数学相关

线性筛素数

$O(nloglogn)$写法:用每个数筛去他的倍数

$O(n)$写法：利用每个合数都能被表示成一系列素数积

int prime[maxn], cnt;
int vis[maxn];
void solve(int n) {
	vis[0] = vis[1] = 1;
	for (int i = 2; i <= n; ++i) {
		if (!vis[i])
			prime[cnt++] = i;
		for (int j = 0; j < cnt && i * prime[j] <= n; ++j) {
			vis[i * prime[j]] = 1;
			if (i % prime[j] == 0)
				break;
		}
	}
}

欧拉定理

参考链接

若正整数a和n互质，则$a^{\phi (n)}\equiv 1(modn)$其中φ(n)为1～n中与n互质的数的个数

推论

若正整数a和n互质，对于任意正整数b，满足$a^b\equiv a^{bmod\phi (n)}(modn)$；可以用来对于求幂运算时缩小数据范围和计算次数；特别的若a和n不互质，则$a^b\equiv a^{bmod\phi (n)+\phi (n)}(modn)$

引理

对于任意互质的正整数a和n，满足$a^x\equiv 1(modn)$的最小整数$x$是$\phi (n)$的约数

根据欧拉函数定义$\varphi (n)=n\prod _{i=0}^s(1-\frac{1}{p_i})$，其中$p_i$是$n$的质因子

int euler_phi(int n) {
  int m = int(sqrt(n + 0.5));
  int ans = n;
  for (int i = 2; i <= m; i++)
    if (n % i == 0) {
      ans = ans / i * (i - 1);
      while (n % i == 0) n /= i;
    }
  if (n > 1) ans = ans / n * (n - 1);
  return ans;
}

费马小定理

对于质数p，任意整数a，均满足$a^p\equiv a(modp)$ ； 属于欧拉定理的特例

Miller_Rabin素数判断

1. 利用费马小定理，对数n，若它是素数，就满足$x^{n-1}\equiv 1(modn)$，我们随机几个数判断若出现结果不为1则可以判断不为素数
2. 二次检测，$n-1=r\ast 2^d$，依次检验$r\ast x^{d-1}modn$的结果若为1，则只能$x=1,x=n-1$，否则不为素数

typedef long long ll;
ll mod_mul(ll a, ll b, ll c) {
	ll rhs = 0;
	while (b) {
		if (b & 1)
			rhs = (rhs + a) % c;
		b >>= 1;
		a = (a + a) % c;
	}
	return rhs;
}
ll mod_exp(ll a, ll b, ll c) {
	ll rhs = 1;
	while (b) {
		if (b & 1)
			rhs = rhs * a % c;
		b >>= 1;
		a = a * a % c;
	}
	return rhs;
}

bool Miller_Rabin(ll n, int respat) {
	if (n == 2ll || n == 3ll || n == 5ll || n == 7ll || n == 11ll)
		return true;
	if (n == 1 || !(n % 2) || !(n % 3) || !(n % 5) || !(n % 7) || !(n % 11))
		return false;

	int k = 0;
	ll d = n - 1;
	while (!(d & 1ll)) {
		k++; d >>= 1ll;
	}
	srand((ll)time(0));
	for (int i = 0; i < respat; ++i) {
		ll a = rand() % (n - 2) + 2;
		ll x = mod_exp(a, d, n);
		ll y = 0ll;
		//二次探测，利用x^2≡1(modn)时只有x=1或x=n-1两个解
		for (int j = 0; j < k; ++j) {
			y = mod_mul(x, x, n);
			if (1ll == y && 1ll != x && n - 1ll != x)
				return false;
			x = y;
		}
		if (1ll != y)
			return false;
	}
	return true;
}

int main() {
	ll x; scanf("%lld", &x);
	if (Miller_Rabin(x, 6))
		printf("Yes\n");
	else
		printf("No\n");
}

线性同余方程

$ax\equiv b(modm)$，转换为$ax+my=b$，使用$exgcd$求解，注意有多解

1. 对于$ax+my=b$的有整数解的充分条件是$b(\mathrm{m}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d}gcd(a,m))=0$
2. 对于$x_0,y_0$是原式的一组解，则其他解可由$x=x_0+b\ast t/gcd(a,m)$求解
3. 若$d=gcd(a,m)$，则方程在$[0,m/d-1]$上有唯一解

typedef long long ll;
ll exgcd(ll a, ll b, ll &x, ll &y) {
	if(b == 0) {
		x = 1;
		y = 0;
		return a;
	}
	ll r = exgcd(b, a % b, x, y);
	ll tmp = x;
	x = y;
	y = tmp - a / b * y;
	return r;
}
//ax = b(mod n) -> ax - ny = b
vector<ll> line_mod_quation(ll a, ll b, ll n) {
    ll x, y;
    ll d = exgcd(a, n, x, y);
    vector<ll> ans;
    ans.clear();
    if(b % d == 0) {
        x %= n; x += n; x %= n;
        ans.push_back(x * (b / d) % (n / d));
        for(int i = 1; i <= d; i++) ans.push_back((ans[0] + i *  n / d) % n);
    }
    return ans;
}

CRT

解决一元线性同余方程$x\equiv a_i(mod{m}_i)$，其中$m_i$是两两互质的数

1. 令$M=\prod_{i=1}^n{m_i}$，$Mi={\frac{M}{m_i}}$，$t_i$是$M_i*t_i≡1(modm_i)$的一个解

2. 那么x有整数解，为$x={\prod }_{i=1}^n{a}_i\ast M_i\ast t_i$ x为一个特解，通解可以用$x+km(k\in Z)$表示，最小整数解为$x\mathrm{m}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d}m$

/*
x = a1(mod m1)
x = a2(mod m2)
.
x = an(mod mn)
其中m1到mn两两互质的整数
*/
ll exgcd(ll a, ll b, ll &x, ll &y) {
	if(b == 0) {
		x = 1;
		y = 0;
		return a;
	}
	ll r = exgcd(b, a % b, x, y);
	ll tmp = x;
	x = y;
	y = tmp - a / b * y;
	return r;
}
ll CRT(int n, int a[], int m[]) {
    ll M = 1, x = 0, xx, yy;
    for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) M *= m[i];
    for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        ll w = M / m[i];
        exgcd(m[i], w, xx, yy);
        x = (x + yy * w * a[i]) % M;
    }
    return (x + M) % M;
}

exCRT

使用与$m_i$不为互质的一元线性同余方程组

1. 考虑合并$\{\begin{array}{l}x\equiv a_1(mod{m}_1)\\ x\equiv a_2(mod{m}_2)\end{array}$得到$\{\begin{array}{l}x\equiv a_1+m_1{y}_1\\ x\equiv a_2+m_2{y}_2\end{array}$也即是$m_1{y}_1+m_2{y}_2=a_2-a_1$
2. 使用$exgcd$解去一组可行解$(x1,y1)$，带回去计算出关于x的可行解$x_1$，则$x\equiv x_1(modm)$，其中$m=lcm(m_1,m_2)$

ll ex_gcd(ll a, ll b, ll& x, ll& y) {
  if (a == 0 && b == 0) return -1;  // 无最大公因数
  ll d = a;
  if (b != 0)
    d = ex_gcd(b, a % b, y, x), y -= x * (a / b);
  else
    x = 1, y = 0;
  return d;
}

// mod不满足两两互质
// 通解为 re + k*M
// 返回最小非负整数解
bool excrt(ll r[], ll m[], int n, ll& re, ll& M) {
  ll x, y;
  M = m[0], re = r[0];
  for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
    ll d = ex_gcd(M, m[i], x, y);
    if ((r[i] - re) % d != 0) return 0;
    x = (r[i] - re) / d * x % (m[i] / d);
    re += x * M;
    M = M / d * m[i];
    re = re % M;
  }
  re = (re + M) % M;
  return 1;
}

二次剩余

定义式子$x^2\equiv n(modp)$，给出n和p，是否存在一个式子满足该式子，即模p意义下的开根$\sqrt{n}$参考链接

1. 钱德勒Legender符号$(\frac{a}{p})=\{\begin{array}{l}1，a在模p意义是二次剩余\\ -1，a在模p意义下非二次剩余\\ 0，a\equiv 0(modp)\end{array}$
2. $(\frac{a}{p})\equiv a^{\frac{p-1}{2}}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d}p$
3. 设a是满足$w\equiv a^2-n$是模p的非二次剩余，即$x^2\equiv w(modp)$无解，那么$x\equiv (a+\sqrt{w}{)}^{\frac{p+1}{2}}$是二次同余方程$x^2\equiv n\mathrm{m}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{d}p$的解

#define random(a,b) (rand()%(b-a+1)+a)
ll quickmod(ll a, ll b, ll c) {
	ll ans = 1;
	while (b) {
		if (b & 1)
			ans = ans * a % c;
		b >>= 1;
		a = a * a % c;
	}
	return ans;
}

ll p, w;
struct QuadraticField
{
	ll x, y;
	QuadraticField operator *(QuadraticField T) {
		QuadraticField rhs;
		rhs.x = (this->x * T.x % p + this->y * T.y % p * w % p) % p;
		rhs.x = (rhs.x + p) % p;
		rhs.y = (this->x * T.y % p + this->y * T.x % p) % p;
		rhs.y = (rhs.y + p) % p;
		return rhs;
	}
	QuadraticField operator ^(ll b) {
		QuadraticField rhs;
		QuadraticField a = *this;
		rhs.x = 1; rhs.y = 0;
		while (b) {
			if (b & 1)
				rhs = rhs * a;
			b >>= 1;
			a = a * a;
		}
		return rhs;
	}
};
ll Legender(ll a) {
	ll rhs = quickmod(a, (p - 1) / 2, p);
	if (rhs + 1 == p)
		return -1;
	else
		return rhs;
}
ll get_w(ll n, ll a) {
	return ((a * a % p - n) % p + p) % p;
}
ll solve(ll n) {
	ll a;
	if (p == 2)
		return n;
	if (Legender(n) == -1)
		return -1;
	srand((unsigned)time(NULL));
	while (true) {
		a = random(0, p - 1);
		w = get_w(n, a);
		if (Legender(w) == -1)
			break;
	}
	QuadraticField ans, rhs;
	rhs.x = a; rhs.y = 1;
	ans = rhs ^ ((p + 1) / 2);
	return ans.x;
}
int main()
{
	int t; scanf("%d", &t);
	while (t--) {
		ll n; scanf("%lld%lld", &n, &p);
		n %= p;
		if (n == 0)
			printf("0\n");
		else {
			ll ans1 = solve(n), ans2;
			if (ans1 == -1)
				printf("Hola!\n");
			else {
				ans2 = p - ans1;
				if (ans1 == ans2)
					printf("%lld\n", ans1);
				else
					printf("%lld %lld\n", min(ans1, ans2), max(ans1, ans2));
			}
		}
	}
}

原根

$(a,p)=1$时，满足$a^g\equiv 1(modp)$的最小的$g$正好等于$\phi (p)$

1. 对$p-1$进行质因子分解得到不同的质因子$d1,d2,...,dm$
2. 对任意$1<a<p$，只需要检验每个质因子$a^{\frac{p-1}{d_i}}$这m个数中是否存在模p意义下与1同余，则a不是p的原根；否则不是

int powmod(int a, int b, int p) {
	int res = 1;
	while (b) {
		if (b & 1)
			res = res * a % p;
		b >>= 1;
		a = a * a % p;
	}
	return res;
}
//找原根
int generator(int p) {
	vector<int> fact;
	int phi = p - 1, n = phi;
	for (int i = 2; i * i <= n; ++i) {
		if (n % i == 0) {
			fact.push_back(i);
			while (n % i == 0)
				n /= i;
		}
	}
	if (n > 1)
		fact.push_back(n);
	for (int res = 2; res <= p; ++res) {
		bool ok = true;
		for (int factor : fact) {
			if (powmod(res, phi / factor, p) == 1) {
				ok = false;
				break;
			}
		}
		if (ok)
			return res;
	}
	return -1;
}

BSGS离散对数

关于$a^x\equiv b(modp)$的求解

1. 令$x=km-t$，其中$m=\sqrt{p}$，则原式为$a^{km-t}\equiv b(modp)，a^{km}\equiv b{a}^t(modp)$
2. 枚举$k,t<=m$，计算$a^{km}$并记录，再计算$b{a}^t$检查是否已经存在
3. 带入$x=km-t$

int sq = (int)sqrt(p + .0) + 1;
vector<pair<int, int>> dec(sq);
for (int i = 1; i <= sq; ++i)
	dec[i - 1] = { powmod(a, i * sq * k % (p - 1), p), i };
sort(dec.begin(), dec.end());
int any_ans = -1;
for (int i = 0; i < sq; ++i) {
	int my = powmod(a, i * k % (p - 1), n) * b % n;
	auto it = lower_bound(dec.begin(), dec.end(), make_pair(my, 0));
	if (it != dec.end() && it->first =