模拟信号到数字信号转化
In July 1716, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a 70-year-old lawyer, philosopher, and mathematician whose “tragedy was that he met the lawyers before the scientists,” joined Peter the Great, the 44-year-old tsar of Russia, in taking the cure at Bad Pyrmont in Saxony, drinking mineral water instead of alcohol for the duration of their eight-day stay.
1716 年 7月，戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼兹(Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz)，现年70岁的律师，哲学家和数学家，“悲剧性的是，他在科学家面前见过律师”，在俄罗斯加入了现年44岁的沙皇彼得大帝。在萨克森州的巴特皮尔蒙特(Bad Pyrmont)进行治疗，在八天的住宿期间，使用矿泉水代替酒精。
Leibniz, who would be dead within the year, laid three grand projects before the tsar. First was a proposal to send an overland expedition across Siberia to the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Pacific, where one or more oceangoing vessels would be launched on a voyage of discovery to determine whether Asia and America were separated, and if so, where? What languages were spoken by the inhabitants, and could this shed light on the origins and evolution of the human race? Were the rivers navigable? How does the magnetic declination vary with location, and does it also vary in time? What lay between the Russian Far East and the American Northwest? Could Russia extend its claims?
莱布尼茨，谁还会在一年内死去，LA I D沙皇前三个大满贯的项目。 首先是一项提议，将一项跨西伯利亚的陆上考察派往堪察加半岛和太平洋，在发现航行中将发射一艘或多艘远洋船，以确定亚洲和美国是否分开，如果分开，在哪里？ 居民说什么语言，这是否可以说明人类的起源和进化？ 河流通航吗？ 磁偏角如何随位置变化，并且随时间变化吗？ 俄罗斯远东地区与美国西北地区之间是什么？ 俄罗斯能否扩大其主张？
Second was a proposal to establish a Russian academy of sciences, modeled on the success of the existing European academies while leaving their infirmities behind.
第二个建议是建立一个俄罗斯科学院，以现有欧洲学院的成功为榜样，同时保留其衰弱之处。
Third was a plan to use digital computers “to work out, by an infallible calculus, the doctrines most useful for life, that is, those of morality and metaphysics,” by encoding natural language and its underlying concepts through a numerical mapping to an alphabet of primes. Leibniz sought Peter’s support to introduce this calculus ratiocinator to China, whose philosophers he credited with the invention of binary arithmetic, and to adopt this system in the tsar’s campaign for the modernization and expansion of Russia, which Leibniz saw as a tabula rasa, or blank slate, upon which his vision of a rational society based on science, logic, and machine intelligence might play out.
第三是使用数字计算机的计划，“通过可靠的演算，通过对数字的自然映射，将自然语言及其基本概念编码为对生命最有用的学说，即道德和形而上学”。素数。 莱布尼兹(Leibniz)寻求彼得的支持，以将这种微积分配比器引入中国，他将二元算术的发明归功于中国的哲学家，并在沙皇为俄国进行现代化和扩展的运动中采用了这一系统，莱布尼兹将其视为一种“塔布拉拉萨”(tabula rasa)或空白石板，他对基于科学，逻辑和机器智能的理性社会的愿景可能会发挥出来。
“The human race will have a new kind of instrument which will increase the power of the mind much more than optical lenses strengthen the eyes,” he argued. “Reason will be right beyond all doubt only when it is everywhere as clear and certain as only arithmetic has been until now.” Leibniz observed that the functions of binary arithmetic correspond to the logical operations of “and,” “or,” and “not.” Strings of binary symbols, whether represented by zeros and ones or black and white marbles, could both encode and logically manipulate concepts of arbitrary complexity in unambiguous terms. This universal language would open a new era in human affairs. Leibniz saw Peter’s ambitions as the means to propagate this revolution, drawing the analogy that building a new structure is easier than remodeling an old one whose foundations have settled unevenly, leaving defects that have to be repaired.
他说：“人类将拥有一种新型的仪器，它将比光学镜片增强眼睛的力量更多地增加心灵的力量。” “只有到现在为止像算术一样清晰，确定的地方，原因才是毫无疑问的。” 莱布尼兹(Leibniz)注意到二进制算术函数对应于“与”，“或”和“非”的逻辑运算。 二进制符号的字符串，无论是用零和一表示还是用黑白大理石，都可以用明确的术语编码和逻辑操作任意复杂性的概念。 这种通用语言将开启人类事务的新纪元。 莱布尼兹(Leibniz)将彼得的野心视为传播这场革命的手段，比喻说，建立新结构比改造基础已不均匀沉降的旧结构容易，从而留下了必须修复的缺陷。
The Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in 1724. The Great Northern Expedition was launched in 1725, followed by a 126-year Russian presence in America, beginning with the arrival of Bering and Chirikov in 1741 and ending in 1867 with the transfer of Alaska to the United States. Leibniz’s third project received no support. Although “so amused that he had looked at the instrument for half an hour,” and even probed it with a pencil to see how it worked, Peter took no further interest in Leibniz’s mechanical computer. The powers of digital computing were lost on the tsar.
俄罗斯科学院成立于1724年。大北伐战争于1725年发起，随后俄国在美国已有126年的历史，始于1741年白令和奇里科夫的到来，并于1867年随着阿拉斯加的迁往而结束美国。 莱布尼兹的第三个项目没有得到支持。 尽管“很有趣，以至于他看了半个小时的仪器”，甚至用铅笔探查了仪器的工作原理，但彼得对莱布尼兹的机械计算机并没有进一步的兴趣。 沙皇失去了数字计算的能力。
It took another two centuries, and the invention of electronics, for Russia, China, and the rest of the world to become the tabula rasa of Leibniz’s plan. Then suddenly, in less than 50 years, we advanced from the first primitive electronic digital computers, assembled from vacuum tubes and exchanging coded sequences at the speed of punched cards and paper tape, to a world where code proliferates at the speed of light. The ability of digital computers to mirror the nondigital universe is taken for granted today. To question the supremacy of these powers elicits the same disbelief as trying to explain them did in the time of Peter the Great.
又过了两个世纪，和电子学的发明，俄罗斯，中国和世界其他地区，成为莱布尼兹计划的白板。 然后在不到50年的时间里，我们突然从第一台原始的电子数字计算机(由真空管组装而成，以打Kong卡和纸带的速度交换编码序列)发展到一个以光速扩散的世界。 如今，数字计算机反映非数字宇宙的能力已被视为理所当然。 对这些权力的至高无上的质疑引起了人们对彼得大帝时代的解释同样的怀疑。
The differences between analog computing and digital computing are fundamental but not absolute. Analog computation deals with continuous functions, whose values change smoothly over time. Digital computation deals with discrete functions, whose values change in precise increments from one instant to the next. Leibniz might have envisioned an analog computer operating by means of a fluid running through a maze of pipes, regulated by valves that could be varied continuously between fully open and fully closed. As one of the founders of the infinitesimal calculus, he was no stranger to the continuous functions that such a device could evaluate or control. Instead, he envisioned a digital computer, with binary arithmetic executed by marbles shifted by on/off gates as they ran along multiple tracks.
模拟计算和数字计算之间的差异是根本的，但不是绝对的。 模拟计算处理的是连续函数，其值会随时间平稳变化。 数字计算处理离散函数，其值从一个瞬间到下一瞬间以精确的增量变化。 莱布尼兹可能已经想到了一种模拟计算机，该计算机将通过在迷宫般的管道中流动的流体运行，并由阀门控制，阀门可以在全开和全关之间连续变化。 作为微积分学的创始人之一，他对这种设备可以评估或控制的连续功能并不陌生。 相反，他设想了一种数字计算机，当大理石沿着多条轨道运行时，大理石通过开/关门移动来执行二进制运算。
These marbles were either black or white; no shades of gray allowed. They could not be divided into smaller marbles or merged into marbles of larger size. When arriving at a gate, they had to follow either one path or the other, with no middle ground. Any given sequence of marbles either corresponded exactly to some other sequence or did not. All questions had to be stated unambiguously, and if a question was repeated, the answer would be the same every time. This imagined computer was never built, but the binary digits, or bits, that permeate every facet of our existence are Leibniz’s marbles, given electronic form.
这些大理石是黑色或白色的。 不允许使用灰色阴影。 它们不能分为较小的大理石，也不能合并为较大尺寸的大理石。 到达大门时，他们必须沿着一条路径或另一条路径行驶，没有中间地带。 大理石的任何给定序列要么完全对应于其他序列，要么不对应。 所有问题都必须明确说明，如果重复一个问题，每次答案都是相同的。 这个想象中的计算机从未制造过，但是遍布我们生活各个方面的二进制数字或比特是莱布尼兹的大理石，采用电子形式。
Nature uses digital coding, embodied in strings of DNA, for the storage, replication, modification, and error correction of instructions conveyed from one generation to the next, but relies on analog coding and analog computing, embodied in brains and nervous systems, for real time intelligence and control. Coded sequences of nucleotides store the instructions to grow a brain, but the brain itself does not operate, like a digital computer, by storing and processing digital code. “If the only demerit of the digital expansion system were its greater logical complexity, nature would not, for this reason alone, have rejected it,” argued John von Neumann in 1948, explaining why brains do not use digital code.
大自然使用体现在DNA字符串中的数字编码来存储，复制，修改和纠正从一代传给下一代的指令，但实际上，它们依赖于大脑和神经系统中体现的模拟编码和模拟计算。时间智能和控制。 核苷酸的编码序列存储了大脑成长的指令，但是大脑本身无法像数字计算机那样通过存储和处理数字代码来进行操作。 约翰·冯·诺伊曼(John von Neumann)在1948年指出，“如果数字扩展系统的唯一缺点是其更大的逻辑复杂性，那么自然就不会因为这个原因而拒绝它。”他解释了为什么大脑不使用数字代码。
In a digital computer, one thing happens at a time. In an analog computer, everything happens at once. Brains process three-dimensional maps continuously, instead of processing one-dimensional algorithms step by step. Information is pulse-frequency coded, embodied in the topology of what connects where, not digitally coded by precise sequences of logical events. “The nervous system of even a very simple animal contains computing paradigms that are orders of magnitude more effective than are those found in systems built by humans,” argued Carver Mead, a pioneer of the digital microprocessor, urging a reinvention of analog processing in 1989. Technology will follow nature’s lead in the evolution of true artificial intelligence and control.
在数字计算机中，一次发生一件事。 在模拟计算机中，所有事情都立即发生。 大脑连续处理三维地图，而不是一步一步地处理一维算法。 信息采用脉冲频率编码，体现在连接位置的拓扑中，而不是通过逻辑事件的精确序列进行数字编码。 “即使是非常简单的动物的神经系统，其计算范例也比人类建立的系统有效。”数字微处理器的先驱卡弗·米德(Carver Mead)指出，在1989年敦促对模拟处理进行重新发明在真正的人工智能和控制技术的发展中，技术将遵循自然界的领导。
Electronics underwent two critical transitions over the past 100 years: from analog to digital and from high-voltage, high-temperature vacuum tubes to silicon’s low-voltage, low-temperature solid state. That these transitions occurred together does not imply a necessary link. Just as digital computation was first implemented using vacuum tube components, analog computation can be implemented, from the bottom up, by solid state devices produced the same way we make digital microprocessors today, or from the top down through the assembly of digital processors into analog networks that treat the flow of bits not logically but statistically: the way a vacuum tube treats the flow of electrons, or a neuron treats the flow of pulses in a brain.
在过去的100年中，电子技术经历了两个关键的转变：从模拟到数字，从高压，高温真空管到硅的低压，低温固态。 这些过渡一起发生并不意味着必要的联系。 就像首先使用真空管组件来实现数字计算一样，可以通过自下而上的固态设备来实现模拟计算，这种固态设备的生产方式与我们当今制造数字微处理器的方式相同，或者从上到下通过将数字处理器组装成模拟设备来实现。网络以逻辑方式而不是逻辑方式处理位流：真空管处理电子流或神经元处理大脑中脉冲流的方式。
Leibniz’s digital universe, despite its powers, remains incomplete, just as Isaac Newton, his rival over credit for the invention of the calculus, gave us a mathematical description of nature that predicts everything correctly, but only up to a certain point. The next revolution will be the coalescence of programmable machines into systems beyond programmable control.
莱布尼兹的数字宇宙尽管具有强大的功能，但仍不完整，就如同他以微积分的发明而闻名的竞争对手艾萨克·牛顿(Isaac Newton)为我们提供了对自然的数学描述，可以正确地预测一切，但只能预测到一定程度。 下一轮革命将是可编程机器与除可编程控制之外的系统的合并。
There are four epochs, so far, in the entangled destinies of nature, human beings, and machines. In the first, preindustrial epoch, technology was limited to the tools and structures that humans could create with their own hands. Nature remained in control.
Ť这里有四个时期，到目前为止，在自然界，人类和机器的纠结命运。 在工业化前的第一个时代，技术仅限于人类可以用自己的双手创造的工具和结构。 大自然仍处于控制之中。
In the second, industrial epoch, machines were introduced, starting with simple machine tools that could reproduce other machines. Nature began falling under mechanical control.
在第二个工业时代，引入了机器，首先是可以复制其他机器的简单机床。 大自然开始受到机械控制。
In the third epoch, digital codes, starting with punched cards and paper tape, began making copies of themselves. Powers of self-replication and self-reproduction that had so far been the preserve of biology were taken up by machines. Nature seemed to be relinquishing control. Late in this third epoch, the proliferation of networked devices, populated by metazoan codes, took a different turn.
在第三个时代，以打Kong卡和纸带开头的数字代码开始制作自己的副本。 迄今为止，自我复制和自我复制的力量一直被生物学所保护。 大自然似乎正在放弃控制。 在第三个时代末期，由后生代码组成的网络设备的普及发生了不同的变化。
In the fourth epoch, so gradually that almost no one noticed, machines began taking the side of nature, and nature began taking the side of machines. Humans were still in the loop but no longer in control. Faced with a growing sense of this loss of agency, people began to blame “the algorithm,” or those who controlled “the algorithm,” failing to realize there no longer was any identifiable algorithm at the helm. The day of the algorithm was over. The future belonged to something else.
在第四个时代，机器逐渐开始占据大自然的一面，而自然开始占据机器的一面，以至于几乎没有人注意到。 人类仍然处于循环之中，但不再处于控制之中。 面对这种失去代理权的意识日益增强，人们开始指责“算法”或控制“算法”的人，却没有意识到不再有任何可识别的算法可以掌控。 算法的一天结束了。 未来属于其他事物。
A belief that artificial intelligence can be programmed to do our bidding may turn out to be as unfounded as a belief that certain people could speak to God, or that certain other people were born as slaves. The fourth epoch is returning us to the spirit-laden landscape of the first: a world where humans coexist with technologies they no longer control or fully understand. This is where the human mind took form. We grew up, as a species, surrounded by mind and intelligence everywhere we looked. Since the dawn of technology, we were on speaking terms with our tools. Intelligence in the cloud is nothing new. To adjust to life in the fourth epoch, it helps to look back to the first.
认为可以对人工智能进行编程以进行竞标的信念可能与某些人可以与上帝说话或某些人是奴隶的信念一样毫无根据。 第四个时代使我们回到第一个充满精神的风景：人类与他们不再控制或完全理解的技术共存的世界。 这就是人类思想形成的地方。 我们成长为一个物种，到处都是神智和智慧。 自技术问世以来，我们一直在用我们的工具说话。 云中的智能并不是什么新鲜事物。 为了适应第四个时代的生活，它有助于回顾第一个时代。
The Bering-Chirikov expedition reached North America in 1741. The Russians, met by an indigenous population without written language but with advanced technology and arts, left a record of the Northwest Coast and its inhabitants at the moment that precontact times came to an end. Fifteen members of the expedition went ashore and were left behind. Their fate remains unknown.
吨他白令-奇里科夫出征1741年俄国人到达北美，未经书面语言，但凭借先进的技术和艺术，由土著人口遇到了，此刻离开西北海岸和它的居民的记录中的预接触时间走到了尽头。 探险队的15名成员上岸被遗弃。 他们的命运仍然未知。
At the close of the 19th century, the Chiricahua Apaches, descended from one time Alaskans arriving from Asia who continued south, resisted subjugation to a later date than anyone else. In pursuit of the last of the Apaches, the U.S. government implemented the first large-scale, high-speed, all-optical digital telecommunications network in North America. The first shots in the digital revolution and the last bows and arrows deployed in war against regular soldiers of the U.S. Army were fired at the same time.
在19世纪末期，奇里卡瓦阿帕奇人(Chiricahua Apaches)曾是阿拉斯加人从亚洲到达南部并一直向南发展的一次后代，因此抵抗征服的时间比其他任何人都晚。 为了追赶最后一批阿帕奇人，美国政府在北美实施了第一个大规模，高速，全光数字电信网络。 数字革命中的第一枪，以及与美国陆军常规士兵在战争中部署的最后弓箭同时被开除。
The invention of the vacuum tube, or thermionic valve, enabled machines with no moving parts except electrons, their operation limited not by the speed of sound that governs the transmission of information in mechanical devices but by the speed of light. It was into the war-surplus ferment of the electronics industry that otherwise abstract contributions from theoretical physics and mathematical logic combined to realize Leibniz’s vision of binary arithmetic as a universal code. The vacuum tube, treating streams of electrons as continuous functions, was an analog device. The logical processing of discrete pulses of electrons had to be imposed upon it, against its will, until the advent of the transistor brought this age of reptiles to a close.
真空管或热电子阀的发明使除电子外没有运动部件的机器成为可能，其运行方式不仅受控制机械设备中信息传输的声速的限制，还受光速的限制。 正是由于电子工业的战争盈余发酵，才使理论物理学和数学逻辑相结合，从而实现了莱布尼兹将二进制算术作为通用代码的愿景。 将电子流视为连续功能的真空管是一种模拟设备。 必须对电子的离散脉冲进行逻辑处理，这违背了它的意愿，直到晶体管的出现使这个爬行动物时代终结了。
The Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, after helping to invent nuclear weapons, spent the rest of his life opposing them — except for their use in the exploration of space. This possibility was taken up by a privately organized, government-supported project whose mission was to reach Saturn by 1970 in a 4,000-ton spaceship carrying one hundred people on a voyage modeled after that of Darwin’s Beagle, allowing four years to complete the trip. Project Orion was abandoned by the U.S. government, while Szilard’s fictional The Voice of the Dolphins led to my own adventures on the Northwest Coast.
匈牙利物理学家利奥·西拉德(Leo Szilard)在帮助发明了核武器之后，一生都反对核武器-除了在太空探索中使用核武器外。 这种可能性是由政府支持的一个私人组织的项目所承担的，该项目的任务是在1970年代乘载有4,000吨重的太空船到达土星，该太空船载有一百人按照达尔文的比格犬(Beagle)航行，历时四年。 Orion项目被美国政府抛弃，而Szilard的虚构的《海豚之声》引发了我在西北海岸的冒险。
Three of those years were spent in a tree house 95 feet up in a Douglas fir above Burrard Inlet in British Columbia, on land that had never been ceded by its rightful owners, the Tsleil-Waututh. Trees integrate a range of continuous inputs into a single channel of digital output: growth rings that are incremented one year at a time. I was surrounded by growth rings going back to the year 1426.
其中三年是在不列颠哥伦比亚省Burrard湾上方道格拉斯冷杉的95英尺高的树屋中度过的，而这片土地从未被其合法所有者Tsleil-Waututh割让。 树木将一系列连续的输入整合到一个数字输出通道中：每年增加一年的年轮。 我被1426年的年轮包围着。
My own version of string theory holds that lashing and sewing are overlooked drivers of our technological advance. On the Northwest Coast, Russian American colonists adopted the indigenous technology of the skinboat builders rather than replacing it with something else. I took the Russian adoption of the Aleut kayak, or baidarka, as a model, not only for my own boat building but also for how technology is emulating the design and tactics of living organisms on all fronts.
我自己的弦理论版本认为，绑扎和缝纫是我们技术进步的被忽视的驱动力。 在西北海岸，俄裔美国人殖民者采用了皮划艇建造者的本土技术，而不是用其他东西代替。 我以俄罗斯采用的Aleut皮划艇或baidarka为例，不仅用于我自己的造船，而且还用于技术如何模拟各个方面的活体生物的设计和策略。
Samuel Butler’s “Darwin Among the Machines,” appearing out of nowhere in the New Zealand wilderness of 1863, was fleshed out into his prophetic, dystopian Erewhon of 1872. In his notes for Erewhon Revisited, Butler went on to warn us that the advance of artificial intelligence would be driven by advertising and that both God and Darwin might turn out to be on the side of the machines.
塞缪尔·巴特勒的“达尔文在这些机器，”无处在1863年新西兰荒野出现了，被充实到他的预言中，1872年在他的笔记埃勒皇再访反乌托邦的埃勒皇 ，巴特勒接着提醒我们，前进的步伐人工智能将由广告驱动，而上帝和达尔文可能都在机器的一边。
The optically transmitted intelligence and numbered identity tags of the 19th-century campaign against the Apaches have descended to the optically fed data center recently established in the nearby desert by the National Security Agency. In the analog universe, time is a continuum. In the digital universe, time is an illusion conveyed by sequences of discrete, timeless steps. No time is there. What happens to Leibniz’s vision of a digital enlightenment when all human activity is machine-readable and all steps can be retraced?
19世纪针对阿帕奇人的战役的光导情报和编号身份标签已经降落到国家安全局最近在附近沙漠中建立的光导数据中心。 在模拟宇宙中，时间是连续的。 在数字世界中，时间是由离散的，永恒的步骤序列传达的一种幻觉。 没有时间了。 当所有人类活动都是机器可读的并且所有步骤都可以追溯时，莱布尼兹关于数字化启蒙的愿景会发生什么？
In 1890, after the exile of the Chiricahua Apaches as prisoners of war to Florida, a vision received by the Paiute prophet Wovoka led to a grassroots movement among the North American First Nations, promising to bring their dead warriors and dying ways back to life. An analogous prophecy, conveyed through a mathematical conjecture known as the continuum hypothesis, suggests that the powers of analog computation, transcending the bounds of algorithms, or step-by-step procedures, will supervene upon the digital and reassert control. Electrons, treated digitally, became bits; bits, treated statistically, have become electrons. The ghost of the vacuum tube has returned.
1890年，奇里卡瓦阿帕奇人被流放到佛罗里达州作为战俘，在此之后，paiute先知Wovoka提出的异象导致了北美原住民的基层运动，他们承诺将死去的战士带回并死去的方式重获新生。 通过被称为连续统假设的数学猜想传达的类似预言表明，超越算法或分步过程的模拟计算能力将超越数字控制并重新确立控制。 经过数字处理的电子变成了位。 经过统计学处理的位已变成电子。 真空管的幻影已恢复。
Leibniz’s ideas arrived in North America twice: in the 20th century with the digital computer, and with the Bering-Chirikov expedition in the 18th. When the navigators following Peter’s instructions reached the American Northwest Coast, they were met by people who had been doing just fine since the last technological revolution, some 15,000 years earlier. The slate was not blank.
莱布尼兹的想法两次到达北美：在20世纪有了数字计算机，在18世纪出现了Bering-Chirikov探险队。 当遵循彼得的指示的航海家到达美国西北海岸时，自上一次技术革命(距今大约15,000年前)以来情况一直很好的人们与他们会面。 板岩不是空白。
翻译自: https://onezero.medium.com/from-analog-to-digital-and-back-10b359350b68
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