part one Algorithms and Building Blocks
chapter 1 algorithm analysis 3
1.1 what is algorithm analysis? 4
1.2 examples of algorithm running times 7
1.3 the maximum contiguous subsequence sum problem 8
1.3.1 the obvious O(N3) algorithm 9
1.3.2 an improved O(N2) algorithm 12
1.3.3 a linear algorithm 13
1.4 general big-oh rules 14
1.5 the logarithm 19
1.6 static searching problem 21
1.6.1 sequential search 21
1.6.2 binary search 21
1.6.3 interpolation search 24
1.7 checking an algorithm analysis 25
1.8 limitations of big-oh analysis 26
summary 27
key concepts 27
common errors 28
on the internet 28
exercises 29
references 34
chapter 2 the collections api 37
2.1 introduction 38
2.2 the iterator pattern 39
2.2.1 basic iterator design 40
2.2.2 inheritance-based iterators and factories 41
2.3 collections api: containers and iterators 43
2.3.1 the Collection interface 43
2.3.2 Iterator interface 46
2.4 generic algorithms 48
2.4.1 Comparator function objects 49
2.4.2 the Collections class 49
2.4.3 binary search 52
2.4.4 sorting 52
2.5 the List interface 52
2.5.1 the ListIterator interface 54
2.5.2 LinkedList class 55
2.6 stacks and queues 58
2.6.1 stacks 58
2.6.2 stacks and computer languages 59
2.6.3 queues 60
2.6.4 stacks and queues in the collections api 60
2.7 sets 61
2.7.1 the TreeSet class 62
2.7.2 the HashSet class 63
2.8 maps 68
2.9 priority queues 70
summary 73
key concepts 74
common errors 75
on the internet 75
exercises 76
references 79
chapter 3 recursion 81
3.1 what is recursion? 81
3.2 background: proofs by mathematical induction 82
3.3 basic recursion 84
3.3.1 printing numbers in any base 86
3.3.2 why it works 88
3.3.3 how it works 89
3.3.4 too much recursion can be dangerous 90
3.3.5 preview of trees 91
3.3.6 additional examples 92
3.4 numerical applications 96
3.4.1 modular arithmetic 97
3.4.2 modular exponentiation 98
3.4.3 greatest common divisor and multiplicative inverses 99
3.4.4 the rsa cryptosystem 101
3.5 divide-and-conquer algorithms 103
3.5.1 the maximum contiguous subsequence sum problem 104
3.5.2 analysis of a basic divide-and-conquer recurrence 107
3.5.3 a general upper bound for divide-and-conquer running times 110
3.6 dynamic programming 112
3.7 backtracking 116
summary 119
key concepts 120
common errors 121
on the internet 121
exercises 122
references 126
chapter 4 sorting algorithms 127
4.1 why is sorting important? 128
4.2 preliminaries 129
4.3 analysis of the insertion sort and other simple sorts 129
4.4 shellsort 132
4.4.1 performance of shellsort 134
4.5 mergesort 135
4.5.1 linear-time merging of sorted arrays 136
4.5.2 the mergesort algorithm 137
4.6 quicksort 139
4.6.1 the quicksort algorithm 140
4.6.2 analysis of quicksort 142
4.6.3 picking the pivot 145
4.6.4 a partitioning strategy 146
4.6.5 keys equal to the pivot 148
4.6.6 median-of-three partitioning 148
4.6.7 small arrays 149
4.6.8 java quicksort routine 150
4.7 quickselect 152
4.8 a lower bound for sorting 154
summary 155
key concepts 155
common errors 156
on the internet 156
exercises 156
references 160
chapter 5 randomization 161
5.1 why do we need random numbers? 161
5.2 random number generators 162
5.3 nonuniform random numbers 167
5.4 generating a random permutation 169
5.5 randomized algorithms 170
5.6 randomized primality testing 173
summary 176
key concepts 176
common errors 177
on the internet 178
exercises 178
references 180
part two Applicat ions
chapter 6 fun and games 183
6.1 word search puzzles 183
6.1.1 theory 184
6.1.2 java implementation 185
6.2 the game of tic-tac-toe 189
6.2.1 alpha–beta pruning 189
6.2.2 transposition tables 192
6.2.3 computer chess 197
summary 198
key concepts 198
common errors 198
on the internet 198
exercises 199
references 200
chapter 7 stacks and compilers 201
7.1 balanced-symbol checker 201
7.1.1 basic algorithm 202
7.1.2 implementation 203
7.2 a simple calculator 212
7.2.1 postfix machines 213
7.2.2 infix to postfix conversion 213
7.2.3 implementation 216
7.2.4 expression trees 222
summary 224
key concepts 225
common errors 225
on the internet 225
exercises 226
references 227
chapter 8 utilities 229
8.1 file compression 229
8.1.1 prefix codes 230
8.1.2 huffman’s algorithm 232
8.1.3 implementation 235
8.2 a cross-reference generator 248
8.2.1 basic ideas 248
8.2.2 java implementation 248
summary 252
key concepts 252
common errors 253
on the internet 253
exercises 253
references 256
chapter 9 simulation 257
9.1 the josephus problem 257
9.1.1 the simple solution 258
9.1.2 a more efficient algorithm 260
9.2 event-driven simulation 261
9.2.1 basic ideas 261
9.2.2 example: a modem bank simulation 263
summary 270
key concepts 270
common errors 271
on the internet 271
exercises 271
chapter 10 graphs and paths 273
10.1 definitions 273
10.1.1 representation 275
10.2 unweighted shortest-path problem 285
10.2.1 theory 286
10.2.2 java implementation 289
10.3 positive-weighted, shortest-path problem 289
10.3.1 theory: dijkstra’s algorithm 290
10.3.2 java implementation 294
10.4 negative-weighted, shortest-path problem 296
10.4.1 theory 296
10.4.2 java implementation 297
10.5 path problems in acyclic graphs 297
10.5.1 topological sorting 297
10.5.2 theory of the acyclic shortest-path algorithm 299
10.5.3 java implementation 301
10.5.4 an application: critical-path analysis 303
summary 305
key concepts 306
common errors 307
on the internet 307
exercises 308
references 311
part three Implementat ions
chapter 11 inner classes and implementation of ArrayList 315
11.1 iterators and nested classes 315
11.2 iterators and inner classes 318
11.3 the AbstractCollection class 321
11.4 StringBuilder 322
11.5 implementation of ArrayList with an iterator 325
summary 330
key concepts 331
common errors 331
on the internet 331
exercises 331
chapter 12 stacks and queues 335
12.1 dynamic array implementations 335
12.1.1 stacks 335
12.1.2 queues 339
12.2 linked list implementations 344
12.2.1 stacks 345
12.2.2 queues 347
12.3 comparison of the two methods 351
12.4 the java.util.Stack class 351
12.5 double-ended queues 351
summary 353
key concepts 353
common errors 353
on the internet 353
exercises 353
chapter 13 linked lists 355
13.1 basic ideas 355
13.1.1 header nodes 357
13.1.2 iterator classes 358
13.2 java implementation 359
13.3 doubly linked lists and circularly linked lists 365
13.4 sorted linked lists 367
13.5 implementing the collections api LinkedList class 369
summary 379
key concepts 379
common errors 380
on the internet 380
exercises 380
chapter 14 trees 385
14.1 general trees 385
14.1.1 definitions 385
14.1.2 implementation 387
14.1.3 an application: file systems 387
14.2 binary trees 391
14.3 recursion and trees 397
14.4 tree traversal: iterator classes 399
14.4.1 postorder traversal 403
14.4.2 inorder traversal 406
14.4.3 preorder traversal 408
14.4.4 level-order traversals 408
summary 411
key concepts 412
common errors 412
on the internet 413
exercises 413
chapter 15 binary search trees 417
15.1 basic ideas 417
15.1.1 the operations 418
15.1.2 java implementation 419
15.2 order statistics 426
15.2.1 java implementation 427
15.3 analysis of binary search tree operations 431
15.4 avl trees 434
15.4.1 properties 434
15.4.2 single rotation 437
15.4.3 double rotation 439
15.4.4 summary of avl insertion 441
15.5 red–black trees 442
15.5.1 bottom-up insertion 443
15.5.2 top-down red–black trees 444
15.5.3 java implementation 446
15.5.4 top-down deletion 450
15.6 aa-trees 454
15.6.1 insertion 455
15.6.2 deletion 457
15.6.3 java implementation 458
15.7 implementing the collections api TreeSet and TreeMap classes 463
15.8 b-trees 479
summary 485
key concepts 486
common errors 487
on the internet 487
exercises 488
references 490
chapter 16 hash tables 493
16.1 basic ideas 493
16.2 hash function 494
16.3 linear probing 497
16.3.1 naive analysis of linear probing 498
16.3.2 what really happens: primary clustering 499
16.3.3 analysis of the find operation 500
16.4 quadratic probing 502
16.4.1 java implementation 505
16.4.2 analysis of quadratic probing 510
16.5 separate chaining hashing 514
16.6 hash tables versus binary search trees 514
16.7 hashing applications 515
summary 515
key concepts 516
common errors 516
on the internet 517
exercises 517
references 519
chapter 17 a priority queue: the binary heap 521
17.1 basic ideas 521
17.1.1 structure property 522
17.1.2 heap-order property 523
17.1.3 allowed operations 524
17.2 implementation of the basic operations 527
17.2.1 insertion 527
17.2.2 the deleteMin operation 529
17.3 the buildHeap operation: linear-time heap construction 531
17.4 advanced operations: decreaseKey and merge 535
17.5 internal sorting: heapsort 535
17.6 external sorting 538
17.6.1 why we need new algorithms 538
17.6.2 model for external sorting 539
17.6.3 the simple algorithm 539
17.6.4 multiway merge 541
17.6.5 polyphase merge 542
17.6.6 replacement selection 543
summary 544
key concepts 545
common errors 545
on the internet 546
exercises 546
references 549
part four Advanced Data Struct ures
chapter 18 splay trees 553
18.1 self-adjustment and amortized analysis 553
18.1.1 amortized time bounds 554
18.1.2 a simple self-adjusting strategy (that does not work) 555
18.2 the basic bottom-up splay tree 557
18.3 basic splay tree operations 559
18.4 analysis of bottom-up splaying 560
18.4.1 proof of the splaying bound 562
18.5 top-down splay trees 565
18.6 implementation of top-down splay trees 567
18.7 comparison of the splay tree with other search trees 573
summary 573
key concepts 574
common errors 574
on the internet 574
exercises 575
references 576
chapter 19 merging priority queues 577
19.1 the skew heap 577
19.1.1 merging is fundamental 577
19.1.2 simplistic merging of heap-ordered trees 578
19.1.3 the skew heap: a simple modification 579
19.1.4 analysis of the skew heap 580
19.2 the pairing heap 582
19.2.1 pairing heap operations 582
19.2.2 implementation of the pairing heap 583
19.2.3 application: dijkstra’s shortest weighted path algorithm 591
summary 592
key concepts 592
common errors 593
on the internet 593
exercises 593
references 594
chapter 20 the disjoint set class 595
20.1 equivalence relations 595
20.2 dynamic equivalence and applications 596
20.2.1 application: generating mazes 597
20.2.2 application: minimum spanning trees 599
20.2.3 application: the nearest common ancestor problem 602
20.3 the quick-find algorithm 605
20.4 the quick-union algorithm 606
20.4.1 smart union algorithms 607
20.4.2 path compression 609
20.5 java implementation 610
20.6 worst case for union-by-rank and path compression 610
20.6.1 analysis of the union/find algorithm 613
summary 619
key concepts 619
common errors 620
on the internet 620
exercises 621
references 623
appendix A operators 625
appendix B bitwise operators 627
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