Review of Western Civilization (HITSZ)

HITSZ西方文明简介复习大纲（自用）。老师（rupert）很好，就是听不太懂他在讲什么。但在复习这门课的过程中，博主大概厘清了欧洲中世纪到工业革命发生的一些事情：八次十字军东征、文艺复兴、黑死病、科技革命、启蒙运动等，虽然对CS技术没有特别大的提高，但是人文知识有了较大的进步🤭（开玩笑的）

1. The Meanings of Civilization

1.1 Meanings

Civilization could mean civility, technologies, justice, morality, order, cleanliness, art, united humanity, and superiority, etc. Specifically, take civility, technologies, and justice for further explanations:

• Civility (礼仪): Civility comes from the word civis, which in Latin means “citizen”. Merriam Webster defines civility as civilized conduct (especially: courtesy or politeness) or a polite act or expression. Historically, civility also meant training in the humanities.
• Technical/Scientific knowledge: From a historical perspective, the agricultural revolution, the scientific revolution, and the industrial revolution were all integral to the evolution of civilization. (1) Agricultural revolution. As the population grows, agriculture needs to develop faster to provide enough food, for example, with less land and labor costs; (3) Scientific revolution. People used reason and science to explain the laws of nature, so as to master the code leading to the industrial revolution; (3) Industrial Revolution. The discovery and use of coal, iron, steam engine, etc., greatly liberated the productive forces, thus enabling the rapid advance of civilization.
• Justice: For some time civiliser had been used in jurisprudence to describe the transformation of a criminal matter into a civil one, hence civilization was defined in the Trévoux Dictionnaire universal of 1743 as a ‘Term of jurisprudence’.

1.2 Other’s Point of View

Non-violence. In respect to the management of violence in civilized society, John Keane’s points to ‘the threat (and fear) of violence … lurking behind the concern with civility’. He argues that ‘civilization was normally understood as a project charged with resolving the permanent problem of discharging, defusing and sublimating violence … Civilization therefore’, he adds, ‘denoted an ongoing historical process, in which civility, a static term, was both the aim and the outcome of the transformation of uncivil into civil behavior’ (1996: 19). For Bauman, civilization ‘denoted above all else a novel, active stance taken towards social processes previously left to their own resources, and a presence of concentrated social powers sufficient to translate such a stance into effective practical measures. In its specific form, the concept of civilization also conveyed a choice of strategy for the centralized management of social processes: it was to be a knowledge-led management, and management aimed above all at the administration of individual minds and bodies’ (1987: 93)

2. Crusades Effects

2.1 Overview

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups (i.e., Jerusalem). In all, eight major Crusade expeditions — varying in size, strength and degree of success — occurred between 1096 and 1291. The costly, violent and often ruthless conflicts enhanced the status of European Christians, making them major players in the fight for land in the Middle East.

2.2 Introduction to Crusades

2.2.1 What were Crusades

By the end of the 11th century, Western Europe had emerged as a significant power in its own right, though it still lagged behind other Mediterranean civilizations, such as the Byzantine Empire (formerly the eastern half of the Roman Empire) and the Islamic Empire of the Middle East and North Africa.

However, Byzantium had lost considerable territory to the invading Seljuk Turks. After years of chaos and civil war, the general Alexius Comnenus seized the Byzantine throne in 1081 and consolidated control over the remaining empire as Emperor Alexius I.

In 1095, Alexius sent envoys to Pope Urban II asking for mercenary troops from the West to help confront the Turkish threat. Though relations between Christians in the East and those in the West had long been fractious, Alexius’s request came at a time when the situation was improving.

2.2.2 When Were the Crusades?

In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in southern France, the Pope called on Western Christians to take up arms to aid the Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. This marked the beginning of the Crusades.

Pope Urban’s plea was met with a tremendous response, both among the military elite as well as ordinary citizens. Those who joined the armed pilgrimage wore a cross as a symbol of the Church.

The Crusades set the stage for several religious knightly military orders, including the Knights Templar, the Teutonic Knights, and the Hospitallers. These groups defended the Holy Land and protected Christian pilgrims traveling to and from the region.

2.3 Effects

The impact of the Crusades may thus be summarized in general terms as:

• an increased presence of Christians in the Levant during the Middle Ages (中世纪黎凡特地区基督徒的增多).
• the development of military orders.
• a polarization (两极分化) of the East and West based on religious differences.
• the specific application of religious goals to warfare in the Levant, Iberian peninsula, and Baltic region, in particular.
• The increased role and prestige of the popes and the Catholic Church in secular (世俗, 非宗教) affairs. Specifically, the success of the First Crusade and the image that popes directed the affairs of the whole Christian world helped the Papacy gain supremacy over the Hohenstaufen emperors. The Catholic Church had also created a new fast-track entry into heaven with the promise that crusaders would enjoy an immediate remission of their sins - military service and penance were intermixed so that crusading became an act of devotion. However, with each new failed campaign, papal prestige declined, although in Spain and north-east Europe the territorial successes did promote the Papacy. Another negative consequence for many was the Church’s official sanction of the possibility to purchase indulgences. That is if one could not or did not want to go on a crusade in person, giving material aid to others who did so reaped the same spiritual benefits. This idea was extended by the Catholic Church to create a whole system of paid indulgences, a situation which contributed to the emergence of the Reformation of the 16th century CE.
• The souring (恶化) of relations between the West and the Byzantine Empire leading, ultimately, to the latter’s destruction. The crusades caused a rupture in western-Byzantine relations. First, there was the Byzantine’s horror at unruly groups of warriors causing havoc in their territory. Outbreaks of fighting between crusaders and Byzantine forces were common, and the mistrust and suspicion of their intentions grew. It was a troublesome relationship that only got worse, with accusations of neither party trying very hard to defend the interests of the other. The situation culminated in the shocking sacking of Constantinople on 1204 CE during the Fourth Crusade, which also saw the appropriation of art and religious relics by European powers. The Empire became so debilitated it could offer little resistance to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE.
• an increase in the power of the royal houses of Europe.
• a stronger collective cultural identity (集体文化认同) in Europe.
• an increase in xenophobia (仇外心理) and intolerance between Christians and Muslims, and between Christians and Jews, heretics and pagans.
• An increase in international trade and exchange of ideas and technology. Trade between East and West greatly increased. More exotic goods entered Europe than ever before, such as spices (especially pepper and cinnamon), sugar, dates, pistachio nuts, watermelons, and lemons. Cotton cloth, Persian carpets, and eastern clothing came, too. The Italian states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa grew rich through their control of the Middle East and Byzantine trade routes, which was in addition to the money they raked in from transporting crusader armies and their supplies. This was happening anyway, but the crusades probably accelerated the process of international trade across the Mediterranean.
• An increase interests in traveling. After the Crusades, there was a heightened interest in travel and learning throughout Europe, which some historians believe may have paved the way for the Renaissance.
• an increase in the power of such Italian states as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.
• the appropriation (挪用) of many Christian relics (遗物) to Europe.
• the use of a religious historical precedent (先例) to justify colonialism, warfare and terrorism.

3. Importance of Renaissance and Great Crisis

The year 1500 is often taken to mark the start of modern Europe (14 centuries to 16 centuries). The Renaissance in Italy was already well underway and was about to unsettle the intellectual and artistic life of much of the rest of Europe.

3.1 Overview

The Renaissance describes changes in artistic and intellectual life. It described the ‘re-birth’ of a lost tradition, of classical antiquity (古典时代). The term began to be used – the re-birth started to become self-conscious – from about the time of Giotto (1266-1337) And it was reaching its artistic height by the start of the sixteenth century. Rather than simply report what he saw, Leonardo (1452-1519) left hints for the sub-conscious mind, allowing observers to experience for themselves the human form. Through sfumato and other techniques he lent extraordinary life and an emotional power to his work (most notably the Mona Lisa) which is still felt even after five centuries. Michelangelo (1475-1564) achieved similar effect through his meticulous observation of twisting sinews, muscles, bones, and blood vessels set within a simple, firm, outline and design. Caravaggio (1569 -1609) and Titian (1570-1650) would also produce remarkable works.

But there is no clear line between the Renaissance and what came before. The term was used by men to distinguish themselves from another invention, the world of ‘ the Middle Ages’. These terms emphasised their sense of novelty, of difference. Yet the transmission of antiquity to this new Europe had been taking place for centuries.

3.2 Prerequisites

The sixteenth century had been preceded by a thousand years punctuated (时断时续) by the fitful revival (复兴) and development of learning that followed the fall of Rome, and had found expression through the rural Christian communities, the growth of urban pockets; through the Consolation of Philosophy, to Aquinas’ (1226-74) efforts to weave together Aristotle and Christian views (as in, for instance, his account of natural and theological virtues, and his notion of misericordia in particular); from Dante’s (1265-1321) Commedia to Petrarch’s (1304-1374) humanism and love of classical manuscripts. Dante’s inferno chronicles an imaginary journey through Hell, Purgatory and Heaven, the universe of Christian truth. But his guide is not a Christian, but the classical poet Virgil: he is presented by Dante as a prophet (先知) of equal stature (声望) of the prophets of the Old Testament (圣约). The significance of this, it is generally believed, is recognition of the acceptance of the classical world by Christians and therefore of the revival of humanism – of the importance of learning, of art, of relationships, of the natural world - without the need for Christianity and the Church.

3.3 The Weakened Church’s Power and Opened Minds

• Emerged Self Conscious: The commercial networks established amongst the urban pockets domestically and overseas also helped to foster (促进) a sense of identity and nation; while commercial and administrative organizations within towns and cities provided the room for organizations to become more effective. Society was learning to organize itself and to see, however faintly (模糊的), the common good as an end in itself. Church authority still weighed heavily, but murmurings against the Church and against the wealth and corruption of the clergy in general, and the papal court in particular grew louder. The loss of Constantinople in 1453 and the final extinction of the Eastern Empire; the discovery of America in 1492; the end of Frederick III’s reign in 1493; and, more widely in Europe, the collapse of feudal oligarchs: all may have helped further sharpen uncertainty and, perhaps, impressions of opportunity.

• Strengthened Confidence and Scientific Discoveries: A sense of general, non-specific, upheaval and, at a more intimate level, of the importance of relationships, thought, and learning for their own sake, strengthened confidence to resist the Church; and - in men such as Bacon (1561-1626), Gilbert (1540-1603), Harvey (1578-1657), Galileo (1564-1642), Bruno (1548-1600), and Copernicus - freed up an interest in a natural world that hitherto had been treated with suspicion. New methods for studying natural phenomena (most notably electricity and magnetism, the human body, and the planets), and new discoveries, marked the high tide of this spirit.

• Against the Church: That sense of resistance against the Church, a feeling that went hand in hand with the ‘re-discovery’ of Classical antiquity, was sharpened by a new brand of revolutionary Christianity in the towns of Europe even by the early 16th century had begun to harden.

  For Luther (1483 -1546) all that was necessary for salvation, and for the organization of the Church, was to be found in the Bible, not in the ceremony, doctrine and indulgences of Rome and its popes. Only by relying entirely on the mercy of God could one enter a state of grace in which penitence becomes spontaneous. For Calvin (1509-64) absolute certainty and absolute faith are necessary if one is to be chosen by God, to attain a state of grace, to escape the inherently sinful condition of all humans, to be spared from damnation, and to join the elect. Urban communes inspired by Luther in Germany and Switzerland refused to tolerate Rome, while the Netherlands, Rhineland, northwest Switzerland and south and southwest France turned to Calvinism.

3.4 The Great Crisis

In the southern Europe, meanwhile, in response to northern Puritanism, Rome harmonized the education, the practices, and even the dress of its priests; and, through the confessional box, found a way into the most private thoughts and everyday lives of its congregations.

In England, the puritans attempted to overturn Elizabeth’s Anglican Church from within. During the first half of the seventeenth century their resentments slipped into open rebellion and, at end of the civil war, into nearly twenty years of Puritan rule. Ordinary lay courts were charged with the suppression of sin; adultery was punishable by death; soldiers entered private houses to ensure the Sabbath was being observed (and being observed correctly); Sunday sports in the villages were prohibited; Maypoles were cut down; and, as in many parts of Europe, ‘witches’ were persecuted. Counter-revolution soon followed: anti-clerical feelings inflamed by this Puritanism were in large part responsible for the Restoration of 1660 and for the anti-Romanist or Glorious Revolution of 1688 after James II had tried to foist Catholicism on a people already tired of religion. By the close of the seventeenth century, Puritanism and Romanism were disliked in equal measure.

The Puritanism which seeped (渗透) through England and the rest of Europe was not the sole reason for the general instability - or Great Crisis - of the seventeenth century. The atmosphere of intransigence (不妥协) and absolutism (专制主义) infected not only religious sentiment but political, military and economic affairs (事务), making conflict rather than accommodation (和解) more likely; while commerce, now the primary source of wealth, gave Europe’s states the wherewithal (必要资金) to compete and to capture more trade routes and wider markets.

The Hapsburgs, who owned the best lands in Spain, Italy, southern Germany and the Low Countries, had reached that point which all patrons eventually reach: neither the land nor the trade they commanded were sufficient to meet the needs of their people and to maintain their status and authority. The territories of northern Europe, though politically far less significant, had also reached their limits and now began to worry the Hapsburgs’ merchant fleet. The solution for both, if they were to mitigate conflict in Europe, was to seek markets overseas.

Europe now began to reach out to the east coast of America, to the east and west coasts of Mexico and South America, and to the coasts of Africa, India, Southeast Asia and China. Overseas territories became an extension of friction in Europe. In Africa, India, and Southeast Asia and East Asia, the European powers began to compete for territory (领土).

The Renaissance, then, especially in its later stages, was also a reaction to the new intolerance that had itself emerged in reaction to Catholicism. New artistic and intellectual developments would continue fitfully through The Great Crisis, with Milton (1608 -74), Locke (1632 – 1704), Wren (1632-1723), Vermeer (1632-75), Hooch (1629-78), Voltaire (1694-1778) and Bach (1685 -1750); and this would coalesce into a new movement towards the end of the eighteenth century - ‘the Enlightenment’.

The Enlightenment was many things. It is often thought of as the ascendancy of reason (理性的优势). But it also describes the permeation (渗透) of European societies by emotion and creativity to an extent possibly greater than at any previous time. In the mid fifteenth century, love had had little to do with marriage. Discipline within the family was harsh and children were still ‘counters in a game of family aggrandizement, useful to buy money and estates or to secure the support of powerful patrons’. A century later, matrimonial freedom and the ‘love marriage’ was viewed more sympathetically, at least in literature and on the stage; but in practice child marriage was still very common. Not until the Enlightenment had family relationships moved decisively to greater intimacy comprising what Stone calls an ‘affective revolution.’ Love was more likely than not to be accepted as the basis of marriage, and children treated were no longer pawns in games of power. The importance of the recognition of emotion would have far reaching implications.

3.5 Comments

Q: The Importance of Renaissance.

A:

Renaissance describes changes in artistic and intellectual life. It described the ‘re-birth’ of a lost tradition, of classical antiquity (古典时代). Church’s power was weakened and people’s mind was opened. Specifically:

(1) Self Conscious Emerged. The commercial networks established amongst the urban pockets domestically and overseas also helped to foster (促进) a sense of identity and nation; while commercial and administrative organizations within towns and cities provided the room for organizations to become more effective. Society was learning to organize itself and to see, however faintly (模糊的), the common good as an end in itself. Church authority still weighed heavily, but murmurings against the Church and against the wealth and corruption of the clergy in general, and the papal court in particular grew louder. The loss of Constantinople in 1453 and the final extinction of the Eastern Empire; the discovery of America in 1492; the end of Frederick III’s reign in 1493; and, more widely in Europe, the collapse of feudal oligarchs: all may have helped further sharpen uncertainty and, perhaps, impressions of opportunity.

(2) Strengthened Confidence and New Scientific Discoveries. A sense of general, non-specific, upheaval and, at a more intimate level, of the importance of relationships, thought, and learning for their own sake, strengthened confidence to resist the Church; and - in men such as Bacon (1561-1626), Gilbert (1540-1603), Harvey (1578-1657), Galileo (1564-1642), Bruno (1548-1600), and Copernicus - freed up an interest in a natural world that hitherto had been treated with suspicion. New methods for studying natural phenomena (most notably electricity and magnetism, the human body, and the planets), and new discoveries, marked the high tide of this spirit.

(3) That Sense of Resistance against the Church, a feeling that went hand in hand with the ‘re-discovery’ of Classical antiquity, was sharpened by a new brand of revolutionary Christianity in the towns of Europe even by the early 16th century had begun to harden. For Luther (1483 -1546) all that was necessary for salvation, and for the organization of the Church, was to be found in the Bible, not in the ceremony, doctrine and indulgences of Rome and its popes. Only by relying entirely on the mercy of God could one enter a state of grace in which penitence becomes spontaneous. For Calvin (1509-64) absolute certainty and absolute faith are necessary if one is to be chosen by God, to attain a state of grace, to escape the inherently sinful condition of all humans, to be spared from damnation, and to join the elect. Urban communes inspired by Luther in Germany and Switzerland refused to tolerate Rome, while the Netherlands, Rhineland, northwest Switzerland and south and southwest France turned to Calvinism.

Furthermore, the economy and technologies were also improved by sea trading and colonizing overseas territories. With the puritanism seeped (渗透) through England and the rest of Europe, and the atmosphere of intransigence (不妥协) and absolutism (专制主义), conflicts are more likely happened rather than accommodation (和解) ; while commerce, now the primary source of wealth, gave Europe’s states the wherewithal (必要资金) to compete and to capture more trade routes and wider markets. To mitigate conflict in Europe, Europeans started to seek markets overseas. Europe began to reach out to the east coast of America, to the east and west coasts of Mexico and South America, and to the coasts of Africa, India, Southeast Asia and China. Overseas territories became an extension of friction in Europe. In Africa, India, and Southeast Asia and East Asia, the European powers began to compete for territory (领土).

At last, the Renaissance sets the stage for the Enlightenment. During the Renaissance, new artistic and intellectual developments would continue fitfully through The Great Crisis, with Milton (1608 -74), Locke (1632 – 1704), Wren (1632-1723), Vermeer (1632-75), Hooch (1629-78), Voltaire (1694-1778) and Bach (1685 -1750); and this would coalesce into a new movement towards the end of the eighteenth century - ‘the Enlightenment’.

4. European Enlightenment Effects

Development in thought – in art, science, and philosophy – did not die out completely with The Great Crisis. The seventeenth century was the time of Milton (1608 -74), Locke (1632 – 1704), Wren (1632-1723), Vermeer (1632-75), Hooch (1629-78), Voltaire (1694-1778) and Bach (1685 -1750). Indeed, the great crisis was followed by a period of great importance – The Enlightenment (17-18 centuries) which preceded the industrial revolution.

4.1 Overview

The reasons that the Enlightenment is important are that:

• One was that Christianity was all but spent as a driving or motivating force: men had fought over her and were now understandably disillusioned with her. Hume (1711-1776) railed against stupidity, Christianity, and ignorance; Voltaire (1694-1778) against superstition, fanaticism, misery, and their root cause - religious intolerance. The sense that there was a natural world apart from God and one that could be understood in its own terms now occupied scholars and thinkers; and if it could be understood then anyone, insisted Locke (1632 – 1704), could be educated and they too helped to comprehend nature.

• A second was print which allowed anyone with ideas and brave enough to circulate them widely and at speed.

• A third was that people, too, were physically moving further, more frequently, and faster than they had before, not just within the state, but across the world, caught up in the ebb and flow of competition amongst the crowned heads of Europe.

The pools of affect which in the past would stagnated or dissipated were now put in touch with other, drew confidence from each other, joined together and gradually became a tide.

4.2 Effects

4.2.1 Love and Marriage

The consequence was that by the late eighteenth century the affect had begun to permeate European societies to an extent possibly greater than at any previous time. In the mid fifteenth century, love had had little to do with marriage. Discipline within the family was harsh and children were still ‘counters in a game of family aggrandizement, useful to buy money and estates or to secure the support of powerful patrons’ (p. 80, Trevelynan). A century later, matrimonial freedom and the ‘love marriage’ was viewed more sympathetically, at least in literature and on the stage; but in practice child marriage was still very common. During the Enlightenment, family relationships moved decisively to greater intimacy comprising what Stone calls an ‘affective revolution’ (see Porter p.324). Love was more likely than not to be accepted as the basis of marriage, and children treated were no longer pawns in games of power.

4.2.2 The Development of civil, political and industrial

The surge in emotion during the eighteenth century and particular during its latter half also saw the development of more effective organizations - civil, political and industrial.

For example, in England, the last quarter of the eighteenth century saw the introduction of the spinning jenny, Compton’s mule, Arkwright’s water frame, the Darby family’s innovations in iron smelting, and Watt’s steam engine. Manufacturing began to move into factories; and more and more factories came to be concentrated at a particular place. In the opening years of the nineteenth century the substitution of wood and stone with iron began in earnest and by the mid-nineteenth century was at full tilt. If there was no coal or water or people to feed the machines, then machines would be taken to the raw materials and the towns built around them.

In France, the journey was bloody, but the outcome similar. The solution in France to the internal tensions created by competitive patronage, had been to find some way of rotating or sharing power among its leading patrons. The division among France’s leading groups were three-fold.: the clergy (the first estate); the nobility (the second estate); and the rest (the third estate). The first and second could out-vote the third, but the second had come to depend upon the third because of its commercial wealth – wealth which allowed members of the third to buy into and out-do the second. Tensions grew when the third estate demanded greater influence and were refused’ and as the density of population had reached a high point at which it could no longer be serviced properly by the competing groups. Indeed, the landowners in all three estates increased rent to maintain their income, such that their clients in very large numbers were thrown upon very hard circumstances. Revolution ignited in 1789 and spread, led by liberal nobles and the upper levels of the third estate. In 1792 they lost control to more radical elements; and dislike between the leaders of the second and third estates was not as great as between the lower order of the third estate the leaders of all three estates. Leadership now passed to the Jacobins and the legislative assembly. France was proclaimed a republic and the king beheaded. The Jacobins radicalism slipped into democratic absolutism; they attempted to replace religion with the Cult of Reason; and there followed a period of Terror during which some 30,000 opponents were executed and hundreds of thousands imprisoned. The radicals led by Robespierre failed to deal with the essential underlying economic problem created by competitive patronage: a failure which combined with the insecurity their own intolerance had caused paved the way for Robespierre own execution; the return of priests, royalists, and émigrés; a more moderate third estate and, before the end of the 18th century, comparative stability under the enlightened despotism of Napoleon. He saw the completion of the educational and legal reforms begun after the revolution. High schools were established in every major town. Also established were technical and military schools under state control and supervised by a national university. The Napoleonic Code strengthened the individual’s right to property, authorized new methods for drafting contracts, leases and stock companies. And Napoleon re-united state with a diluted Church of Rome. The church could discipline bishops and lower ranks, and received, along with Protestants, an income from the state, but relinquished all claim over former church lands in France.

4.2.3 Scientific Revolution

The Enlightenment was notable for its scientific revolution, which changed the manner in which the people of Europe approached both science and technology. This was the direct result of philosophic enquiry into the ways in which science should be approached. The most important figures in this change of thinking were Descartes and Bacon.

The philosopher Descartes presented the notion of deductive reasoning - that is, to start with a premise and to then discard evidence that doesn’t support the premise. However, Sir Francis Bacon introduced a new method of thought. He suggested that instead of using deductive reasoning, people should use inductive reasoning - in other words, they should gather evidence and then reach a conclusion based on the evidence. This line of thought also became known as the Scientific Method.

5. The Industrial Revolution

5.1 What is Industrial Revolution

The narrow meaning refers to Britain between 1760 and 1840, the first period of industrial innovation, particularly the use of new kinds of machinery in factories to make textiles and iron, and the use of steam engines to provide power for the factory machinery and then for railroads and steamships. Its wider meaning refers to Western Europe and the US from 1815 to 1914, which also underwent industrial transformation. Indeed, by 1914 Germany had slightly surpassed Britain’s industrial production, and the US was already producing as much as Germany, Britain and France together (Hughes. 1968,p.260).

In its widest meaning the Industrial Revolution is the technological component of what we now call economic development and cultural modernization: a set of mutually reinforcing structural transformations which are revolutionary in the extent to which personal, social and political as well as economic life are made to change. Broadly, these comprise:

(1) The formation of a cohesive nation-state, that is, a national economy and society (common language, roads) and central environment with national jurisdiction (national laws,taxation, social services). Britain was a nation-state centuries before the machine came.

(2) The commercialization of all production. Since most countries begin industrialization with agriculture as their principal line of production, this means the continual displacement of subsistence production with production for cash sale to markets. Western Europe and particularly Britain became increasingly commercial from 1200 onwards. Machinery came first to already highly commercialized agriculture and cottage industry.

(3) A continual diminution in the proportion of the population engaged in agriculture. What was for a thousand years the principal mode of livelihood continually diminishes with development and industrialization until it is only an economic sector engaging one-fifth or fewer of the working population and contributing even less than one-fifth to the gross national product. With the disproportionate growth of non-agricultural production there is a continual diminution in the proportion of the population living in the countryside. The national society becomes overwhelmingly urban with all this implies for changes in family life, habits of thought, and orbits of movement.

(4) From mass illiteracy to literacy, with an appreciable fraction of the population being educated beyond the level of elementary school.

(5) From simple technology in agriculture and cottage handicrafts to the use of complicated machinery and applied science, an industrial revolution proper. As Joan Robinson (1970.p. 60) puts it, ‘… there are three characteristics of the modern age which distinguish it from the past - the hypertrophy of the nation-state … the application of science to production and the penetration of money values into every aspect of life’.

5.2 Why was Industrialization Revolutionary

It was revolutionary in national and international economic organization. Machines required large and sustained effective demand for their ever-increasing outputs. The market system which had been growing for centuries, grew still more with the growing use of machinery. It was an elaborate network of purchase and sale transactions at money-price, an enormous transmission belt, as it were, by which labor and resources were transmitted to (bought by) producing firms, and finished products and services transmitted to (bought by) households as consumption goods, business firms as investment goods and governments to provide the old public services of defence and law, and some new ones such as elementary education and factory inspection. National and international banking, monetary and capital markets grew to mobilize private money savings, and new kinds of business firms were created, such as the investment bank and the corporation of limited liability, to service the needs of large-scale production and large capital requirements. By 1900 an international gold standard made each nation’s currency exchangeable at specified rates for gold and for the currency of other nations.

Machines and markets were inextricably related to each other. Two new machines, for example, steamships and refrigeration, created new international food markets, when beef from Argentina and wheat from the US could be sold in Europe. Markets integrated all levels of economic activity, from the household depending on the market to sell its labor and buy its consumption needs, to the international bank making commercial loans and investments around the world.

Industrialization was revolutionary in economic performance. New kinds of consumption goods (tinned foods), new kinds of capital goods (the railroad), new kinds of power sources (steam, electricity), and new kinds of services (the telegraph) were created. And both old and new goods were produced in unprecedented quantities - built-in economic growth. At the most intense growth periods of the nineteenth century, gross national product was doubling every twenty years.

Industrialization was and is revolutionary in the sense that it ramifies into all sectors of economy and society. The obvious consequence is sustained income growth which allows ever-increasing personal consumption, further investment, and the enlarged provision of social services. But machinery and applied science also confer control over the physical environment to end famine and plague and thereby allow massive population growth. Irrigation equipment creates its own rainy season; dams store water and prevent flooding; canning, refrigerating and freezing food allows abundance to be stored indefinitely. And the growth of international markets allows a country to buy food and much else from the rest of the world.

Personal and family life are changed not only by literacy,urban location and factory employment (see Smelser, 1963),but also by science applied to private and public health practices. Visualize life without dentistry, surgery, eye glasses or vaccination. In the nineteenth century the populations of Western Europe and America grew faster than the populations of Asia and Africa whose peoples were still suffering the preindustrial scourges of famine, pestilence, pain and hunger, and half or more of whose children died before they were ten.

The chain of consequences which follow from industrialization, economic development and cultural modernization is endless, and some are not obvious. For example, the ideology of marriage in America, Britain and elsewhere in Europe the norms we are taught about what we ought to feel, believe and practice in our relationships within marriage and the family - were fixed by two central features of pre-industrial life: agriculture and Christianity. An eighteenth-century European farm household required children as workers, inheritors and as providers of social security for parents in their old age, and required as well an important division of labor between man and wife, both doing jobs essential to the farm and household establishment (see Arensberg, 1937). Christianity was devoutly believed in and made marriage a religious sacrament sanctioned as a permanent relationship.

With the attrition in farming, the necessity for each family to have children and the importance of the wife’s labor in maintaining a farm both diminish drastically. And for whatever reasons, it seems clear that the depth and frequency of belief in Christianity, and therefore in marriage as a sacrament (圣礼), have definitely diminished. When we add some recent ‘modernizing’ changes - education and professional training for women, the efficacy (功效) of contraceptive devices (避孕装置) and others applied science and technology in the household - we come to see the Industrial Revolution underpinnings of recent movements, such as Women’s Lib, and recent social change such as the increased frequency of divorce and of trial-marriage of one sort or another. In short, the old ideology of European marriage and the family - what ought to be expressed the conditions of an agricultural, Christian, illiterate, and technologically poor universe which no longer exists in Europe and America. But, as the sociologists say, the old norms are still ‘internalized’ - driven into us as children - when we are ‘socialized’ by the ‘culture’ we are born into.

Finally, industrialization is revolutionary in the sense that it is self-generating, propagating sequential generations of new techniques, and thereby continually renovating the economy and parts of the rest of society with it. The first generation was in steam engines, textiles, iron and steel, railroads and steamships. The second was in chemicals, electricity, and the internal combustion engine. Since the Second World War have come computers, jet engines, atomic power, and electronics(see Landes,1969). And with these have come changes in what we eat for breakfast, how we spend our leisure time, the kind of building we live in, how we make love, how we earn a living, and how many of us go to church.

5.3 Effects on the Rest of the World

Warfare, too, became industrialized and thereby changed the international power positions among the European countries themselves. By 1900, Germany, a nation-state only since 1871, had displaced France as the strongest military power on the Continent. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Russia and Japan, both militarily weak compared to the now industrialized powers of Western Europe and America, both began intense programs of industrialization. The Japanese, being neither white nor European, were particularly vulnerable to colonial incursion. However, despite an acute shortage of the ‘Protestant Ethic’, they industrialized in impressive fashion, and so, unlike the Chinese, retained their political autonomy. By 1905 the Japanese could defeat the Russians in a war of iron battleships, and by 1941 could take on the US for four years of mechanized warfare.

One consequence of the first Industrial Revolutions, then,was to induce Russia and Japan to intensify their economic development in response to the threats of military impotence and colonial domination if they did not industrialize. Another consequence was a new wave of imperialism (帝国主义) throughout the nineteenth century. The French acquired new colonies in North Africa and Indochina, the English, the French, and the Germans in sub-Saharan Africa, and the Americans in the Philippine Islands and the Caribbean.