计算机常识

基本术语

run as administrator

 When you use “Run as Administrator,” UAC gets out of the way(失效), and the application is run with full administrator access to everything on your system.

So when you run an app as an administrator, it means you are giving the app special permissions to access restricted parts of your system

语法语义

语法：语言组织、结构的规范性、严谨性

语义：语言表达意思的合理性

镜像

镜像网站

Mirror Site

镜像网站是将一个完全相同的站点放到几个服务器，分别有自己的URL，在这些服务器上互为镜像网站。

网站镜像，通过复制整个网站或部分网页内容并分配以不同域名和服务器，以此欺骗搜索引擎对同一站点或同一页面进行多次索引的行为

镜像文件

An ISO image is an archive【存档】 file of an optical disc, a type of disk image【映像】 composed of the data contents from every written sector on an optical disc【光盘】

将特定的一系列文件按照一定的格式制作成单一的文件，以方便用户下载和使用

文件路径

相对路径

Win：从当前路径开始的路径：.\system32\cmd.exe（多数情况下.\可以省略）【C语言：\\转义】

Linux：../../etc

绝对路径

Win：从盘符开始的路径：C:\windows\system32\cmd.exe

【或 \windows\system32\cmd.exe】

Linux：/usr/local/src：根目录是 /

进程、线程

进程

Processes are basically the programs that are dispatched from the ready state and are scheduled in the CPU for execution. PCB (Process Control Block) holds the concept of process. A process can create other processes which are known as Child Processes. The process takes more time to terminate and it is isolated means it does not share the memory with any other process.

The process can have the following states new, ready, running, waiting, terminated, and suspended.

线程

Thread is the segment of a process which means a process can have multiple threads and these multiple threads are contained within a process.

A thread has three states: Running, Ready, and Blocked.

计算模式

串行

A和B两个任务运行在一个CPU线程上，程序会按顺序执行每个指令

并行

并行性使多个程序同一时刻可在不同CPU上同时执行。比如，A和B两个任务可以同时运行在不同的CPU线程上

将一块大的处理资源分为几块小的处理资源，将一个大任务分割成多个子任务，用这些小的处理资源来单独处理这些子任务。并行计算中各个子任务之间是有很大的联系的，每个子任务都是必要的，其结果相互影响

并发

并发指多个线程在宏观(相对于较长的时间区间而言)上表现为同时执行，而实际上是轮流穿插着执行，并发的实质是一个物理CPU在若干道程序之间多路复用

分布式

分布式计算也是将一个大的任务分成几个子任务，不同子任务占用不同的处理资源。不过分布式计算的子任务之间互不相干，具有独立性，不同子任务独享自己的一套单独的计算系统，一个子任务的运行结果不会影响其他的子任务。

所以分布式计算对任务的实时性要求不高，且允许存在一定的计算错误

网格式

分布式计算中处理子任务的各个计算节点只是在无偿地贡献自己的算力，无法使用其它计算节点的算力为自己做点什么。而网格计算的各个计算节点可以在贡献自己算力的同时，通过平台来调用其它计算节点的算力

分布式计算是你和其他人一起组成“一台”专供某些科研组织使用的超级处理机，网格计算是将所有网内其他人的电脑组成一台专供你自己使用的超级处理机。

build / compile 编译

 convert the source code to an executable code that can be run on a computer

文件扩展名

（ suffix at the end of a computer file ）（ filename extension）

操作系统使用文件扩展名来标识哪些应用程序与哪些文件类型相关联

换句话说，双击该文件时将打开什么应用程序

鲁棒性

（robustness）（系统的健壮性）

它反映在异常和危险情况下系统生存的能力。

比如计算机软件在输入错误、磁盘故障、网络过载或有意攻击情况下，能否不死机、不崩溃，就是该软件的鲁棒性。

demo

1. 试用性应用程序或功能代码

2. 描述产品性能 功能 用法

It is a multimedia non-interactive presentation of a software program.

Demos are usually written to showcase the features of a software / hardware product or the capabilities of a designer.

Groups creating demos are known as demo groups.

XML

Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing arbitrary data. It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable

repo

repository仓库

A software repo is a storage location for software packages, where things such as a table of contents, source code, and metadata are located

渲染

在二维的显示器中看到三维物体，就要将三维空间渲染到二维空间中。计算机渲染图像，仅仅计算了那些散射到我们人眼方向的光线（摄像机方向，视角方向）

在3D空间中添加一个摄像头，并在前面放置一个屏幕网格，其中每个格是渲染图像的一个像素

.NET

The .NET Framework is a proprietary software framework developed by Microsoft that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. FCL and CLR together constitute the.NET Framework.

It includes a large class library called Framework Class Library（FCL）and provides language interoperability（互用）across several programming languages. Programs written for.NET Framework execute in a software environment named the Common Language Runtime. The CLR is an application virtual machine that provides services such as security, memory management, and exception（异常）handling

project

项目（.vcxproj）

In a logical sense, a project contains all files that are compiled into an executable, library, or website. Those files can include source code, icons, images, data files, and so on. A project also contains compiler settings and other configuration files

solution

解决方案（.sln）

a set of related software programs and/or services that are sold as a single package

A solution is simply a container Visual Studio uses to organize one or more related projects. When you open a solution, Visual Studio automatically loads all the projects that the solution contains

configure

配置

Configuration is the manner in which components are arranged to make up the computer system. Configuration consists of both hardware and software components. Sometimes, people specifically point to hardware arrangement

软件配置项包括： 与合同、过程、计划和产品有关的文档和资料； 源代码、目标代码和可执行代码； 相关产品，包括软件工具、库内的可重用软件、外购软件及顾客提供的软件等。

PRNG / RNG

(pseudo)random number generator（伪）随机数生成器

PRNG的范式：Ui = f (U0, U1, … ,Ui-1,  parameter)

例：线性同余生成器: Ui = (aUi-1 + b) % c

从U0生成{0,1,2,…, c-1}序列

缺陷：周期性，确定性，可能不能覆盖全部序列范围所有数【如果abc选择不当】

Mersenne Twister 梅森旋转算法

梅森数：Mp = 2^p – 1   MT19937算法周期为M19937

公司

IBM

(International Business Machines), a leading US computer manufacturer.

ARM

英国ARM公司是全球领先的半导体知识产权提供商。全世界超过95%的智能手机和平板电脑都采用ARM架构

ARM设计了大量高性价比、耗能低的RISC处理器、相关技术及软件

Intel

It is the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer by revenue, and is one of the developers of the x86 series of instruction sets

Nvidia

（英伟达）It is a software and fabless（无晶圆） company which designs graphics processing units, application programming interface for data science and high-performance computing as well as system on a chip units for the mobile computing and automotive market.

Microsoft

It produces computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services. Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship（旗舰） hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers

Amazon

It focuses on e-commerce, cloud computing, online advertising, digital streaming, and artificial intelligence.

Apple

It specializes in consumer electronics, software and online services

Meta

The company owns Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp, among other products and services

NI

（National Instrument）

It is a producer of automated test equipment and virtual instrumentation software. Common applications include data acquisition, instrument control and machine vision.

Tecent 

It is one of the highest grossing multimedia companies in the world based on revenue. It is also the largest company in the video game industry in the world based on its investments, with Tencent Games being the subdivision of Tencent Interactive Entertainment Group focused on publishing of games

Baidu

It specializes in Internet-related services and products and artificial intelligence, headquartered in Beijing's Haidian District. It is one of the largest AI and Internet companies in the world.

Alibaba 

The company provides consumer-to-consumer, business-to-consumer, and business-to-business sales services via web portals, as well as electronic payment services, shopping search engines, and cloud computing services.

ByteDance

It developed the video-sharing social networking services and apps TikTok. The company is also the developer of the news platform Toutiao.

Alphabet

The parent company of Google and several former Google subsidiaries. It is the world's third-largest technology company by revenue. It is one of the Big Five American information technology companies, alongside Amazon, Apple, Meta and Microsoft.

硬件底层

CPU

central processing unit

the electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer program. The CPU performs basic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output operations.

GPU

（graphic processing unit）

to speed up the process of creating and rendering computer graphics. to improve the quality of all the images, animations, and videos you see on your computer

显卡

（video card) （GPU is inserted in the video card and works as an auxiliary hardware to CPU）

 a printed circuit board controlling output to a display screen.

网卡

（网络适配器）( NIC : Network interface card )

1.代表固定的网络地址

2.将本地计算机上的数据转换格式后送入网络

3.接收网络上传过来的数据包并解码

主板

A motherboard is the main printed circuit board in general-purpose computers and other expandable systems. It holds and allows communication between many of the crucial electronic components of a system

HDD

机械硬盘

A hard disk drive, hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk is an electro-mechanical data storage device that stores and retrieves（取出）digital data using magnetic storage with one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters（盘）coated with magnetic material. The platters are paired with magnetic heads（磁头）which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a random-access manner. HDDs are a type of non-volatile（永久）storage, retaining stored data when powered off

SSD

固态硬盘

A solid-state drive is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies to store data persistently, typically using flash memory

cache

a hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of an earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere.

半导体存储器：

RAM

(random access memory) (通常都是在掉电之后就丢失数据)

1. 静态RAM（Static RAM / SRAM），SRAM速度非常快，是目前读写最快的存储设备了，

但是它也非常昂贵，所以只在要求很苛刻的地方使用，譬如CPU的一级缓冲，二级缓冲

2. 动态RAM（Dynamic RAM /DRAM），DRAM保留数据的时间很短，速度也比SRAM慢，

不过它还是比任何的ROM都要快，但从价格上来说DRAM相比SRAM要便宜很多，计算机内存就是DRAM的

ROM

(read-only memory) (在系统停止供电的时候仍然可以保持数据)

Flash

(闪存)

1. NOR  flash：适用于小容量，读取速度快

2. NAND flash：适用于大容量、高密度存储

NOR 读取速度快一点，NAND 写入速度、擦出速度快很多

内存工作原理：

内存是用来存放当前正在使用的（即执行中）的数据和程序，

我们平常所提到的计算机的内存指的是动态内存（即RAM），

动态内存中所谓的"动态"，指的是当我们将数据写入DRAM后，经过一段时间，数据会丢失，因此需要一个额外设电路进行内存刷新操作

刷新的工作过程：一个DRAM的存储单元存储的是0还是1取决于电容是否有电荷，有电荷代表1，无电荷代表0

但时间一长，代表1的电容会放电，代表0的电容会吸收电荷，这就是数据丢失的原因；

刷新操作定期对电容进行检查，若电量大于满电量的1／2，则认为其代表1，并把电容充满电；若电量小于1／2，则认为其代表0，并把电容放电

PLD

(programmable logical devices) an electronic component used to build reconfigurable digital circuits.

It has undefined function at the time of manufacture.

IC

（Integrated Circuits）集成电路

sometimes called a chip, microchip or microelectronic circuit, is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors are fabricated

EDA

Electronic design automation

also referred to as electronic computer-aided design (ECAD), is a category of software tools for designing electronic systems such as IC and printed circuit boards

单片机

一种集成电路芯片，是采用超大规模集成电路技术把中央处理器CPU、随机存储器RAM、只读存储器ROM、多种I/O系统、定时器/计数器等功能集成到一块硅片上构成的一个小而完善的微型计算机系统

Optical Disc

光盘

In computing and optical disc recording technologies, an optical disc (OD) is a flat, usually circular disc which encodes binary data (bits) in the form of pits【坑】 (binary value of 0 or off, due to lack of reflection when read) and lands (binary value of 1 or on, due to a reflection when read) on a special material (often aluminium) on one of its flat surfaces. The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate【材质】 which makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing【散光】 layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the entire disc surface and extending from the innermost track to the outermost track【从内向外】.

树莓派

Raspberry Pi、RPI

一款基于ARM的微型电脑主板，以SD/MicroSD卡为内存硬盘，卡片主板周围有1/2/4个USB接口和一个10/100 以太网接口（A型没有网口），可连接键盘、鼠标和网线，同时拥有视频模拟信号的电视输出接口和HDMI高清视频输出接口

操作系统

PC 端操作系统

macOS

It is the computer operating system (OS) for Apple desktops and laptops. It is a proprietary graphical OS that powers every Mac.

Linux

an open-source operating system modelled on UNIX.

Windows

a group of several proprietary graphical operating system families developed and marketed by Microsoft.

移动端操作系统

IOS

(iPhone operating system) It is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware.

Android

It is a mobile operating system based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and other open source software

embedded system

（嵌入式操作系统）

It is a computer that supports a machine. It performs one task in the bigger machine. Examples include computer systems in cars, traffic lights

SoC

system on a chip

an IC that integrates all or most components of a computer or other electronic system.

ROS

Robot Operating System is not a real operating system since it goes on top of Linux Ubuntu

It helps abstract the hardware from the software. This means you can think in terms of software for all the hardware of the robot

驱动系统

Device driver

A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being use

BIOS

BIOS, which stands for Basic Input Output System, is software stored on a small memory chip on the motherboard.

It's BIOS that's responsible for the POST（自检）and therefore makes it the very first software to run when a computer is started.

firmware

a specific class of computer software that provides the low-level control for a device's specific hardware.

GNU

GNU is a recursive（递归）acronym（缩写）for “GNU’s Not Unix”, chosen because GNU’s design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code

GNU is an extensive collection of free software, which can be used as an operating system or can be used in parts with other operating systems

DS Store

(Desktop Services Store)

一种由苹果公司的MacOSX操作系统所创造的隐藏文件，

目的在于存贮目录的自定义属性，例如文件们的图标位置或者是背景色的选择。

executable file

An executable file is a file that is used to perform various functions or operations on a computer. Unlike a data file, an executable file cannot be read because it's compiled.

Windows: .exe         Mac: .app

EXE files only run in Windows, while APP files only run in Mac OS X. This is because the code is executed by the operating system and therefore must be compiled in format that the operating system can understand

dll

A dynamic link library (DLL) is a shared program module with ordered code, methods, functions, enums and structures

that may be dynamically called by an executing program during run time

软件应用

SDK

（Software Develop Kit）

A software development kit is a collection of software development tools in one installable package with a compiler, debugger and sometimes a software framework

MFC

Microsoft Foundation Class Library is a C++ object-oriented library for developing desktop applications for Windows. It is a application framework for programming.

Ventory

Ventoy is an open source tool to create bootable USB drive

（U盘启动多操作系统）

UI

The user interface (UI) is the point of human-computer interaction and communication in a device.

This can include display screens, keyboards, a mouse and the appearance of a desktop

GUI

The graphical user interface allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and audio indicator

API

（Application Programming Interface,应用程序编程接口）

API means a software code that can be accessed or executed

用别人的程序和代码

API is defined as a code that helps two different softwares to communicate and exchange data with each other.

api

boot loader

console

terminal

QT

Qt is cross-platform software for creating GUI as well as cross-platform applications that run on various software and hardware platforms with little or no change in the underlying codebase

游戏引擎

Game Engine

A game engine is a software framework primarily designed for the development of video games, and generally includes relevant libraries and support programs

插件

Plug-in

A plug-in is an element of a software program that can be added to provide support for specific features or functionality

脚本

Scripts are lists of commands executed by certain programs or scripting engines. They are usually text documents with instructions written using a scripting language. They are used to generate Web pages and to automate computer processes

图片

gif: Graphic Interchange Format

jpg: Joint Picture Group

png: Portable Network Graphic

svg: Scalable Vector Graphics

编译器

cmake

 CMake的用途是能通过一系列的源码和相关的配置来生成需要的编译器平台上的项目文件

如果一个项目需要在Windows上用VS编译，在Linux上用make编译，在OSX上用XCODE，

那么按以前的做法是在整个项目文件里看三个目录，

分别放置VS的sin文件，Linux的makefile，OS X的XCODE，然后让不同需求的人到相应的目录用自己需要的工程文件

有了CMake以后，就不需要这三个目录了，只要有一个给CMake读的文件，然后CMake的UI上会需要用户选择目标平台，这样CMake就会生成目标平台上的工程文件

编写cmakelist，让cmake读入源文件生成makefile文件，make利用makefile文件自动编译源文件

IDE

(Integrated Development Environment )集成开发环境

Visual C++

专门针对C++的，用C++写程序的开发包；

Visual Studio

微软开发出的可视化程序开发包，不仅仅可用C++开发，还支持其他许多语言，比如C#等等

Visual C++是 Visual Studio的一个部分

gcc / g++

The GNU Compiler Collection is a compiler produced by the GNU Project supporting various programming languages, hardware architectures and operating systems

GCC is a key component of the GNU toolchain and the standard compiler for most projects related to GNU and the Linux kernel

usage:

gcc -E -o main.i main.c（预处理preprocess）

【-o 表示指定生成文件名】

gcc -S -o main.s main.i（编译compile）

gcc -c -o main.o main.s（汇编assemble）

【或者 gcc -c main.c】

gcc -o main.exe main.o（生成）

【或者直接 gcc (-o main(.exe)) main.c】

计算机网络

HTTP cookies

Cookies are text files with small pieces of data — like a username and password — that are used to identify your computer as you use a computer network.

Cookies let websites remember you, your website logins, shopping carts and more.

CDN

(content delivery network)

a system of geographically distributed servers that work together to provide fast delivery of internet content

It’s designed to minimize latency in loading web pages by reducing the physical distance between the server and the user.

ARP

(Address Resolution Protocol)

It is to find the hardware address(a fixed physical machine address) from a known IP address.

IP

(Internet Protocol):(相当于快递邮寄收件地址)

an identifying number for network hardware connected to the internet

 分为：A(大型) B(中型) C(小型) D(广播) IP地址

 公网IP / 局域网IP(相当于小区 / 门牌号)

IP V4

(version 4) 32 bit

IP V6

(version 6) 128bit(暂时未普及）

域名

（区域的名字）

访问网站都是输入域名，但都是访问这个域名对应 IP 地址的网络服务器来打开网站的

顶级域名：国家级：中国 cn, 美国 us, 日本 jp

通用型：工商企业-com，网络服务商-net，

非营利组织-org

一级域名

bilibili.com

二级域名

www.bilibili.com

两个b站域名都可以解析到同一个IP地址，是因为运营者将两个域名设置都指向同一个IP

（www表示world wide web万维网）

万维网

computer network consisting of a collection of internet sites

that offer text and graphics and sound and animation resources through the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)

以太网

(Ethernet)

a system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a local area network

网关

(Gateway):

Gateways are network protocol converters.

Often the two networks that a gateway joins use different base protocols.

The gateway facilitates compatibility(兼容性) between the two protocols(协议)

防火墙

(firewall)

A firewall can be hardware or software. A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic. They establish a barrier between secured and controlled internal networks that can be trusted and untrusted outside networks.

过滤进出网络的数据包, 管理进出网络的访问行为, 记录通过防火墙的信息内容和活动, 抵挡大部分的拒绝服务攻击

VPN

通过外网安全地对内网进行访问：

客户端---VPN服务器---内网服务器

(1) 客户机向VPN服务器发出请求；

(2) VPN服务器响应请求并向客户机发出身份质询，客户机将加密的用户身份验证响应信息发送到VPN服务器；

(3) VPN服务器根据用户数据库检查该响应，如果账户有效，VPN服务器接受此连接；

(4)最后VPN服务器将在身份验证过程中产生的客户机和服务器公有密钥将用来对数据进行加密，然后通过VPN隧道技术进行封装、加密、传输到目的内部网络

路由器

(router)

A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information

between two or more packet-switch(数据包转换)networks

URL

(Uniform Resource Locator)

a unique identifier used to locate a resource on the Internet.

万维网利用URL 标记每个文档，并以此定位寻找文档

MAC

( Media Access Control )(相当于快递邮寄收件人)

a unique identifying number assigned to most network devices

LAN

(局域网)(local area network):

a collection of devices connected together in one physical location, such as a building, office, or home

DNS

(Domain Name System)

 a collection of databases that translate hostnames to IP addresses

序列化

将数据结构或对象转换成二进制串（字节序列）便于存储到硬盘和网络传输

反序列化

将在序列化过程中所生成的二进制串转换成数据结构或者对象

UAC

(User Account Control)

to improve the security of Microsoft Windows by limiting application software

to standard user privileges until an administrator authorises an increase or elevation.

In this way, only applications trusted by the user may receive administrative privileges and malware（恶意软件） are kept from compromising the operating system

kernal:

A kernel is the central part of an operating system.

It manages the operations of the computer and computer and the hardware --- most notably memory and CPU time.

There are two types of kernels:

A microkernel（微内核）, which only contains basic functionality;

A monolithic kernel（宏内核）, which contains many device drivers.

MSN

（Microsoft Network）

MSN is a web portal and related collection of Internet services and apps