互联网协议 传输层及概述

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Introduction to IP

network edge

Introduction:

hosts: clients and servers
• servers often in data centers
• part of the network with the users and computers （网络边缘结构）
access networks, physical* media: wired, wireless communication links（物理层结构）
network core:
• the “middle” of the network
• interconnected routers
• network of networks
（网络核心结构）

Network basics bits and bytes

A bit is a “binary digit” – a single 0 or 1.

A byte is a group of eight bits – can be thought of as a number from 0 to 255 (or -128 to 127) or as two digits of “hexadecimal” (eg A0, FF, 10).

一个字节是一组8位的组，可以看作是0到255（或-128到127）的数字，或者是“十六进制”的两个数字(如A0、FF、10)。

Network basics – packets

将数据进行打包处理，优势是可以对大量数据进行统一管理。例如错误查询。
延迟公式：

Physical media

Physical media represent the actual hardware that carries the data. Think about physical wires or radio transmissions

the network core

Introduction

packet-switching: hosts break application-layer messages into packets
数据包交换：主机将应用层消息分解成数据包。（将数据包从一个路由器转发到另一个路由器，最后抵达目的地）
store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router before it can be transmitted on next link
存储和转发：整个数据包必须到达路由器，然后才能通过下一个链路传输

Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

if arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a period of time: packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up
若到达速率超过传输速率，数据包将排队，如果内存溢出，数据将丢失

Two key network-core functions

routing: determines source destination route taken by packets
路由：决定数据包所采取的源目的地路由
forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate router output
转发：将数据包从路由器的输入移动到适当的路由器输出

（承上启下）

Internet structure

End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
终端系统通过接入isp连接到互联网
Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected
依次访问isp必须相互连接
Resulting network of networks is very complex
由此产生的网络网络非常复杂
补充——ISP：网络运营商，由主干，地区，和本地ISP组成的集群。

packet delay

• (A) Time a packet waits behind other packets
(queueing delay) 排队延迟：数据包排队等待处理
(B) Time a router takes to write the bits from a packet into an outgoing optical fibre.
(transmission delay) 传输延迟：在传输路径中由于直接物理原因损耗的延迟（例如在光纤中传播的时间）
© Time it takes packets to travel down an optical fibre to the next router.
(propagation delay) 传播延迟 ：在转播路径中由于直接物理原因损耗的延迟（例如路由器和光纤接口处的延迟）
(D) Time it takes a router to determine which of its outputs to send a packet down.
(nodal processing) 节点延迟 ：数据在路由器中转发的时候，路由器对其进行处理的延迟

Packet loss

queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity 缓冲区容量有限
packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost) 队列已满导致数据包被丢弃
lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system, or not at all
丢失的数据包可以从其上一个路由重新发出，或被直接丢弃。

Throughput

rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred between sender/receiver
比特在收发器之间传输的速率（比特/时间单位）
in practice: Rc or Rs is often bottleneck
哪个大哪个就是 bottleneck

Protocol “layers”

TCP/IP model

application: supporting network applications
• FTP, SMTP, HTTP 网络层协议
transport: process-process data transfer
• TCP, UDP 传输层协议
network: routing of datagrams from source to destination
• IP, routing protocols 路由协议
link: data transfer between neighboring network elements
• Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP 连接协议
physical: bits “on the wire” 物理层是傻子层，没有协议

ISO/OSI reference model

ISO = International Standards Office 组织名
OSI = Open Systems Interconnection ISO提出的网络七层结构
presentation: allow applications to interpret meaning of data, e.g., encryption, compression, machine specific conventions 解释层
session: synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data exchange 会话层

headers

• Information separate from the data being sent that says things about that data.
Which computer is it being sent to?
Which program on that computer must receive it?
How long is this data?

two advantages of layering

Modularization eases maintenance and updates (change one part of the system leave others the same)
Helps with complexity: break a complex design task into several smaller ones
模块化简化了维护和更新（更改系统的一部分，让其他部分保持不变）
有助于解决复杂性：将一个复杂的设计任务分解成几个较小的任务

Devices for layers

Router 路由器

This is a layer 3 device – it reads a layer 3 address and works out which direction a packet should go
It is typically more complex and adaptive than a switch

Switch 交换机

This is a layer 2 device – it reads a layer 2 address and works out which nearby computer shou