1 Math Symbols数学符号
integral[ˈɪntɪɡrəl] a必须的 theta[ˈθɪtə]n希腊语字母表中第八个字母
factorial[fækˈtɔːriəl]a阶乘的n阶乘 perpendicular[ˌpɜːrpənˈdɪkjələr]a垂直的
2 Math Concept数学概念
2.1 指数 exponent[ɪkˈspoʊnənt]
exponent /ik’spounent/ n倡导者,(技能)擅长者;指数
exponential /ekspe’nenshl/ a越来越快的(增长),指数的
As for 32, 3 is the base value and 2 is the exponent. Exponents are also called powers. We can say 3 to the power of 2 to describe 32, or 3 to the second power, or 3 raised to the power of 2. An exponent tells you how many times the base value is being multiplied by itself.
n2 and n3 are so common that they even have special names. When a number is raised to the second power, we say it’s being squared. 52 is also referred to as “5 squared”. For numbers that are raised to the third power, we say that the number is being “cubed”. 53 is “5 cubed”.
2.2 对数 logarithm[ˈlɔːɡərɪðəm]
logarithmic[ˌlɔːɡəˈrɪðmɪk]a对数的
The logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to base b is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x. In other words, the logarithm of x to base b is the unique real number y such that by = x. The logarithm is denoted “logb x” (pronounced as “the logarithm of x to base b”, “the base-b logarithm of x”, or most commonly “the log, base b, of x”), such as log216 = 4 is pronounced as “log base 2 of 16 is equal to 4”. “logn = 16” is spelled as “log of n is equal to 16”, and “O(nlogn)” is spelled as “o of n times log of n”.
2.3 模运算 modular arithmetic
model[ˈmɒdəl]n模型,模式,榜样,模特 module[ˈmɑːdʒuːl]n(机械,计算机)模块,(课程)单元 modulo[ˈmɒdjʊləʊ]prep以…为模 modulus[ˈmɒdʒələs]n模数 modular[ˈmɒdjʊlə]a(电脑)模块的,模数的 congruent[ˈkɒŋɡrʊənt] a合适的,(模数)全等的 remainder[rɪˈmeɪndər]n剩余的部分,余数 division[dɪˈvɪʒən]n除法 dividend[ˈdɪvɪdend]n股票利息,被除数 divisor[dɪˈvaɪzər]n除数
Given an integer n > 1, called a modulus, two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, if n is a divisor of their difference, such as 15 is congruent to 12 modulo 3, which is 15 ≡ 12 (mod 3).给定一个大于1的整数n，我们把n称为模数，如果n是两个整数a和b的差的除数，则称a和b以n为模全等。
In programming domain, the modulus operator % returns the remainder of two numbers after division. Given two numbers, X and Y, X is the dividend and Y is the divisor, X mod Y is equal to the remainder of the division of X by Y, such as 16 mod 3 is equal to 1, which is written as 16 mod 3 = 1.
3 键盘上常用符号的英文名
3.1 Mac Keyboard Symbols
Here are the Mac keyboard symbols in the U.S. The Mac keyboard adds the Command ⌘ key and the Control and Option keys on the bottom row. The names of all the Mac symbols are below.
Here is the list of common keyboard symbols and their names.
3.2 Keyboard Symbols on the Top Row
| Symbol | Words and Phonetic Symbols(音标) | Meanings |
|---|---|---|
| ✓ | tick, check mark 对勾，对号 | A check mark, checkmark or tick is a mark (✓, ✔, ☑, etc.) used to indicate the concept “yes”. |
| ` | 反引号back quote[kwəʊt] | grave accent, back tick, back quote |
| ~ | tilde[ˈtɪldə]波浪号 | A tilde is a symbol that is written over the letter “n” in Spanish (ñ) and the letters “o” (õ) and “a” (ã) in Portuguese to indicate the way in which they should be pronounced. Portuguese [ˌpɔːrtʃʊˈɡiːz]n葡萄牙语,葡萄牙人 |
| ! | exclamation mark [ˌekskləˈmeɪʃn]感叹号 | The exclamation mark or exclamation point is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence. |
| ¡ | inverted exclamation mark | “¡”是西班牙语中一个独特的符号，在感叹句中，西班牙语的句首要有反叹号，句尾要有一个叹号。与之相对的还有反问号“¿”与问号“?” |
| @ | at sign(@符号) | at, at sign, at symbol |
| # | hash, hashtag井号键 | pound, hash, number |
| $ | dollar, dollar sign | dollar sign, generic currency |
| % | percent, percent sign, modulus operator | In programming domain, the modulus operator % returns the remainder of two numbers after division. |
| ^ | caret[ˈkærət]乘方、插入符号 | a symbol (‸) used to indicate the place in written or printed matter at which something is to be inserted. |
| & | and, ampersand[ˈæmpərsænd] | An ampersand is the sign &, used to represent the word “and”. |
| * | asterisk[ˈæstərɪsk]星号 | It is used especially to indicate that there is further information about something in another part of the text. |
| ( ) | parentheses(复数), round brackets | Parentheses are a pair of curved marks that you put around words or numbers to indicate that they are additional, separate, or less important. (This sentence is in parentheses.) |
| ( | open parenthesis(单数)[pəˈrenθəsɪs] | open parenthesis, left parenthesis |
| ) | close parenthesis[pəˈrenθəsɪs] | close parenthesis, right parenthesis |
| – | hyphen [ˈhaɪfn]连字符, dash破折号, minus负号 | A hyphen is the punctuation sign used to join words together to make a compound, as in “left-handed.” People also use a hyphen to show that the rest of a word is on the next line. A dash is a straight, horizontal line used in writing, for example, to separate two main clauses whose meanings are closely connected. horizontal[ˌhɔːrɪˈzɑːntl]a/n水平的(线) |
| _ | underscore[ˌʌndərˈskɔːr]v强调,在…下面划线 | he underscore (_) (also called understrike, underbar, low line, underdash, underline, downspace, or low dash) is a character that originally appeared on the typewriter and was primarily used to underline words. |
| = | equal sign | |
| + | plus sign |
3.3 Symbols on the Right Side
There are also special characters on the right of the keyboard. These include punctuation and other symbols.
| Symbol | Words and Phonetic Symbols(音标) | Meanings |
|---|---|---|
| [ ] | brackets, square brackets | Brackets are a pair of written marks that you place around a word, expression, or sentence in order to indicate that you are giving extra information. |
| [ | open bracket | |
| ] | close bracket | |
| { } | braces, curly brackets | Curly brackets are rarely used in prose and have no widely accepted use in formal writing, but may be used to mark words or sentences that should be taken as a group, to avoid confusion when other types of brackets are already in use. prose [proʊz]n散文 |
| { | open brace | |
| } | close brace | |
| <> | angle brackets, chevrons[ʃevrɑːns]尖括号 | In HTML, chevrons (actually ‘greater than’ and ‘less than’ symbols) are used to bracket meta text. For example <b> denotes that the following text should be displayed as bold. Pairs of meta text tags are required – much as brackets themselves are usually in pairs. The end of the bold text segment would be indicated by </b>. This use is sometimes extended as an informal mechanism for communicating mood or tone in digital formats such as messaging, for example adding “<sighs>” at the end of a sentence. |
| \ | backslash, backward slash反斜杠 | The backslash \ is a typographical mark used mainly in computing and is the mirror image of the common slash /. In many programming languages such as C, Python, JSON, the backslash is used as an escape character, to indicate that the character following it should be treated specially (if it would otherwise be treated normally), or normally (if it would otherwise be treated specially). For instance, inside a C string literal the sequence \n produces a newline byte instead of an ‘n’, and the sequence \" produces an actual double quote rather than the special meaning of the double quote ending the string. An actual backslash is produced by a double backslash \\. |
| | | vertical bar, vertical pipe, pipe竖线 | In many programming languages, the vertical bar is used to designate the logic operation or. `a |
| ; | semicolon[ˈsemikoʊlən]分号 | A semicolon is the punctuation mark ; which is used in writing to separate different parts of a sentence or list or to indicate a pause. |
| : | colon[ˈkoʊlən]冒号 | A colon is the punctuation mark : which you can use in several ways. For example, you can put it before a list of things or before reported speech. |
| ‘ | apostrophe[əˈpɑːstrəfi]撇号, prime, single quote单引号 | An apostrophe is the mark ’ when it is written to indicate that one or more letters have been left out of a word, as in “isn’t” and “we’ll.” It is also added to nouns to form possessives, as in “Mike’s car.” |
| “ | quotation mark, double quotes双引号 | quotation marks are placed in pairs around a word or phrase to indicate: quotation and scare quotes: Carol said “Go ahead” when I asked her if the launcher was ready. Scare quotes are used to mean “so-called” or to express irony: The “fresh” bread was all dried up. |
| , | comma[ˈkɑːmə]逗号 | A comma is the punctuation mark , which is used to separate parts of a sentence or items in a list. |
| . | period, decimal, dot, full stop句号 | A period is the punctuation mark (.) that you use at the end of a sentence when it is not a question or an exclamation. |
| / | slash, forward slash斜杠 | A slash is a sloping line that separates letters, words, or numbers, for example, in 340/2/K. slope [sloʊp]v倾斜n斜面,坡度 |
| < | less than小于 | |
| > | greater than大于 | |
| ? | question mark文案 | A question mark is the punctuation mark ? which is used in writing at the end of a question. |
3.4 Additional Symbols
There are additional symbols on international keyboards. Some of the following characters are accessed by either keyboard keys, shortcuts, or inserting symbols.
| Symbol | Words and Phonetic Symbols(音标) | Meanings |
|---|---|---|
| £ | pound, pound sterling [ˈstɜːrlɪŋ]n英镑a优秀的(品质) | The pound sterling (symbol: £; ISO code: GBP), commonly known simply as the pound, is the official currency of the United Kingdom. |
| ¢ | cent sign, cents | The cent is a monetary unit of many national currencies that equals 1⁄100 of the basic monetary unit. In North America, the c is crossed by a diagonal stroke or a vertical line (depending on typeface), yielding the character ¢. diagonal[daɪˈæɡənl]n斜线a斜的 |
| € | euro [ˈjʊroʊ]欧元 | The euro is a unit of currency that is used by several member countries of the European Union. |
| ¥ | yen [jen]日元 | The yen is the unit of currency used in Japan. |
| ∞ | infinity | |
| § | section sign | The section sign is often used when referring to a specific section of a legal code. For example, in Bluebook style, “Title 16 of the United States Code Section 580p” becomes “16 U.S.C. § 580p” |
| ¶ | paragraph | |
| ™ | trademark | |
| © | copyright | |
| ® | registered trademark | |
| º | degree | |
| ≠ | not equal sign, inequality[ˌɪnɪˈkwɑːləti] | |
| ≈ | approximately[əˈprɑːksɪmətli] symbol | |
| π | pi[paɪ]圆周率 | Pi is a number, approximately 3.14, which is equal to the distance around a circle divided by its width. It is usually represented by the Greek letter π. |
3.5 Modifier Keys for Mac and Windows
There are several modifier keys for both Mac and Windows. These keys perform special functions such as copy, paste, save, and print.
The command key or ⌘ symbol on the Mac was first introduced in 1980. It allows many shortcuts on the Mac. The control key or Ctrl has a similar function in Windows.
| Special Key Name | Mac | Windows |
|---|---|---|
| Alt or Option | ⌥ | Alt |
| Caps Lock | Caps Lock | Caps Lock |
| Command | ⌘ | Cmd |
| Control | ⌃ | Ctrl |
| Delete or Backspace | Delete | Backspace |
| Escape or Cancel | Esc | Esc |
| Enter or Return | ⏎ | Enter |
| Function | fn | Fn |
| Shift | ⇧ | Shift |
| Tab | Tab | Tab |
4 Programming Symbols
//To be completed
Semicolon curly braces brackets equals is equal to is not equal to double quotes single quotes square brackets
参考视频：Youtube-Programming Symbols | Definition of Programming Symbols.
4.1 Java Programming Symbols
//To be completed
4.2 Kotlin Programming Symbols
//To be completed
5 Time Complexity and Space Complexity
In computer science, the time complexity is the computational complexity that describes the amount of computer time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Since an algorithm’s running time may vary among different inputs of the same size, one commonly considers the worst-case time complexity, which is the maximum amount of time required for inputs of a given size. The time complexity is commonly expressed using big O notation, typically O(n), O(nlogn), etc.
5.1 Table of common time complexities
logarithmic[ˌlɔːɡəˈrɪðmɪk]a对数的 linearithmic[lɪniəˈrɪðmɪk]a线性对数的 quadratic[kwɑːˈdrætɪk]a二次方的 polynomial[ˌpɑːliˈnoʊmiəl]a/n多项式(的) factorial[fækˈtɔːriəl]a/n阶乘(的) formula [ˈfɔːrmjələ]n公式 fibonacci[fɪbəˈnɑːtʃi]a/n斐波那契(的)
The following table summarizes some classes of commonly encountered time complexities.
| Name | Running time (T(n)) | Example algorithms |
|---|---|---|
| constant time | O(1) | Finding the median value in a sorted array of numbersCalculating (−1)n |
| logarithmic time | O(logn) | Binary search |
| linear time | O(n) | Finding the smallest or largest item in an unsorted array, Kadane’s algorithm, linear search |
| linearithmic time | O(nlogn) | Fastest possible comparison sort; Fast Fourier transform. |
| quadratic time | O(n2) | Bubble sort; Insertion sort; Direct convolution |
| cubic time | O(n3) | Naive multiplication of two n×n matrices. Calculating partial correlation. |
| polynomial time | O(nm), m is a constant | Karmarkar’s algorithm for linear programming; AKS primality test[3][4] |
| exponential time | O(2n) | Solving matrix chain multiplication via brute-force search |
| factorial time | O(n!) | Solving the traveling salesman problem via brute-force search |
“O(nlogn)” is spelled as “o of n times log of n”, and “O(n!)” is spelled as “o of n factorial”. O(n2 would be pronounced as “O of n squared.” O(n3) would be pronounced as “O of n cubed.”
Constant. O(k) - Constant time algorithms have a running time independent of the input size. Mathematical formulas for instance have fixed running times and are considered constant time.
Logarithmic. O(log(n)) - Logarithmic algorithms are often seen in trees. It’s best to think of “logarithmic” as the “height of the tree.” So, a binary search, for instance, often includes traversing down the height of a tree and can be considered logarithmic in time. (Although, it may still be more accurate to say that for an unbalanced tree, the runtime is in the worst case linear.)
Linear. O(n) - Most optimal algorithms run in linear time. An easy way to identify this is to determine if you’re visiting every node or item once and only once. If you are, it is linear… it doesn’t matter how many operations you’re doing whether it’s 1, 2, 3, or 4 lines of code you’re executing per node. Generally, you are still doing a constant amount of work per input.
Linearithmic. O(n*log(n)). Most sorts operate in “n log n” time. This includes popular sorting algorithms like quicksort, mergesort, or heapsort. (Actually, quicksort is O(n2) time in the worst-case scenario generally).
Quadratic or Cubic / Polynomial. O(n2) or O(n3). Brute force algorithms often run in O(n2) or O(n3) time where you may be looping within a loop. It’s easy to identify if you see a for-loop inside a for-loop, where for each element i you iterate through another element j, for instance. A common scenario is, given two arrays, find the common elements in each array where you would simply go through each element and check whether it exists in the other array. This would execute in O(n*m) time, where n and m are the sizes of each array. It’s still great to name these brute force algorithms if you can identify them.
Exponential. O(2n). Exponential algorithms are quite terrible in running time. A classic example is determining every permutation of a set of n bits (it would take 2n combinations). Another example is computing the fibonacci sequence fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2), where for each item, it requires the computation of two more subproblems.
Factorial. O(n!). These algorithms are the slowest and don’t show up that often. You might see this in combinatorial problems, or like a “traveling salesman” problem where given n nodes, you need to find the optimal path from start to finish. In your first iteration, you have a selection of n cities to visit, then n-1 cities, then n-2 cities, n-3 cities, etc., until you reach the last city. That runtime is n * (n -1 ) * (n - 2) * (n -3 ) … 1 = O(n!).
参考文献：
Youtube-MATH Symbols: Useful List of Mathematical Symbols in English with Pictures
Youtube-Math Antics - Intro To Exponents (aka Indices)
Youtube-Logarithms | Logarithms | Algebra II | Khan Academy
FinallyLearn-What are the Keyboard Symbol Names?
Youtube-Symbols on Keyboards | Learn English Writing
Youtube-Computer Symbols | Learn British English with Britlish
Youtube-Keyboard Symbols Names | Mobile Keyboard Symbols Names
Youtube-Programming Symbols | Definition of Programming Symbols.
Youtube-Introduction to Big O Notation and Time Complexity (Data Structures & Algorithms #7)
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