设施变得更加庞大和富有成效，管理和协调的需要成为一个重要因素。想想亨利·福特（Henry Ford），他开发了一条移动装配线来生产他的汽车。在 1900 年代初期，汽车是由工匠组装的，他们会修改组件以适应他们的产品。随着 1908年标准化零件的出现，以及 1913 年福特推出的革命性装配线，制造 T 型车所需的时间从几天减少到几个小时（Klaess，2020年）。从管理的角度来看，制造汽车不再需要熟练的工匠。使用低成本劳动力和通过移动生产线增加的产量，需要指导和管理这些大规模的操作（Wilson，2015）。为了利用新技术，需要采用不同的组织结构和管理方法。

The Scientific Era – Measuring Human Capital 科学时代——衡量人力资本

With the emergence of new technologies came demands for increasedproductivity and efficiency. The desire to understand how to bestconduct business centered on the idea of work processes. That is,managers wanted to study how the work was performed and the impact onproductivity. The idea was to optimize the way the work was done. One of the chief architects of measuring human output was Frederick Taylor.Taylor felt that increasing efficiency and reducing costs were theprimary objectives of management. Taylor’s theories centered on aformula that calculated the number of units produced in a specific timeframe (DiFranceso and Berman, 2000). Taylor conducted time studies todetermine how many units could be produced by a worker in so manyminutes. He used a stopwatch, weight measurement scale, and tape measure to compute how far materials moved and how many steps workers undertook in the completion of their tasks (Wren and Bedeian, 2009). Examine theimage below – one can imagine Frederick Taylor standing nearby,measuring just how many steps were required by each worker to hoist asheet of metal from the pile, walk it to the machine, perform the task,and repeat, countless times a day.Beyond Taylor,other management theorists including Frank and Lilian Gilbreth,Harrington Emerson, and others expanded the concept of managementreasoning with the goal of efficiency and consistency, all in the nameof optimizing output**.** It made little difference whether the organization manufactured automobiles, mined coal, or made steel,the most efficient use of labor to maximize productivity was the goal.
随着新技术的出现，对提高生产力和效率的需求也随之而来。了解如何最好地开展业务的愿望以工作流程的概念为中心。也就是说，管理人员想要研究工作是如何执行的以及对生产力的影响。我们的想法是优化工作的方式。弗雷德里克·泰勒（FrederickTaylor）是测量人类产出的主要建筑师之一。泰勒认为，提高效率和降低成本是管理的主要目标。泰勒的理论集中在一个公式上，该公式计算了在特定时间范围内生产的单位数量（DiFranceso和Berman，2000）。泰勒进行了时间研究，以确定工人在这么多分钟内可以生产多少个单位。他使用秒表、重量测量秤和卷尺来计算材料移动的距离以及工人在完成任务时采取了多少步骤（Wren 和 Bedeian，2009 年）。看看下面的图片——人们可以想象弗雷德里克·泰勒（FrederickTaylor）站在附近，测量每个工人需要多少步才能从堆里吊起一块金属板，走到机器上，执行任务，然后每天重复无数次。除了泰勒之外，包括弗兰克和莉莲·吉尔布雷斯、哈灵顿·爱默生在内的其他管理理论家以优化产出的名义，以效率和一致性为目标扩展了管理推理的概念。无论该组织是制造汽车、开采煤炭还是制造钢铁，都没有区别，最有效地利用劳动力以最大限度地提高生产力是目标。

The necessity to manage not just worker output but to link the entireorganization toward a common objective began to emerge. Management, outof necessity, had to organize multiple complex processes forincreasingly large industries. Henri Fayol, a Frenchman, is creditedwith developing the management concepts of planning, organizing,coordination, command, and control (Fayol, 1949), which were theprecursors of today’s four basic management principles of planning,organizing, leading, and controlling.
不仅要管理工人的产出，还要将整个组织与共同目标联系起来，这一点开始显现出来。出于必要，管理层不得不为越来越大的行业组织多个复杂的流程。法国人亨利·法约尔（HenriFayol）因发展计划、组织、协调、指挥和控制等管理概念而受到赞誉（Fayol，1949），这些概念是当今计划、组织、领导和控制四项基本管理原则的先驱。

Employees and the Organization 员工和组织

With the increased demand for production brought about by scientificmeasurement, conflict between labor and management was inevitable. Thepersonnel department, forerunner of today’s human resources department,emerged as a method to slow down the demand for unions, initiatetraining programs to reduce employee turnover, and to acknowledgeworkers’ needs beyond the factory floor. The idea that to increaseproductivity, management should factor the needs of their employees bydeveloping work that was interesting and rewarding burst on the scene(Nixon, 2003) and began to be part of management thinking. Numerousmanagement theorists were starting to consider the human factor. Twogiants credited with moving management thought in the direction ofunderstanding worker needs were Douglas McGregor and Frederick Herzberg. McGregor’s Theory X factor was management’s assumption that workersdisliked work, were lazy, lacked self-motivation, and therefore had tobe persuaded by threats, punishment, or intimidation to exert theappropriate effort. His Theory Y factor was the opposite. McGregor feltthat it was management’s job to develop work that gave the employees afeeling of self-actualization and worth. He argued that with moreenlightened management practices, including providing clear goals to the employees and giving them the freedom to achieve those goals, theorganization’s objectives and those of the employees couldsimultaneously be achieved (Koplelman, Prottas, & Davis, 2008).
随着科学计量带来的生产需求的增加，劳资之间的冲突是不可避免的。人事部门是当今人力资源部门的前身，它作为一种减缓对工会的需求的方法而出现，启动培训计划以减少员工流动率，并承认工人在工厂车间之外的需求。为了提高生产力，管理层应该通过开发有趣和有益的工作来考虑员工的需求，这种想法在现场爆发（Nixon，2003），并开始成为管理思维的一部分。许多管理理论家开始考虑人为因素。道格拉斯·麦格雷戈（Douglas McGregor）和弗雷德里克·赫茨伯格（FrederickHerzberg）是两位推动管理思想向理解工人需求方向的巨人。麦格雷戈的X理论因素是管理层的假设，即工人不喜欢工作，懒惰，缺乏自我激励，因此必须通过威胁，惩罚或恐吓来说服他们做出适当的努力。他的Y理论因素恰恰相反。麦格雷戈认为，管理层的工作是发展工作，让员工有一种自我实现和价值的感觉。他认为，通过更开明的管理实践，包括为员工提供明确的目标并给予他们实现这些目标的自由，组织的目标和员工的目标可以同时实现（Koplelman，Prottas和Davis，2008）。

Frederick Herzberg added considerably to management thinking on employee behavior with his theory of worker motivation. Herzberg contended that mostmanagement driven motivational efforts, including increased wages,better benefits, and more vacation time, ultimately failed because while they may reduce certain factors of job dissatisfaction (the thingsworkers disliked about their jobs), they did not increase jobsatisfaction. Herzberg felt that these were two distinctly differentmanagement problems. Job satisfaction flowed from a sense ofachievement, the work itself, a feeling of accomplishment, a chance forgrowth, and additional responsibility (Herzberg, 1968). One enduringoutcome of Herzberg’s work was the idea that management could have apositive influence on employee job satisfaction, which, in turn, helpedto achieve the organization’s goals and objectives.
弗雷德里克·赫茨伯格（FrederickHerzberg）通过他的工人激励理论大大增加了管理对员工行为的思考。赫茨伯格认为，大多数管理驱动的激励努力，包括增加工资、更好的福利和更多的休假时间，最终都失败了，因为虽然它们可能会减少工作不满的某些因素（员工不喜欢他们工作的地方），但它们并没有提高工作满意度。赫茨伯格认为，这是两个截然不同的管理问题。工作满意度来自成就感、工作本身、成就感、成长机会和额外的责任（Herzberg，1968）。Herzberg工作的一个持久成果是，管理层可以对员工的工作满意度产生积极影响，这反过来又有助于实现组织的目标。

The concept behind McGregor, Herzberg, and a host of other managementtheorists was to achieve managerial effectiveness by utilizing peoplemore effectively. Previous management theories regarding employeemotivation (thought to be directly correlated to increased productivity) emphasized control, specialized jobs, and gave little thought toemployees’ intrinsic needs. Insights that considered the human factor by utilizing theories from psychology now became part of managementthinking. Organizational changes suggested by management thinkers whosaw a direct connection between improved work design,self-actualization, and challenging work began to take hold in moreenlightened management theory.
麦格雷戈、赫茨伯格和许多其他管理理论家背后的概念是通过更有效地利用人员来实现管理效率。以前关于员工激励的管理理论（被认为与生产力的提高直接相关）强调控制、专业化工作，很少考虑员工的内在需求。利用心理学理论考虑人为因素的见解现在已成为管理思维的一部分。管理思想家提出的组织变革，他们看到了改进的工作设计、自我实现和具有挑战性的工作之间的直接联系，开始在更开明的管理理论中扎根。

The Modern Era 现代

Koontz and O’Donnell (1955) defined management as “the function of gettingthings done through others (p. 3). One commanding figure stood above all others and is considered the father of modern management (Edersheim,(2007). That individual was Peter Drucker. Drucker, an author, educator, and management consultant is widely credited with developing theconcept of Managing By Objective or MBO (Wren & Bedeian, 2009).Management by Objective is the process of defining specific objectivesnecessary to achieve the organization’s goals. The beauty of the MBOconcept was that it provided employees a clear view of theirorganization’s objectives and defined their individual responsibilities. For example, let’s examine a company’s sales department. One of thefirm’s organizational goals might be to grow sales (sometimes referredto as revenue) by 5% the next fiscal year. The first step, inconsultation with the appropriate people in the sales department, wouldbe to determine if that 5% goal is realistic and attainable. If so, the5% sales growth objective is shared with the entire sales department and individuals are assigned specific targets. Let’s assume this is aregional firm that has seven sales representatives. Each sales rep ischarged with a specific goal that, when combined with their colleagues,rolls up to the 5% sales increase. The role of management is now tosupport, monitor, and evaluate performance. Should a problem arise, itis management’s responsibility to take corrective action. If the 5%sales objective is met or exceeded, rewards can be shared. This MBOcycle applies to every department within an organization, large orsmall, and never-ending.
Koontz 和 O’Donnell （1955）将管理定义为“通过他人完成工作的功能”（第 3页）。一位指挥人物高于所有其他人物，被认为是现代管理之父（埃德斯海姆，（2007）。那个人就是彼得·德鲁克。德鲁克是一位作家、教育家和管理顾问，他因发展了目标管理或MBO的概念而广受赞誉（Wren&Bedeian，2009）。目标管理是定义实现组织目标所必需的特定目标的过程。MBO概念的美妙之处在于，它为员工提供了组织目标的清晰视图，并定义了他们的个人职责。例如，让我们检查一下公司的销售部门。公司的组织目标之一可能是在下一个财政年度将销售额（有时称为收入）增长 5%。第一步，在与销售部门的适当人员协商后，确定 5% 的目标是否现实且可实现。如果是这样，则 5%的销售增长目标将与整个销售部门共享，并为个人分配特定目标。假设这是一家拥有七名销售代表的区域性公司。每个销售代表都负责一个特定的目标，当与他们的同事结合起来时，可以达到 5% 的销售额增长。管理层现在的作用是支持、监控和评估绩效。如果出现问题，管理层有责任采取纠正措施。如果达到或超过 5%的销售目标，则可以分享奖励。这个 MBO 周期适用于组织内的每个部门，无论大小，永无止境。

The MBO Process MBO 流程

Drucker’s contributions to modern management thinking went far beyond the MBOconcept. Throughout his long life, Drucker argued that the singular role of business was to create a customer and that marketing and innovationwere its two essential functions. Consider the Apple iPhone. From thatsingle innovation came thousands of jobs in manufacturing plants, iPhone sales in stores around the globe, and profits returned to Apple,enabling them to continue the innovation process. Another lastingDrucker observation was that too many businesses failed to ask thequestion “what business are we in?” (Drucker, 2008, p. 103). On morethan one occasion, a company has faltered, even gone out of business,after failing to recognize that their industry was changing or trying to expand into new markets beyond their core competency. Consider the fate of Blockbuster, Kodak, Blackberry, or Yahoo.
德鲁克对现代管理思想的贡献远远超出了MBO的概念。在他漫长的一生中，德鲁克认为商业的唯一作用是创造客户，而营销和创新是其两个基本功能。以苹果iPhone为例。通过这项创新，制造工厂创造了数千个工作岗位，iPhone在全球各地的商店销售，利润又回到了苹果公司，使他们能够继续创新进程。德鲁克的另一个持久的观察是，太多的企业没有问“我们从事什么行业”这个问题。（德鲁克，2008 年，第 103页）。不止一次，一家公司在未能认识到他们的行业正在发生变化或试图扩展到超出其核心竞争力的新市场后，步履蹒跚，甚至倒闭。想想百视达、柯达、黑莓或雅虎的命运。

Management theories continued to evolve with additional concepts being put forthby other innovative thinkers. Henry Mintzberg is remembered for blowingholes in the idea that managers were iconic individuals lounging intheir offices, sitting back and contemplating big-picture ideas.Mintzberg observed that management was hard work. Managers were on themove attending meetings, managing crises, and interacting with internaland external contacts. Further, depending on the exact nature of theirrole, managers fulfilled multiple duties including that of spokesperson, leader, resource allocator, and negotiator (Mintzberg, 1973). In the1970s, Tom Peters and Robert Waterman traveled the globe exploring thecurrent best management practices of the time. Their book, In Search of Excellence, spelled out what worked in terms of managing organizations. Perhaps the mostrelevant finding was their assertion that culture counts. They foundthat the best managed companies had a culture that promotedtransparency, openly shared information, and effectively managedcommunication up and down the organizational hierarchy (Allison, 2014).The well managed companies Peterson and Waterman found were built inlarge part on the earlier managerial ideas of McGregor and Herzberg.Top-notch organizations succeeded by providing meaningful work andpositive affirmation of their employees’ worth.
管理理论继续发展，其他创新思想家提出了更多概念。亨利·明茨伯格（HenryMintzberg）因在这样一种观点上大打出洞，即管理者是躺在办公室里、坐下来思考大局观的标志性人物。明茨伯格观察到，管理是一项艰苦的工作。管理人员四处奔波，参加会议，管理危机，并与内部和外部联系人互动。此外，根据其角色的确切性质，管理者履行了多种职责，包括发言人、领导者、资源分配者和谈判者（Mintzberg，1973）。在1970年代，汤姆·彼得斯（Tom Peters）和罗伯特·沃特曼（Robert Waterman）环游世界，探索当时的最佳管理实践。他们的著作《追求卓越》（In SearchofExcellence）阐明了在管理组织方面有效的方法。也许最相关的发现是他们断言文化很重要。他们发现，管理最好的公司拥有一种文化，可以促进透明度，公开共享信息，并有效地管理组织层次结构上下的沟通（Allison，2014）。彼得森和沃特曼发现的管理良好的公司在很大程度上是建立在麦格雷戈和赫茨伯格早期的管理思想之上的。一流的组织通过提供有意义的工作和对员工价值的积极肯定而取得了成功。

Others made lasting contributions to modern management thinking. Steven Covey’s The Seven Habits of Highly Successful People, Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline, and Jim Collins and Jerry Porras’s Built to Last are among a pantheon of bestselling books on management principles. Amongthe iconic thinkers of this era was Michael Porter. Porter, a professorat the Harvard Business School, is widely credited with taking theconcept of strategic reasoning to another level. Porter tackled thequestion of how organizations could effectively compete and achieve along-term competitive advantage. He contended that there were just three ways a firm could gain such advantage: 1) a cost-based leadership –become the lowest cost producer, 2) valued-added leadership – offer adifferentiated product or service for which a customer is willing to pay a premium price, and 3) focus – compete in a niche market withlaser-like fixation (Dess & Davis, 1984). Name a company that fitsthese profiles: How about Walmart for low-cost leadership. Forvalue-added leadership, many think of Apple. Focus leadership is a bitmore challenging. What about Whole Foods before being acquired byAmazon? Porter’s thinking on competition and competitive advantage hasbecome timeless principles of strategic management still used today.Perhaps Porter’s most significant contribution to modern managementthinking is the connection between a firm’s choice of strategy and itsfinancial performance. Should an organization fail to select andproperly execute one of the three basic strategies, it faces the gravedanger of being stuck in the middle – its prices are too high to compete based on price or its products lack features unique enough to enticecustomers to pay a premium price. Consider the fate of Sears andRoebuck, J.C. Penny, K-Mart, and Radio Shack, organizations that failedto navigate the evolving nature of their businesses.
其他人则对现代管理思想做出了持久的贡献。史蒂文·柯维（Steven Covey）的《成功人士的七个习惯》（The Seven Habits of Highly SuccessfulPeople）、彼得·森格（Peter Senge）的《第五项修炼》（The Fifth Discipline）以及吉姆·柯林斯（JimCollins）和杰里·波拉斯（Jerry Porras）的《经久不衰》（Built toLast）都是关于管理原则的畅销书。这个时代的标志性思想家之一是迈克尔·波特。波特是哈佛商学院的教授，他被广泛认为将战略推理的概念提升到了另一个层次。波特解决了组织如何有效地竞争并获得长期竞争优势的问题。他认为，公司只有三种方式可以获得这种优势：1）基于成本的领导力——成为成本最低的生产商，2）增值领导力——提供客户愿意支付高价的差异化产品或服务，以及3）专注——在利基市场中以激光般的固定方式竞争（Dess&Davis， 1984）.说出一家符合这些特征的公司：沃尔玛如何获得低成本领导。对于增值领导力，许多人会想到苹果。专注领导力更具挑战性。在被亚马逊收购之前，WholeFoods呢？波特关于竞争和竞争优势的思想已经成为战略管理的永恒原则，至今仍在使用。也许波特对现代管理思想最重要的贡献是公司的战略选择与其财务业绩之间的联系。如果一个组织未能选择并正确执行三个基本策略之一，它就会面临被困在中间的严重危险——它的价格太高而无法根据价格进行竞争，或者其产品缺乏足够独特的功能来吸引客户支付高价。想想 Sears 和 Roebuck、J.C. Penny、K-Mart 和 Radio Shack 的命运，这些组织未能驾驭其业务不断发展的性质。

The 21st Century 21世纪

Managers in the 21st century must confront challenges their counterparts of even a few years ago could hardly imagine. The ever-growing wave oftechnology, the impact of artificial intelligence, the evolving natureof globalization, and the push-pull tug of war between the firm’sstakeholder and shareholder interests are chief among the demandstoday’s managers will face.
21世纪的管理者必须面对几年前难以想象的挑战。不断增长的技术浪潮、人工智能的影响、全球化的不断发展，以及公司利益相关者和股东利益之间的推拉拉扯战，是当今管理者将面临的主要需求。

Technology 科技

Much has been written about the exponential growth of technology. It hasbeen reported that today’s iPhone has more than 100,000 times thecomputing power of the computer that helped land a man on the moon(Kendall, 2019). Management today has to grapple with the explosion ofdata now available to facilitate business decisions. Data analytics, the examination of data sets, provides information to help managers betterunderstand customer behavior, customer wants and needs, personalize thedelivery of marketing messages, and track visits to online web sites.Developing an understanding of how to use data analytics without getting bogged down will be a significant challenge for the 21st centurymanager. Collecting, organizing, utilizing data in a logical, timely,and cost-effective manner is creating an entirely new paradigm ofmanagerial competence. In addition to data analytics, cybersecurity,drones, and virtual reality are new, exciting technologies and offerunprecedented change to the way business is conducted. Each of theseopportunities requires a new degree of managerial competence which, inturn, creates opportunities for the modern-day manager.
关于技术的指数级增长，已经写了很多。据报道，今天的 iPhone 的计算能力是帮助人类登上月球的计算机的 100,000 多倍（Kendall，2019年）。如今，管理层必须努力应对现在可用于促进业务决策的数据爆炸式增长。数据分析，即对数据集的检查，提供信息，帮助管理人员更好地了解客户行为、客户愿望和需求，个性化营销信息的传递，并跟踪对在线网站的访问。对于21世纪的管理者来说，了解如何使用数据分析而不陷入困境将是一个重大挑战。以合乎逻辑、及时和具有成本效益的方式收集、组织和利用数据正在创造一种全新的管理能力范式。除了数据分析之外，网络安全、无人机和虚拟现实也是令人兴奋的新技术，它们为业务开展方式带来了前所未有的变化。这些机会中的每一个都需要一定程度的管理能力，这反过来又为现代管理者创造了机会。

Artificial Intelligence 人工智能

Will robots replace workers? To be sure, this has already happened to somedegree in many industries. However, while some jobs will be lost to AI, a host of others will emerge, requiring a new level of managementexpertise. AI has the ability to eliminate mundane tasks and freemanagers to focus on the crux of their job. Human skills such asempathy, teaching and coaching employees, focusing on people development and freeing time for creative thinking will become increasinglyimportant as AI continues to develop as a critically important tool fortoday’s manager.
机器人会取代工人吗？可以肯定的是，这在许多行业中已经在某种程度上发生过。然而，虽然一些工作将因人工智能而流失，但许多其他工作将会出现，需要新的管理专业知识水平。人工智能有能力消除平凡的任务，让管理人员能够专注于工作的关键。随着人工智能继续发展成为当今管理者至关重要的工具，同理心、教导和指导员工、专注于人员发展以及腾出时间进行创造性思维等人类技能将变得越来越重要。

Globalization 全球化

Globalization has been defined as the interdependence of the world’s economies andhas been on a steady march forward since the end of World War II. Asmarkets mature, more countries are moving from the emerging ranks andfostering a growing middle class of consumers. This rising new class has the purchasing power to acquire goods and services previouslyunattainable, and companies around the globe have expanded outside their national borders to meet those demands. Managing in the era ofglobalization brought a new set of challenges. Adapting to new cultures, navigating the puzzle of different laws, tariffs, import/exportregulations, human resource issues, logistics, marketing messages,supply chain management, currency, foreign investment, and governmentintervention are among the demands facing the 21st century globalmanager. Despite these enormous challenges, trade among the world’snations has grown at an unprecedented rate. World trade jumped fromaround 20% of world GDP in 1960 to almost 60% in 2017.
全球化被定义为世界经济之间的相互依存关系，自第二次世界大战结束以来一直在稳步前进。随着市场的成熟，越来越多的国家正在从新兴国家的行列中走出来，并培养出越来越多的消费者中产阶级。这个正在崛起的新阶层拥有购买力，可以购买以前无法实现的商品和服务，全球各地的公司已经向国界以外的地方扩张以满足这些需求。在全球化时代进行管理带来了一系列新的挑战。适应新文化，在不同的法律、关税、进出口法规、人力资源问题、物流、营销信息、供应链管理、货币、外国投资和政府干预的难题中穿梭是 21世纪全球经理人面临的要求。尽管面临这些巨大挑战，但世界各国之间的贸易仍以前所未有的速度增长。世界贸易从1960年占世界GDP的20%左右跃升至2017年的近60%。

Trade as a Percent of Global GDP 贸易占全球GDP的百分比

Despite its stupendous growth, globalization has its share of critics. Chiefamong them is that globalization has heightened the disparity betweenthe haves and the have-nots in society. Opponents of globalization argue that in many cases, jobs have been lost to developing nations withlower prevailing wage rates. Additionally, inequality has worsened withthe wealthiest consuming a disproportionate percent of the world’sresources (Collins, 2015). Proponents counter that on the macro level,globalization creates more jobs than are lost, more people are liftedout of poverty, and expansion globally enables companies to become morecompetitive on the world stage.
尽管全球化取得了惊人的增长，但它也受到了批评者的批评。其中最主要的是，全球化加剧了社会中富人和穷人之间的差距。全球化的反对者认为，在许多情况下，工作岗位已经流失到现行工资水平较低的发展中国家手中。此外，不平等现象进一步恶化，最富有的人消耗了世界资源的不成比例的百分比（Collins，2015）。支持者反驳说，在巨集层面上，全球化创造的就业机会多于失去的就业机会，更多的人摆脱了贫困，全球扩张使公司在世界舞台上更具竞争力。

Since the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States in 2016and Great Britain’s decision to exit the European Union, the concept ofnationalism has manifested in many nations around the globe. Traditional obstacles to expanding outside one’s home country plus a host of newdifficulties such as unplanned trade barriers, blocked acquisitions, and heightened scrutiny from regulators have added to the burdens ofmanaging in the 21st century. The stage has been set for a newgeneration of managers with the skills to deal with this new, complexbusiness environment. In the 20th century, the old command and controlmodel of management may have worked. However, today, with technology,artificial intelligence, globalization, nationalism, and multiple otherhurdles, organizations will continue the move toward a flatter, moreagile organizational structure run by managers with the appropriate 21st century skills.
自2016年唐纳德·特朗普当选美国总统以及英国决定退出欧盟以来，民族主义的概念在全球许多国家都得到了体现。向本国以外扩张的传统障碍加上一系列新困难，如计划外的贸易壁垒、受阻的收购以及监管机构的严格审查，增加了 21世纪的管理负担。为新一代的管理人员已经准备好了应对这种新的、复杂的商业环境的技能。在20世纪，旧的命令和控制管理模式可能已经奏效。然而，今天，随着技术、人工智能、全球化、民族主义和多重其他障碍的出现，组织将继续朝着更扁平、更敏捷的组织结构迈进，由具有适当 21 世纪技能的管理人员管理。

Stakeholder versus Shareholder 利益相关者与股东

What is a stakeholder in a business, and what is a shareholder? Thedifference is important. Banton (2020) noted that shareholders, byowning even a single share of stock, has a stake in the company. Theshareholder first view was put forth by the economist Milton Friedman(1962) who stated that “There is one and only one social responsibilityof business – to use its resources and engage in activities designed toincrease its profits so long as it engages in open and free competition, without deception or fraud” (p. 133). In other words, maximize profitsso long as the pursuit of profit is done so legally and ethically. Analternate view is that a stakeholder has a clear interest in how thecompany performs, and this interest may stem from reasons other than the increase in the value of their share(s) of stock. Edward Freeman(1999), a philosopher and academic advanced his stakeholder theorycontending that the idea was the success of an organization relied onits ability to manage a complex web of relationships with severaldifferent stakeholders. These stakeholders could be an employee, acustomer, an investor, a supplier, the community in which the firmoperates, and the government that collects taxes and stipulates therules and regulations by which the company must operate. Which theory is correct? According to Emiliani (2001), businesses in the United Statestypically followed the shareholder model, while in other countries,firms tend to follow the stakeholder model. Events in the past decadehave created a shift toward the shareholder model in the United States.The financial crisis of 2008/2009, global warming, the debate betweenglobalization and nationalism, the push for green energy, a spate ofnatural disasters, and the world-wide impact of health crises such asAIDS, Ebola, the SARS virus and the Coronavirus have fostered a movetoward a redefinition of the purpose of a corporation. In the comingdecades, those companies that thrive and grow will be the ones thatinvest in their people, society, and the communities in which theyoperate. The managers of the 21st century must build on the work ofthose that proceeded them. Managers in the 21st century would do well if they heeded the words famously used by Isaac Newton who said “If I have seen a little further, it is because I stand on the shoulders ofgiants” (Harel, 2012).
什么是企业的利益相关者，什么是股东？区别很重要。Banton （2020）指出，股东即使拥有一股股票，也拥有公司的股份。经济学家米尔顿·弗里德曼（MiltonFriedman，1962）提出了股东第一种观点，他指出，“企业有一种且只有一种社会责任——利用其资源并从事旨在增加利润的活动，只要它参与公开和自由的竞争，没有欺骗或欺诈”（第133页）。换句话说，只要以合法和道德的方式追求利润，就可以实现利润最大化。另一种观点认为，利益相关者对公司的业绩有明显的利益，而这种利益可能源于他们股票价值增加以外的原因。哲学家和学者爱德华·弗里曼（EdwardFreeman，1999）提出了他的利益相关者理论，认为一个组织的成功取决于其管理与几个不同利益相关者的复杂关系网络的能力。这些利益相关者可以是员工、客户、投资者、供应商、公司经营所在的社区，以及征收税款并规定公司运营必须遵守的规则和条例的政府。哪个理论是正确的？根据Emiliani（2001）的说法，美国的企业通常遵循股东模式，而在其他国家，企业则倾向于遵循利益相关者模式。过去十年发生的事件使美国向股东模式发生了转变。2008/2009 年的金融危机、全球变暖、全球化与民族主义之间的辩论、对绿色能源的推动、一连串的自然灾害以及艾滋病、埃博拉病毒、SARS病毒和冠状病毒等健康危机的全球影响，推动了对公司宗旨的重新定义。在未来的几十年里，那些茁壮成长的公司将是那些投资于员工、社会和他们经营所在的社区的公司。21世纪的管理者必须建立在那些执行者的工作之上。如果21世纪的管理者听从艾萨克·牛顿（Isaac Newton）的名言，他们会做得很好，他说：“如果我看得更远一点，那是因为我站在巨人的肩膀上”（Harel，2012）。

Critical Thinking Questions 批判性思维问题

In what way has the role of manager changed in the past twenty years?
在过去的二十年里，管理者的角色发生了怎样的变化？

With the historical perspective of management in mind, reflect on changesyou foresee in the manager’s role in the next 20 years?
从管理的历史角度来看，你预见到未来20年管理者角色的变化是什么？

Reflect on some of the significant issues you have witnessed in the past fewyears. Among thoughts to consider are global warming, green energy,global health crisis, globalization, nationalism, national debt, or anissue of your choosing. What role do you see business and managementplaying in effectively dealing with that specific issue?
反思一下你在过去几年中目睹的一些重大问题。需要考虑的想法包括全球变暖、绿色能源、全球健康危机、全球化、民族主义、国债或您选择的问题。您认为企业和管理部门在有效处理这一具体问题方面发挥了什么作用？

How to Answer the Critical Thinking Questions 如何回答批判性思维问题

For each of these answers you should provide three elements.
对于这些答案中的每一个，您都应该提供三个元素。

General Answer. Give a general response to what the question is asking, or make your argument to what the question is asking.
一般答案。对问题提出的问题给出一般性的回答，或者对问题提出的问题提出你的论点。
Outside Resource. Provide a quotation from a source outside of this textbook. This can be anacademic article, news story, or popular press. This should besomething that supports your argument. Use the sandwich techniqueexplained below and cite your source in APA in text and then a list offull text citations at the end of the homework assignment of all threesources used.
外部资源。提供来自本教科书之外来源的引文。这可以是学术文章、新闻报道或大众媒体。这应该支持你的论点。使用下面解释的三明治技术，并在 APA 中以文本形式引用您的来源，然后在家庭作业结束时列出所有使用的三个来源的全文引用列表。
Personal Story. Provide a personal story that illustrates the point as well. This should be apersonal experience you had, and not a hypothetical. Talk about a timefrom your personal, professional, family, or school life.Use thesandwich technique for this as well, which is explained below.
个人故事。提供一个个人故事来说明这一点。这应该是你的个人经历，而不是假设的。谈谈你的个人、职业、家庭或学校生活中的一段时间。也可以使用三明治技术，下面将对此进行说明。

Use the sandwich technique: 使用三明治技术：

For the outside resource and the personal story you should use the sandwich technique. Good writing is not just about how to include thesematerials, but about how to make them flow into what you are saying andreally support your argument. The sandwich technique allows us to dothat. It goes like this:
对于外部资源和个人故事，您应该使用三明治技术。好的写作不仅仅是关于如何包含这些材料，而是关于如何让它们融入你所说的内容并真正支持你的论点。三明治技术使我们能够做到这一点。它是这样的：

Step 1: Provide a sentence that sets up your outside resource by answeringwho, what, when, or where this source is referring to.
第 1 步：提供一句话，通过回答此来源所指的人员、内容、时间或位置来设置您的外部资源。

Step 2: Provide the quoted material or story.
第 2 步：提供引用的材料或故事。

Step 3: Tell the reader why this is relevant to the argument you are making.
第 3 步：告诉读者为什么这与你正在提出的论点有关。

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The History of Management – The Four Functions of Management

https://fhsu.pressbooks.pub/management/chapter/the-history-of-management/

Some early management books

Some early management books are available online so that students and other scholars can read them in the original form, including Taylor 2010 (cited under Scientific Management and Frederick Taylor), Sheldon 1924 (cited under Organization Theory), and Gilbreth 2010 (cited under Other Contributors to Scientific Management). Many early articles on management may be found in Miner 1995 and Bedeian 2011. Wren and Bedeian 2008 is the most important management history book, and it is the one most widely used as a primary source in courses on management history. George 1972, though an older work, is sometimes also recommended.

Bedeian, Arthur G., ed. The Evolution of Management Thought: Critical Perspectives on Business and Management. 4 vols. London: Routledge, 2011.

More than one hundred articles covering more than a century of management literature; a must-read for any serious student of management history.
George, Claude S., Jr. The History of Management Thought. 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1972.

A short, older overview of the development of management thinking that is still useful for the author’s insights.
Miner, John B., ed. Administrative and Management Theory. Aldershot, UK: Dartmouth, 1995.

Numerous articles spanning more than seventy-five years are collected here. Readers get an intimate feel for the evolution of management theory through reading these original articles.
Wren, Daniel A., and Arthur G. Bedeian. The Evolution of Management Thought. 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008.

A highly readable summary of major milestones in the development of management thought. Presented within the context of the times, the stories of major figures in the field are told.